Introduction 1

Exercise 1 : To study parts of a compound microscope 5

Exercise 2 : To identify and study the morphology of 8
representative types of bacteria, fungi and different plant
groups
Exercise 3 : To study some selected animals on the 16
basis of their external features
Exercise 4 : Study of tissues and diversity in shapes 30
and sizes of plant cells
Exercise 5 : Preparation of temporary slide of animal 33
tissues and their study
Exercise 6 : Study of mitosis 39
Exercise 7 : To study modifications of root 42
Exercise 11 : Study and describe flowering plants of families 52
Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Liliaceae 87
Exercise 18 : To study the distribution of stomata on the upper and lower surfaces of
Exercise 23 : Separation of plant pigments (chloroplast pigments) 98
by paper chromatography
Exercise 24 : To study the rate of respiration in flower buds/ 101
germinating seeds
Exercise 29 : To detect the presence of urea in the given sample of 114
urine
Exercise 30 : To test the presence of sugar in the given sample of 117
urine
Exercise 31 : To detect the presence of albumin in the given sample of 120
urine
leaves
Exercise 1

Place the microscope on the working table and remove dust by wiping the body with a
silk cloth. Clean the lenses with lens cleaning fluid and lens cleaning paper.

Identify the various parts of the microscope (Fig. 1.1). Draw a

diagram of the microscope and label its various parts.

Aim: To study parts of a compound microscope.

Principle: Magnified and real images of minute objects are obtained using
combination of lenses. A compound microscope is a complex assemblage of such
lenses enabling highly magnified images of the microscopic living organisms and
intricate details of cells and tissues. A monocular mono-objective compound
microscope is normally used in a biology laboratory.
Requirement: A compound microscope, silk cloth, lens cleaning fluid and lens cleaning paper

Procedure
 Take a permanent slide preparation or a temporary preparation made by you, keep it on the
stage, fix with clips after focusing and view. Learn how the microscope can be tilted or inclined
by moving the arm of the microscope. Note, how focussing is done by moving the coarse
adjustment and fine adjustment knobs.

Observation
(i) The microscope has a strong basal foot and a vertical arm Zined by an inclination joint. The arm
can be tilted to different angles for its convenient usage.
(ii) The stage of the microscope is round/rectangular/square shaped and is fixed to the arm. In
the centre of the stage is a small circular hole covered with glass for passage of light.
(iii) The stage is provided with two clips or mechanical device to fix and hold the slide firmly in
position. The material to be observed is brought into view by moving the slide and then fixed with
the help of clips at desired position.
(iv) A movable (rack and pinion mechanism) or a fixed substage is provided with an iris diaphragm
and condensor. The condensor is a system of two or more lenses to recieve parallel light rays and
to converge these

Fig.1.1 A compound microscope

on to the object through the iris and the hole present in the stage. The diaphragm helps in
regulating the aperture size and thereby controls the amount of light that passes through the
slide (Fig. 1.2). The needle/ pin is used to increase or decrease the aperture size. Some
microscopes do not have the condensor.
Fig.1.2 Iris diaphragm showing different aperture sizes

(v) An adjustable mirror is fitted below the condensor. It has plano- concave surfaces to focus
the converging rays of light on the object through iris diaphragm and condensor in order to
obtain a brightly illuminated image of the object.
(vi) The body of the microscope consists of a movable tubular body tube raised on rack
and pinion mechanism. The tube has an ocular or eye piece of specific magnification (which
can be changed for lower or higher magnification, i.e., 5X, 10X or 15X. Eye piece with pointer
are also available. Two objective lenses 10X, 40X or 45X are mounted on a revolving nose
piece at the lower end.

Exercise 1

Some microscopes may also have a third objective lens (100X) called
oil immersion lens.
The tube with eye and objective lenses can be moved up or down
to focus the object sharply with the help of coarse adjustment knob
and fine adjustment knob.
The object is first viewed under lower magnification using the
coarse adjustment and then under higher magnification by rotating
the revolving nose piece on which the objective lenses are mounted.
While viewing at higher magnification, only fine adjustment knob is
used for fine focus tuning.

Magnification
Magnification by a microscope is a multiple of the X value of the
lenses of the eye piece and objective. For example, a 5X eye piece and
a 40X objective will magnify the image 5  40 = 200 times the size
of the object. Similarly, when a 10X eye piece and a 40X objective are
used, magnifying power would be 10  40 = 400X. Generally, in a
compound microscope, the eye piece lenses are 10X or 15X and the
objective lenses are 10X as well as 40X.

Precaution
(i) Always clean the lenses before and after using the microscope.
(ii) For cleaning lenses, always use lens cleaning fluid and lens
cleaning paper.
(iii) While observing, the objective lens should be carefully adjusted so
as to avoid touching the slide lest it breaks the slide.
(iv) Always put back the microscope in its case after use.

Exercise 2

Aim: To identify and study the morphology of representative types of bacteria, fungi and different plant
groups.

Principle: Morphology is the study of the characteristic features of the species. It could be a study of
external or internal features. Morphological studies help in identification and classification of organisms.

Requirement: Permanent slides, hand section/photograph of bacteria, Oscillatoria, Spirogyra, Rhizopus,

Yeast, preserved/fresh specimens of mushroom, lichens, Funaria, Marchantia, Dryopteris/fern, Pinus,
angiospermic plants (one monocotyledonous plant like maize plant and one dicotyledonous plant like
pea/sun flower)

Procedure Procedure for the study of organisms vary from one organism to the other depending upon
their shape and size.

• Microscopic organisms like bacteria, algae, fungi can be studied with the help of microscope only.
Observe the permanent slides under a microscope and note down the characters.

• Large-sized specimen (fresh or preserved) can be examined directly with naked eye or with the help of
a hand lens.

• Compare your observations with the characteristics given below.

Observation

BACTERIA (i) Bacteria (sing. : bacterium) are unicellular (Fig. 2.1).

(ii) Cell wall is present.

(iii) Absence of membrane bound organelles like mitochondria, nucleus, golgi bodies, plastids, etc.

(iv) Mesosomes are present. Fig. 2.1 Bacteria (rod-shaped )

Exercise 2

(v) Bacteria exist in different shapes like globular (coccus), rod-shaped (bacillus), spiral (spirullum)
and comma-shaped (vibrio).
Systematic position Kingdom – Monera
Class – Eubacteria
OSCILLATORIA
The features given below are useful in identifying Oscillatoria (Fig. 2.2).
(i) It is a blue-green algae of fresh water bodies.
(ii) (ii) Thallus is filamentous, unbranched, multicellular.
(iii) (iii) The cells are arranged one above the other like a pack of cards.
(iv) (iv) Each cell has a definite cell wall.
(v) (v) Some cells of the filament may be dead and appear as blank spaces in the filament.
(vi) (vi) Fresh specimen of the filaments show oscillatory movements and hence the name
Oscillatoria.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Monera
Division – Cyanobacteria
Class – Cyanophyceae

SPIROGYRA
Observe the following features:
(i) Spirogyra is a green-coloured algae commonly found in stagnant fresh water
bodies.
(ii) It is unbranched, filamentous and slimy to touch.
(iii) The filament is composed of large number of long, cylindrical cells placed one
above the other in a single row.
(iv) The cells are characterised by long spiral ribbon-shaped chloroplasts with several
pyrenoids (Fig. 2.3).
(v) There is a single large vacuole in each cell.
(vi) Conjugation tubes formed between the cells of two different filaments may also
be found when in reproductive phase.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Thallophyta
Class – Chlorophyceae
RHIZOPUS
Observe the following features:
(i) Thallus is an interwoven mass of hyphae called mycelium.
(ii) Hyphae are tubular, multinucleate and without any septa (coenocytic)
(Fig.2.4)
(iii) Some hyphae are horizontal and grow parallel on the surface of the
substratum. These are called stoloniferous hyphae. Some hyphae grow
down into the substratum, and are called rhizoidal hyphae. Erect
 vertically growing hyphae are called sporangiophores.
• Sporangiophore bears the capsule or sporangium, which is globular in outline

• A dome-shaped columella is found inside the cavity of sporangium.

• Numerous black spores fill the cavity between columella and the sporangial
wall.

Systematic position

Kingdom – Fungi

Division – Eumycota

Class – Zygomycetes

AGARICUS (COMMON EDIBLE MUSHROOM)

Observe the following features in the specimen:

(i) Common edible mushroom is the fruiting body or basidiocarp of Agaricus.

(ii) The fungus is a saprophyte that grows in soil rich in humus and with thick layer of
semidecomposed organic matter.
(iii) The thallus consists of an underground, highly interwoven mass of thick colourless hyphae.
(iv) A young fruiting body is a white, spherical, button like structure. A mature fruiting body can
be distinguished into two parts (Fig. 2.5).
(a) An erect stalk or stipe composed of mass of vertically arranged hyphae, and
(b) An umbrella like pileus attached ventrally at the centre to the stalk. At the base of the
stipe is collar like ring known as annulus, which is a remnant of the covering of young
basidiocarp.
(v) There are radiating plate like structures called gills on the under surface of pileus, which
radiate from the centre to the periphery. The gills bear basidia and basidiospores.

Systematic position

Kingdom – Fungi

Division – Eumycota

Class – Basidiomycetes

SACCHAROMYCES (YEAST) s

Observe the following features (Fig. 2.6):

(i) Cells are oval or spherical in shape, and colourless.

(ii) Cells form chains of buds that help in propagation.
(iii) Each cell has one vacuole.
(iv) Single nucleus is present in each cell

Systematic position

Kingdom – Fungi

Division – Eumycota

Class – Saccharomycetes

LICHENS
 (i) The body of lichen is a thallus, which is grey or greyish in colour. Yellow, red, orange or brown
segments may be present in some species
(ii) There are different forms of thallus. Three main categories of thalli are recognised on the basis
of their general growth, form and nature of attachment to the substratum. These are as
follows:
(a) Crustose
• These are encrusting lichens with thin, flat, inconspicuous thallus without lobes.
• The thallus appears as a thin layer or crust, closely attached by its whole of the lower
surface to stones, rocks, barks of wood trees, etc.
(b) Foliose
• Foliose lichens are leafy lichens with flat lobed and horizontally spreading thalli.
• These are attached to the substratum by rhizoid like structures.
(c) Fruticose
• These are shrubby lichens with cylindrical, flat or ribbon like upright, generally branched
and pendulous thalli.
• These are attached to the substratum by disc like structures at their bases.

MARCHANTIA (LIVERWORT)
(i) Marchantia thallus is dorsiventrally flat, thalloid structure that grows flat on the
surface of the soil substratum (Fig. 2.8).
(ii) Thallus is dichotomously lobed, with an apical notch in each lobe.
(iii) There is a dark median furrow called mid-rib on the dorsal side that extends into
each lobe.
(iv) Small cup-like structures called gemma cups are borne on the dorsal surface of the
thallus. They contain the vegetative propagules called gemmae.
(v) Ventral side of the thallus bears colourless, unicellular rhizoids which are of two
types- (a) smooth walled, and (b) tuberculate rhizoids. The rhizoids help in
anchorage and absorption of water through their capillary action.
(vi) Reproductive organs are borne on antheridiophores and archegoniophores that
arise from the apical notches of male and female thalli respectively.
(vii) The antheridiophore has a flattened, more or less convex head or receptacle which
bears antheridia.
(viii) The archegoniophores are umbrella shaped structure, with outwardly projected
ribs. Between the ribs are the archegonia.

Systematic
position

Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Bryophyta
Class – Hepaticopsida

FUNARIA (MOSS)

(i) The thallus of Funaria consists of small upright, 'stem' that bears, small, ovate and leaf-like
structures which are without midrib (Fig. 2.9).
(ii) The leaves are green and are spirally arranged on the stem-like portion.
(iii) The thallus is attached to the substratum by a cluster of rhizoids.
(iv) Rhizoids are long, colourless, septate and intertwined.
(v) Reproductive organs are borne on separate branches of the same thallus.
(vi) The flattened apex of the male branch bears the antheridia which are club
shaped, while the flattened receptacle of the female branch bears archegonia
which are flask shaped.
(vii) A mature Funaria plant bears (on female branches) the sporophyte which consists
of a prominent conical capsule raised on a long stalk known as seta and a foot
which is embedded into the tissues of the gametophyte.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Bryophyta
Class – Musci/Bryopsid
DRYOPTERIS (FERN)
(i) Dryopteris is a fern (Pteridophyta) with obliquely growing, subterranean rhizome
(Fig. 2.10).
(ii) Rhizome is short, thick and is covered with scale leaves, remnants of leaf bases and
cluster of adventitious roots.
(iii) The aerial shoot consist of several large compound leaves called fronds.
(iv) Each compound leaf arises from a bud. The young leaf has circinnate
venation. The leaf is rolled from apex downwards like a watch spring and
petiole has dense covering of brown hair like structures called ramenta.
(v) Leaves are long, up to 1.0-1.5 m length, compound with leaflets arranged on
either side of mid-rib called rachis. Rachis is the extended part of the petiole.
(vi) Petiole is long, cylindrical and covered with hairs when young.
(vii) Leaflets or pinnules have wavy margin, and are sub sessile.
(viii) Large number of greenish (when young) or black (when mature) sac like structures
are borne on the ventral side of the pinnule at the point of bifurcation of each vein.
These are called as sori (single: sorus).
(ix) Each sorus contains a cluster of sporangia bearing spores.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Pteridophyta
Class – Filicopsida
PINUS
(i) Pinus is a cone-shaped tall tree (Fig.2.11).
(ii) Stem is hard, woody, cylindrical, rough and branched.
(iii) Branches are of two types- (a) branches of unlimited growth, and (b)
branches of limited growth.
(iv) Both types of branches bear large number of brown, membranous scaly
leaves.
(v) Branches of limited growth are borne in the axil of scale leaves. They are 2-3
cm long and bear a cluster of long, needle like leaves.
(vi) The needle like green leaves are called acicular leaves.
(vii) The dwarf branch with its needles is known as spur shoot.
(viii) Reproductive organs are borne in male and female cones in the same plant.
(ix) Male cones are borne in large clusters (8-40). They are small, green, conical
and composed of central axis surrounded by large number of green and
small microsporophylls which are compactly arranged .
(x) Micro sporophylls bear two elongated sac like structures at the base on the
ventral side. These are called pollen sacs. Pollen grains are winged.
(xi) Female cones are large, 10-30cm in length consisting of megasporophylls.
 Megasporophylls are compact when young but spread apart when mature.
Each megasporophyll has (a) bract scale and (b) ovuliferous scale which
bears 2 ovules on the ventral side.

Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Gymnosperm
Class – Coniferopsida
DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANT
(i) Plant body is differentiated into roots, stems and leaves (Fig. 2.12).
(ii) Taproot system.
(iii) Leaves simple or compound, with reticulate venation.
(iv) Flowers tetramerous or pentamerous, either solitary or in clusters forming
inflorescence.
(v) Reproductive organs are stamens and carpels. Within the carpels ovules
are present.
(vi) Seeds have two cotyledons. Example: Hibiscus, pea, gram, lady's finger,
ground nut.

Systematic position

Kingdom – Plantae

Division – Angiosperm

Class – Dicotyledonae

MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANT

(i) Plant body differentiated into roots, stems, and leaves (Fig. 2.13).
(ii) Fibrous root system.
(iii) Leaves simple or compound with parallel venation.
(iv) Flower trimerous.
(v) Ovules situated inside the carpels.
(vi) Seed has one cotyledon Example: maize, wheat, sugarcane, paddy

Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Angiosperm
Class – Monocotyledonae

Exercise 3
Aim: To study some selected animals on the basis of their external features
Principle: Diversity among animal kingdom is enormous. A systematic study of such a huge number of
animals would not have been possible without a proper classification. Zoologists have identified
sufficiently large number of animals varying from microscopic protozoans to the giant whale. These
animals have been classified on the basis of their morphological similarities and dissimilarities as well as
on their phylogenetic relationships. In the present study, emphasis has been put on morphological
features. The classification given at the end indicates their systematic position.

Requirement: Representative animals (slides, museum specimens, models, photographs, charts),

microscope

Procedure The method of observing specimens of different taxa varies from microscopic examination to
gross morphological features seen with naked eye. For identification of some microscopic specimens,
place the slide of the specimen on the stage of a compound microscope. Adjust the focus using the
adjustment screws of the microscope in such a way that the entire specimen is clearly visible in the
focus. For identification of animals visible with the naked eye, specimens preserved in 5-10% formalin
are used. Draw labelled diagrams of the specimens seen.

Observation

AMOEBA

(i) The whole body is made up of a single cell (acellular organisation).

(ii) Body shape is irregular with many blunt pseudopodia (Fig. 3.1).
(iii) A deeply stained nucleus of almost round shape is present.
(iv) A contractile vacuole and several food vacuoles are present in the cytoplasm.

Systematic position
Phylum – Protozoa
Class – Sarcodina
HYDRA
(i) Body, called polyp is elongated and cylindrical (Fig. 3.2).
(ii) Long, slender and contractile tentacles (6-10) are present that encircle
hypostome with an opening at the tip. This end is called oral end.
(iii) The opposite (aboral) end of the body is flat, which helps the animal to attach
itself to the substratum. This is called basal disc.
(iv) Bud-like structures branch out from the polyp, which ultimately separate as
young hydra (vegetative propagation).
(v) Sometimes, gonads may be seen as small bulges on the body.

Systematic position
Phylum – Cnidaria
Class – Hydrozoa
FASCIOLA (LIVER FLUKE) The external features are as follows:
(i) A leaf-like dorso-ventrally flattened body (Fig. 3.3), about 20-30 mm
in length, and 4 to 12 mm in width in the middle.
(ii) Anterior part of the body is broader with a conical end.
(iii) Mouth is present at the tip of the cone, and is surrounded by a
muscular oral sucker.
(iv) On the ventral surface of the body there is a muscular ventral sucker
situated 3-5 mm behind (posterior) the oral sucker, and it is called
acetabulum.
(v) Slightly anterior to acetabulum on the ventral surface, there is an
opening called genital aperture or gonopore.
(vi) At the tip of the posterior end, an opening called excretory pore is present.
(vii) Liver fluke is bisexual

Systematic position
Phylum – Platyhelminthes
Class – Trematoda.
ASCARIS (ROUND WORM)
The external features of round worm are as follows:
(i) Body long (20 to 40 cm), cylindrical (5 to 6 mm diameter) with no
segmentation (Fig. 3.4).
(ii) Sexes are separate; the females are longer than the males.
(iii) Both the ends are pointed; posterior end of male is ventrally
curved.
 (iv) Mouth is situated at the anterior end, and is surrounded by three
lips, one present mid-dorsally and rest two lips are situated
ventrolaterally (for viewing these lips a magnifying lens is needed).
(v) Single longitudinal lines are present on the dorsal, ventral and on
the two lateral sides, all along the length of the body. Out of these,
the lateral lines are comparatively more distinct than the other
lines.
(vi) Excretory pore is present on the ventral surface slightly behind
anterior end.
(vii) In addition to the ventrally curved posterior tip, the male worm has
a pair of penial spicules very close to the cloacal opening.
(viii) In case of female specimen a female genital aperture is present mid
ventrally at about one-third distance from the anterior end.

Systematic position
Phylum – Aschelminthes
Class – Nematoda
PHERETIMA (EARTHWORM) The external features of earthworm are as follows:

(i) *Body narrow and elongated about 150 mm in length and 3 to 5 mm in diameter (Fig. 3.5).
The anterior end of the body is pointed whereas the posterior end is slightly depressed
or blunt
(ii) Entire body is divisible into more than 100 externally distinct segments of almost equal size.
These segments are called metameres.
(iii) Body surface of the living animal is slimy and moist due to the secretion of mucus from
the body wall.
(iv)Dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body can be easily distinguished, as the dorsal surface is
darker than the ventral one. Besides this, a mid-dorsal dark line is also visible all along
the length of the body due to underlying dorsal blood vessel.
(v) Mouth is situated ventrally in the first metamere called the peristomium.
(vi)Anus is situated at the tip of the last metamere.
(vii) In the adult earthworm, the skin or body wall around the segments 14th to 16th is
comparatively thick, and it is called clitellum.
(viii) Female and male genital apertures are present ventrally in the14th and the 18th segments
respectively. The female genital aperture is situated mid-ventrally, whereas the male genital
apertures are ventro-lateral in position.
(ix)A pair of genital papillae is also present ventrolaterally in the 17th and the 19th segment just above and
below the male genital apertures.
(x) On the ventral surface, four pairs of openings of spermathecae are situated ventrolaterally in the
grooves between 5/6, 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9 segments.

Systematic position

Phylum – Annelida

Class – Oligochaeta

HIRUDINARIA (LEECH) The following external features can be easily observed in the specimen:

(i) The body is elongated with convex dorsal surface, and flat ventral surface (Fig. 3.6).
(ii) The dorsal surface is dark green, and the ventral surface is yellowish brown.
(iii) Size varies from 6 to 10 cm in length. However, leeches may contract or elongate their body
much beyond the limits mentioned.
(iv) Body surface always remains moist due to secretion of mucus from the body wall
(v) At the anterior end on the ventral surface a cup-shaped anterior sucker is present. Mouth is
 present in the centre of the anterior sucker. A ventral sucker is also present at the posterior
end of the body.
(vi) Anus is present on the dorsal side at the junction of the last metamere and the
posterior sucker.
(vii) Hundred or more very closely arranged grooves or annuli are present on the body
surface. There are 33 body segments each with five superficially marked annuli except
the few anterior and posterior ones.
(viii) Each of the five anterior metameres bears a pair of eyes on the dorsal margin. Each
eye looks like a dark spot.
(ix) There are 17 pairs of ventro-laterally arranged nephridiopores in the metameres
starting from 6th to 22nd.
(x) The male and female genital apertures are present on the ventral side in the middle of the
10th and 11th metameres.

Systematic position

Phylum – Annelida

Class – Hirudinea

PALAEMON (PRAWN) Following are the external features of prawn:

(i) Size of the animal is variable. Usually, it measures between 20 and 30 cm in length (Fig. 3.7).
(ii) Usually orange-red in colour, however, the colour is variable.
(iii) A bit laterally compressed body is elongated, bilateral and symmetrical.
(iv) Body is apparently divided into anterior cephalothorax (fused head and thorax)
and posterior abdomen.
(v) The cephalothorax can be identified by a thick and hard shield- like cover, called
the carapace. Anteriorly the carapace is extended as a serrated and pointed
rostrum.
(vi) A pair of stalked compound eyes are present at the anterior end of cephalothorax.
(vii) Abdomen consists of six segments each with its own set of biramous appendage.
(viii) At the end of the last abdominal segment, a terminally pointed structure, telson, is present.
(ix) There are 19 pairs of jointed appendages, i.e., one pair in each segment. In the
cephalothoracic region, there are 13 pairs of appendages of which antennules, antenna,
chelate legs, and nonchelate legs are the prominent ones. The appendages of the five
anterior abdominal segments are called the pleopods or swimming legs. The appendages of
the last abdominal segment are broader and called uropod.

Systematic position

Phylum – Annelida

Class – Crustacea

BOMBYX MORI (SILKMOTH)

The external features of mulberry silkworm is given below:

(i) Body colour is creamy white and measures approximately 25 mm in length (Fig. 3.8).
(ii) Heavy and stout body is divisible into head, thorax and abdomen.
(iii) Head is comparatively small. Thorax is provided with three pairs of jointed legs and
two pairs of wings. Abdominal segments are continuous with thoracic segments.
(iv) The entire body as well as wings are covered with microscopic scales.
(v) A pair of compound eyes and an antenna are present on the head.
(vi) In sitting posture, the wings remain outstretched (like the wings of an aeroplane).
(vii) They are nocturnal.
Systematic position

Phylum – Arthropoda

Class – Insecta

APIS INDICA (HONEYBEE)

Honeybee is a social insect, and three distinct morphological forms (members) can be identified in a
colony of bees. These are queen, workers, and drones. All the three morphological forms of bees have
the features of an insect (Fig. 3.9).

Following common features are present in all the members of the colony:

(i) Body is divided into three distinct regions: head, thorax and abdomen.
(ii) Head is somewhat triangular. A pair of large compound eyes is present dorso-laterally
on it. Three small ocelli are present on the dorsal surface between the two compound
eyes. Mouthparts are present ventrally on the head.
(iii) Thorax consists of three segments, i.e., prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. One
pair of jointed legs is present ventrally in each of the thoracic segment. There are two
pairs of membranous wings present dorsally in the mesothorax and the metathorax.
(iv) Abdomen: A six-segmented abdomen is present behind the metathorax. A very
narrow region in between the abdomen and thorax.
Apart from these common features, the workers, queen and drones can be identified
by their own specific features:
(a) Workers
(i) Workers (unfertile female) are smallest in size (Fig. 3.9a).
(ii) Abdominal segments bear wax glands, which are present ventrally on the four
posterior abdominal segments.
(iii) A sting is present at the end of the last abdominal segment.
(iv) Pollen - collecting baskets are present in the thoracic legs
(b) Queen
(i) Queen (fertile female) is largest in size (15-20 mm) in a colony of bees. Every colony has a
single queen bee (Fig. 3.9b).
(ii) *The abdomen is long and tapering.
(iv) Wings and legs are small.
(v) Eyes are small.
(vi) Wax gland is absent in the abdominal segment.
(c) Drones

(i) Drones (males) are larger than workers but smaller than queen in size (Fig. 3.9c).

(ii) *Eyes are very large (i.e., even larger than those of workers).

(iii) Wax glands are absent in the abdominal segments. The common Indian species of bees are: Apis
dorsata, Apis indica and Apis florae. Among these species Apis dorsata is largest in size and Apis florae is
smallest.

Systematic position

Phylum – Arthropoda

Class – Insecta

Order – Hymenoptera

PILA GLOBOSA (APPLE SNAIL)

The external features are as follows:

 (i) *Body of the animal remains lodged within a hard and one-piece spirally coiled
calcareous shell (Fig. 3.10).
(ii) There is a wide opening at the end of the last whorl of the shell, which remains
closed by another calcareous plate called operculum.
(iii) The body consists of four regions: head, foot, visceral mass and mantle.
(iv) It inhabits shallow freshwater (paddy fields, ponds) and moves with its foot.
(v)
Systematic position

Phylum – Mollusca

Class – Gastropoda

ASTERIAS (STAR FISH)

The external features are as follows

(i) Starfish is an unique marine organism, which can be identified by its star-shaped
pentamerous structure (Fig. 3.11).
(ii) Body with apparent radial symmetry with diameter ranging between 15-20 cm.
(iii) Body has a central disc from which five tapering arms radiate.
(iv) The entire body surface bears numerous small-sized blunt protuberances.
(v) The lower surface is called the oral surface, as mouth is situated centrally on
this side (Fig. 3.11a).
(vi) Radiating from the mouth there are five grooves, the ambulacral grooves,
which continue in the five arms on the oral side.
(vii) Special organs, called tube feet, are present in these ambulacral grooves.
(viii) The upper surface is called aboral surface, where anus is present (Fig. 3.11b).
(ix) At the margin of the central disc on the aboral surface is a circular sieve like structure called
madreporite situated near the junction of two arms

Systematic position
Phylum – Echinodermata
Class – Asteroidea
SCOLIODON (SHARK)
The external features of Scoliodon are as follows:
(i) It is a marine fish having elongated, streamlined, dorsoventrally flattened body at
anterior end and laterally compressed at posterior end (Fig. 3.12).
(ii) Body measures upto 60 cm in length.
(iii) Body is covered with minute placoid scales that can be felt when skin is rubbed
from tail to snout.
(iv) Body is divided into head, trunk and tail.
(v) A crescentic mouth is present on the ventral surface of the head behind the tip.
Mouth has several rows of sharp and backwardly pointed teeth on both upper and
lower jaws.
(vi) Tail is elongated with heterocercal caudal fin (the upper and lower halves of unequal
size).
(vii) Body bears a number of unpaired and paired fins. The unpaired fins have two
dorsals, a lobed caudal and a median ventral fin. Pectoral and pelvic fins are in pairs.
(viii) Five pairs of gill slits are present laterally between mouth and pectoral fins.
(ix) A median groove-like cloacal aperture is situated ventrally between the two pelvic
fins.
(x) Sexual dimorphism is visible as males have midventrally situated copulatory organ.
Systematic position
Phylum – Chordata
Subphylum – Vertebrata
Superclass – Pisces
Class – Chondrichthyes
LABEO ROHITA (ROHU)
The external features are as follows:
(i) Streamlined and laterally compressed body, which is grey or black on the
dorsal side; and silvery on the ventral surface. Size may reach up to 1m in
length (Fig. 3.13).
(ii) Body is divisible into head, trunk and a tail with homocercal (dorsal and
ventral lobes are of equal size) caudal fin.
(iii) Head is extended between the snout and the posterior end of the
operculum (i.e., gill cover). Snout is depressed and obtuse. The operculum is
free and open along the posterior and ventral margins. Mouth is a
transverse opening near the tip of the snout, which has fleshy lips.
(iv) The margin of the lower lip is fimbriated.
(v) The whole body is covered with overlapping cycloid dermal scales.
(vi) Both unpaired and paired fins are present on its body. The unpaired fins are
a dorsal fin, a caudal fin and an anal fin. Pectoral and pelvic fins are paired.

Systematic position
Phylum - Chordata
Subphylum - Vertebrata
Super Class - Pisces
Class – Osteichthyes
RANA TIGRINA (FROG)
The following features can be observed: (Fig. 3.14)
(i) The body consists of head and trunk, neck is absent.
(ii) Highly placed external nasal opening, eyes are bulging and
covered by a nictitating membrane. The outer boundary of
middle ear is covered by a membrane, called tympanic
membrane.
(iii) Skin is naked, (that is without any type of scales) and slimy
(secretion of mucous glands present in the skin).
(iv) Mouth is terminal, having protrosible bifid tongue. Upper jaw is
beset with several rows of spiny teeth, lower jaw has no teeth.
(v) Forelimbs are smaller than the hindlimbs. The forelimbs have four,
and hindlimbs have 5 clawless digits. An interdigital web-like
membrane is present in the hind-limbs, which is used for swimming.
Systematic position

Phylum – Chordata

Subphylum – Vertebrata

Class – Amphibia

CALOTES (GARDEN LIZARD)

It has the following external features: (Fig. 3.15)

(i) Body is divided into head, neck, trunk and elongated tail.
(ii) Body is covered with rough epidermal scales.
(iii) Head is triangular with a cone-shaped snout having a wide
mouth. A pair of nostrils and eyes present on the head. Eyes
are dorso-lateral in position on head.
(iv) Two pairs of pentadactyl (five digits) limbs; the digits are clawed.
(v) The skin provides the animal with protective colouration in its
environment.

Systematic position

Phylum – Chordata

Subphylum – Vertebrata

Class – Reptilia

COLUMBA LIVEA (PIGEON)

Pigeon is one of the most common birds showing flight adaptations and
having cosmopolitan distribution.The external features are as follows (Fig.
3.16):

(i) Body covered with feathers.

(ii) Streamlined body divisible into head, neck and trunk.
(iii) A small and round head, having beak without teeth. In
addition the head bears a pair of nostrils, large eyes and
opening of the ears (covered with feathers).
(iv) Eyes are provided with movable eyelids and nictitating
membrane
(v) Cylindrical neck is very flexible to facilitate mobility of the head.
(vi) Forelimbs are modified into two wings for flying. The hindlimbs have
four-clawed digits of which the first one is backwardly directed and
the remaining three are forwardly directed. It helps in perching and
bears the weight of the body while standing.
(vii) Cloacal aperture is situated at the posterior end of the trunk.

Systematic position

Phylum - Chordata

Subphylum - Vertebrata

Class – Aves
 ORYCTOLAGUS LAGOMORPHA (RABBIT)

Rabbit is a fossorial (burrowing) mammal. However, it can lead a terrestrial

life in the thick vegetation. The external features include (Fig. 3.17)

(i) A medium sized animal, about 40 cm in length when adult.

(ii) Body is covered with hair, and is divisible into head, neck, trunk and
a small tail.
(iii) Head is pear-shaped with a blunt snout. Anteriorly it bears a mouth
and a pair of external ears, the pinna. The upper lip has a median
cleft through which the incisor teeth get exposed. Few prominent
and stiff hairs are present laterally on the upper lip. These are
touch- sensitive (tactile) and called vibrissae or whiskers.
(iv) A short but highly flexible neck is present between the head and the
trunk.
(v) Males have a small, cylindrical and muscular penis, a pair of scrotal
sacs in which a pair of testes are lodged. Females have slit-like
vulva. Females also have four to five pairs of mammary glands,
which open ventrally as teats or nipples along the thorax and
abdomen. Animal is viviparous.
(vi) Tail is short, upwardly directed and furry
Systematic position

Phylum – Chordata

Subphylum – Vertebrata

Class – Mammalia

Exercise 4

. Aim: Study of tissues and diversity in shapes and sizes of plant cells

Principle: Tissue is a group of cells performing a common function. Tissue may be simple (parenchyma,
collenchyma and schlerenchyma) i.e., containing only one type of cells or complex (xylem, phloem) that
is containing more than one type of cells. The tissues are also classified into meristematic or permanent
tissues. Cells of different types of tissues differ in their structure, shape, size, function and wall
composition. In the present exercise we will try to understand the structure of cells that constitute
various tissues and their organization.

Requirements: A. Permanent slides of: (i) T.S. of Nerium leaf, T.S. of lotus leaf, T.S. of lotus petiole/ or
stem, (ii) V.S. of shoot apex and root apex, (iii) T.S. of Cucurbita/Mentha stem, (iv) Macerated material
of Bougainvillea/Vitis, Tridax

B. Requirements for maceration technique: Small twigs of locally available plants, glycerine, safranin,
cotton blue, boiling test tube/beakers (100ml), glass rod, slides, needles, burner, tripod stand, wire
gauge, microscope, sharp edged knife, muslin/cheese cloths and thread. For Maceration fluid - Dissolve
10% nitric acid with equal amount of chromic acid. Chromic acid is prepared by adding 100ml of conc.
H2 SO4 slowly in 10 ml of water. Add 50 gm of potassium dichromate (K2 Cr2 O7 ). This is the stock
solution. 10 ml of this stock solution is diluted upto 100 ml for preparing working solution of maceration
fluid.

Procedure

A. • Collect a few, thin green young branches of recent growth from locally available woody plant
preferably of the thickness of tooth pick.
 • Cut the twigs into small bits of 0.5 cm length.
• Transfer the pieces into the beaker containing water and boil for 10-15 minutes or till all
pieces of sample settle at the bottom. The procedure removes all the air present inside the
tissues of the sample.
• Transfer the material into a hard boiling tube/beaker containing maceration fluid and boil for
10-15 minutes or till it becomes soft and pulpy.
• Tie muslin cloths to the mouth of the beaker and wash the material with tap water repeatedly
to remove traces of maceration fluid.
• Take some materials and add a few drops of safranin to stain the xylem or cotton blue for
phloem.
• Take the stained material on a glass slide in a drop of glycerine and tease with the help of two
needles to separate the cells with needles. Place a cover slip and observe under microscope.
Compare your observation with the given diagram.
B. Examine the following permanent slides:
• T.S. of Nerium leaf - for spongy and palisade tissue.
• T.S. of Lotus leaf, T.S. of lotus petiole for aerenchyma.
• V.S. of shoot apex and root apex for meristem.
• T.S. of Cucurbita or Mentha stem for simple tissues
Observation:

Identify the cells of parenchyma, collenchyma, or schlerenchyma (Fig. 4.1) as follows:

Parenchyma cells containing chloroplast are chlorenchyma which could be a tissue with loosely arranged
cells (spongy) or compactly arranged columnar cells (palisade). If large intercellular spaces are present
between the cells, the tissue is called aerenchyma.

Parenchyma tissue that forms the outer covering of root, stem or leaves is called as epidermis or
protective tissue
Observe the section of leaf. The leaf mesophyll is covered over by upper and lower epidermis. Stomata
are present on the lower epidermis or on both upper and lower epidermis of the leaf depending on the
type of plant under study.

Observe these tissues, their position and characteristics in the sections of plant materials. Draw
diagrams and show the location of each tissue type.

Exercise 5

Aim: Preparation of temporary slide of animal tissues and their study.

Principle: Group of similar type of cells that perform a specific function, is called a tissue. Tissues are
organised in a specific proportion and pattern to form different organs. There are four basic types of
tissues : (i) Epithelial, (ii) Connective, (iii) Muscular and (iv) Nervous.

The epithelium or epithelial tissue provides a covering or lining for some parts of the body. Connective
tissues have special function of linking and supporting other tissues or organs of the body. Muscular
tissue plays an active role in all movements of the body. Nervous tissue controls the body's
responsiveness to changing conditions within and outside the body.

Requirement: Live material/concerned tissue, beakers, glass slides, coverslips, watch glasses, dropping
bottle, dropper, required stain, glycerine, NaCl solution (0.9% w/v), needle, forceps, brush, toothpick,
water, wash-bottle, dissecting tray, microscope

I. EPITHELIUM OR EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Procedure:

 Rinse your mouth well with water.

 Gently scrap the inside of your cheek with the broad end of a clean toothpick. Discard this
material.
 Scrap again, and spread these cells gently on a clean slide. Add a drop of 0.9% NaCl solution or
physiological saline and a drop of methylene blue with the help of a dropper.
 After two minutes, remove the excess stain and saline using the edge of a filter paper. Now, put
a drop of glycerine on the cells.
 Place a coverslip over the tissue and gently press it with the back of a pencil to spread the cells.
 Examine the slide under the low power of microscope.
 Draw a labelled diagram of your preparation
Observation:

Record your observations in the tabular form given below:

Discussion:

Epithelial tissue (epithelium) forms the covering tissue of the body. It covers the body surface and lines
the body cavities and hollow visceral organs. It may be single or multi-layered. The lower most layer
normally rests upon a non-cellular basement membrane. It is protective/sensory/absorptive/and
secretory in nature and also helps in exchange and movement of materials inside the body.

II. CONNECTIVE TISSUE:

Procedure:

 Clean the slides so that it become free from grease, finger prints, etc.
 Clean the tip of your middle finger with rectified spirit and prick with a sterilised needle or lancet
available at the medical store.
 When a drop of blood appears on the finger tip, wipe it away with cotton dipped in rectified
spirit.
 Press the finger tip to get the next drop of blood and touch it with the clean surface of slide
(placed on working-table) (Fig 5.1 (a)) about 1 cm away from the right side edge (this be named
as the first slide).
 Hold the narrow edge of another slide (2nd slide) at about 450 angle to the 1st slide and to the
left of the drop of blood (Fig. 5.1(b)).
 Pull to the right until the 2nd slide touches the blood. Wait for 2-3 seconds till the blood spreads
along the line of contact. Now push the 2nd slide towards the left in a steady but brisk
movement. Take care to keep the edge pressed uniformly against the surface of the 1st slide.
Keep pushing until the other end of the slide is reached (Fig. 5.1 (c)). This method spreads the
blood thinly (also called a blood film) over the surface of the slide but does not run over the cells
and crushes them. You may make 3 or 4 such film (smear) preparations.
 Once the uniform smear is made, air dry the slide for about 10 minutes.
 Mark with a wax pencil the region of the smear that is to be stained.
 Cover the region marked with wax pencil with few drops of Leishman's/ Geimsa/Wright's stain.
Leave the stain over the smear for 2 to 3 minutes. Now, add an equal amount of distilled water
gently with a dropper and leave it for 2 to 4 minutes. Repeat this process till its colour becomes
light violet. Air dry the slide thoroughly and mount with a cover slip, using a drop of glycerine.
 Observe the slide under a compound microscope first under low magnification and then at
higher magnification

Observations and Resultsl:

Your observations under the microscope should enable you to draw the red blood corpuscles
(RBC’s) of human blood. RBCs (erythrocytes) are biconcave, circular and non-nucleated. Observe
carefully the various types of white blood corpuscles (WBC’s), the eosinophils, the basophils and
neutrophils. Also observe the blood platelets (Fig. 5.2). Draw a labelled diagram of different
types of cells seen in your preparation.
A. RBCs are circular and without nuclei. By changing the focus, you can realise that RBCs are
biconcave as the central part is lighter. B. Shape of WBC is irregular. Mainly two types of WBC
are found-
(a) Granulocytes: Granules are found in these cells. These cells are of the following types:
• Eosinophils or Acidophils: Its nucleus is trilobed and twisted into an 'S' shape
• Basophils – Its nucleus is bilobed.
• Neutrophils – Its nucleus is multilobed (2-5 lobes). (b) Agranulocytes: Its cytoplasm is without
granules and nuclei are nonlobed. These are of the following types.
• Monocytes – These are large in size with kidney shaped nucleus.
• Lymphocytes – They are slightly bigger than RBC with spherical nucleus. C. Platelets have no
nuclei. They appear in clusters as violet granules

Discussion:
Different types of corpuscles present in the blood perform different functions.
Haemoglobin present in the RBCs help in exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Monocytes and lymphocytes participate in destroying harmful microorganisms that invade
our body. Platelets help in blood clotting activity which to a certain extent prevents blood
loss during injury. The total counts of RBCs and WBCs and the differential counts of various
WBCs are of great medical significance for diagnostic purpose.

III MUSCULAR TISSUE

A. Striated Muscle Fibres
Procedure:

a) Taking out the tissue

• Place a preserved cockroach/frog or other available animal in a dissecting tray containing
water.
• Cut open the animal to expose its thigh region. (As an alternate preserved sample of
striated muscle can be provided)
• Take a small piece of muscle from this region and tease it on a slide with the help of
needles to get a few thinnest possible fibres.
• Wash it in water in a petridish, changing the water 2-3 times to remove the preservative,
as it may interfere with staining. (b) Staining and mounting
• Add a few drops of methylene blue to stain the muscle fibres.
• After staining, put the muscle fibres on a slide and tease it further, if necessary, with
needles so that the muscle fibres are well separated.
• Blot out the excess of water and stain.
• Add a drop of glycerine on the slide and with the help of a needle gently put the coverslip
and avoid the entry of air bubbles.
 Press the coverslip gently with a needle to spread the glycerine and the muscles properly.
• Examine the slide under the microscope.
Observation:
Look for the following features in the muscle fibre
• Muscle fibres are elongated, cylindrical and multinucleated (syncytium).
• These fibres are enclosed in a membrane called sarcolemma.
• Several dark and light bands are alternately arranged perpendicularly to the long axis of
the fibre. Presence of these bands alternately produce striations, hence these muscles are
called striated muscles (Fig.5.3a). Draw a labelled diagram of your preparation.
Discussion:
Striated muscles constitute the main component of musculature of our body, primarily
attached to bones via tendons, hence are also called skeletal muscles. Their contractions
are voluntary in nature and thus are not controlled by autonomic nervous system.
B. Smooth Muscle Fibre
Observe permanent slide preparation of L.S. of wall of urinary bladder showing smooth
muscle.
Observation
Look for the following features:
(i) Smooth muscle cells are extremely long and spindle shaped. They have an oval nucleus
located centrally in the cytoplasm (Fig. 5.3b).
(ii) Sarcolemma is absent.
(iii) Since these fibres do not show dark and light bands, they are called unstriated muscles.
Draw a labelled diagram of the muscle fibre.

Discussion:
Smooth or unstriated muscles are present in the dermis of skin and in the wall of various
hollow visceral organs like alimentary canal, urinary bladder, etc. They are usually
controlled by autonomic nervous system. Their contraction process is slow and not under
voluntary control and therefore they are also called involuntary muscles.
Cardiac Muscle Fibre
Observe permanent slide preparation of L.S. of cardiac muscle. A vertical section of heart
may be used. Pay attention to the musculature of its wall. These are cardiac muscles.
Observation:
(i) Faint cross-striations, present both longitudinally and transversely.
(ii) Cardiac muscle fibres are branched, uninucleate and much shorter than the striated
muscles (Fig.5.3c).
(iii) Presence of junctional complexes are characteristic of cardiac muscles.
Discussion:

Cardiac muscles are present in the walls of the heart. They are myogenic but are also
controlled by autonomic nervous system. They are involuntary in nature, and contract
rhythmically throughout life without getting fatigued.

Exercise 6

Aim: Study of mitosis.

Principle: Somatic growth of both plants and animals takes place by increase in the number
of cells. The cells divide mitotically wherein number of chromosomes remains unchanged in
the daughter cells from that in the maternal cells. Cells from the growing root-tips and apex
of shoot buds are suitable for mitotically dividing cells. In animals mitotically dividing cells
can be easily scored from the bone marrow of a vertebrate. The cell from the epithelium of
gills in fishes and from the tail of growing tadpole larvae of frog are also good sources for
scoring the mitotically dividing cells.

Requirement: Permanent slides available in the laboratory, compound microscope.

Procedure
 Place the slide on the stage of a good quality compound microscope. First observe it under
the lower magnification (10X objective) to search the dividing cells. Observe the dividing cell
under higher magnification (40X objective) of the microscope.

Observation

The stages of mitosis can be broadly put into two events: karyokinesis (division of nucleus)
followed by cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm, and ultimately of the cell). Those cells, which
are not in the phases of cell division are considered to be in interphase. You will observe
that most of the cells in a particular microscopic field are in interphase.

Interphase

The cells are mostly rectangular, oval or even circular in shape, with almost centrally
situated densely stained nucleus. The chromatic (coloured) material of the nucleus is
homogeneous and looks granular. The boundary of the nucleus is distinct. One or few
nucleoli (Sing: nucleolus) can also be observed inside the nucleus (Fig. 6.1a)

STAGES OF MITOSIS

(a) Prophase Intact nuclear outline is seen. The chromatin (seen as a homogeneous material
in the nucleus at interphase) appears as a network of fine threads (chromosomes).
Nucleoli may or may not be visible (Fig. 6.1b). If the cell under observation is in the early
stage of prophase then the chromatin fibres (chromosomes) are very thin. However, in
the cells at late prophase, comparatively thicker chromatin fibres would be visible.
Besides this, in the late prophase the nuclear membrane may not be noticed.

Exercise 6

(a) Metaphase
The nuclear membrane disappears. Chromosomes are thick and
are seen arranged at the equatorial plane of the cell (Fig. 6.1c). Each
chromosome at this stage has two chromatids joined together at the
centromere, which can be seen by changing the resolution of the
microscope. Nucleolus is not observed during metaphase.
 (b) Anaphase
This stage shows the separation of the chromatids of each
chromosome. The chromatids separate due to the splitting of the
centromere. Each chromatid now represents a separate chromosome
as it has its own centromere. The chromosomes are found as if they
have moved towards the two poles of the cell. The chromosomes at
this stage may look like the shape of alphabets 'V', 'J' or 'I' depending
upon the position of centromere in them. Different anaphase cells show
different stages of movement of chromosomes to opposite poles, and
they are designated to represent early, mid and late anaphase (Fig.
6.1d).
(c) Telophase
Chromosomes reach the opposite poles, lose their individuality,
and look like a mass of chromatin (Fig. 6.1e). Nuclear membrane
appears to form the nuclei of the two future daughter cells.
CYTOKINESIS
In plants, a cell plate is formed in the middle after telophase. The
plate can be seen to extend outwards to ultimately reach the
margin of the cell and divide the cell into two. Such cell plates are
characteristic of plant cells (Fig. 6.2). However, in an animal cell, the
two sides of the cell show constrictions formed from the peripheral
region in the middle of the cell, which grow inward and meet to divide
the cell into two daughter cells.
Draw labelled diagrams of all the phases of mitosis

Fig.6.2 Cytokinesis

Exercise 12

Aim: To study anatomy of stem and root of monocots and dicots.

Principle: The study of internal morphology, i.e., cells of various tissues in an organ of a living body is
called Anatomy. Tissue, which is a group of cells performing a common function, may be simple
(parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma) or complex containing more than one type of cells (xylem
and phloem). The tissues may be temporary (meristematic) or permanent (sclerenchyma, parenchyma,
collenchyma). The internal organisation of these tissues differ in root, stem and leaves. These
differences are given in tabular form for easy identification. Various tissues which constitutes roots and
stems are described briefly.

Requirement: Samples of stem and root of sunflower, Cucurbita, maize, Canna, etc., or any other locally
available plant, safranin stain, dilute acid water, glycerine, watch glass, slide, cover slip, brush,
razor/scalpel blade, blotting paper, microscope.

Procedure

Collect a few thin green branches of recent growth (i.e., non-woody/ herbaceous without any secondary
growth) from the examples given above, preferably of the thickness of a tooth-pick. • Use pith of potato
piece/Calotropis stem/raw papaya fruits for embedding the material to be sectioned. It is advisable to
first stain roots before sectioning. If material is thick like that of maize, it can be directly sectioned
without embedding them in pith. • Hold the material between the thumb and index finger in such a way
that the tips of the finger and smooth cut surface of the material are in a line, while the tip of the thumb
is just a few mm below the upper surface of the material. • Wet the surfaces of razor blade/scalpel
blade. • Carefully move the blade horizontally over the surface of material in quick succession in a
manner that a very thin and complete slice of the material is cut and obtained over the surface of razor
blade. • After cutting several sections in this manner, transfer all these into a watch glass containing
water • Make a visual observation of the sections cut and pick the thinnest possible and complete
sections from the lot and transfer it into a watch glass containing safranin and allow these to remain
there for about 2 mins. • With the help of a brush gently transfer the section into another watch glass
containing water to remove excess of safranin stain. Keep the material for few minutes and transfer it
into a watch glass containing a few drops of dilute acid in water to remove excess of safranin stain.
Wash with water and transfer the section on to a clean slide containing 1 drop of glycerine. Place a cover
slip over it avoiding air bubbles.

Observation

Note all tissues which are lignified (as in sclerenchyma, collenchyma) are stained red with safranin.
Observe the outline of the cut sections. Make a note of the presence and composition of various tissues
(epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle, vascular bundle) and characteristics of vascular bundle. List
the differences between root and stem of monocots and dicots. Use the information given in Annexure 3
for identification.

Anatomy of the Root The most distinguishing anatomical characters of the root are: 1. Epidermis: It is
the outer most layer of thin walled parenchymatous cells with many unicellular root hairs. It does not
have stomata and cuticle. 2. Cortex: It is multilayered and well developed. The cells are thin walled,
parenchymatous and may contain leucoplasts. The intercellular spaces are well developed. Collenchyma
is absent. The inner most layer of the cortex is called endodermis. The endodermis is a definite ring like
layer consisting of barrel shaped cells compactly arranged without any intercellular spaces. Casparian
thickenings in the form of strips are present on the radial and inner walls of the endodermal cells. Also,
passage cells are present. The passage cells are thin walled and are usually located opposite the
protoxylem. 3. Pericycle: The outer most layer of the stele (vascular tissue) is called pericycle. It is single
layered and consists of compactly arranged thin walled parenchymatous cells with no intercellular
spaces. The pericycle cells alternate with the endodermal cells suggesting that these two layers differ in
their origin. The endodermis is derived from periblem initials of the apical meristem, whereas the
pericycle is derived from the pleurome initials. Pericycle encloses the vascular system. 4. Vascular
system: Bounded by the endodermal and pericycle layers, vascular system consists of xylem, phloem
and the associated parenchyma tissue called conjunctive tissue. The vascular bundles are arranged in a
ring. The bundles are radial and there are equal number of separate bundles of xylem and phloem. The
number of xylem and phloem bundles varies from two to six (diarch, triarch, tetrarch, pentarch, and
hexarch) in dicots and more than six, i.e., polyarch in monocots. The xylem consists of protoxylem which
lies towards periphery and metaxylem which lies towards the centre or pith. This type of arrangement of
xylem is called exarch (protoxylem is exarch in root and endarch in shoot). The protoxylem consists of
annular and spiral vessels with narrow lumen (in cross section) and the metaxylem consists of reticulate
and pitted vessels with broad lumen. (Recall the xylem maceration experiment) The phloem consists of
sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma. The parenchyma present in between the xylem
and phloem bundles is known as conjunctive tissue. 5. Pith: It occupies the central area and may be
large, small or even, absent. Generally in dicot roots the pith is small or absent. Total obliteration of pith
occurs sometimes when metaxylem elements grow and meet in the centre. In monocot roots pith is
large in size. Pith consists of parenchymatous cells with intercellular spaces
Exercise 11

Aim: Study and describe flowering plants of families Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Liliaceae.

Principle: Taxonomy deals with identification, nomenclature and classification of organisms. Bentham
and Hooker's system of classification is universally used for classification of plants. Field identification of
plants is based primarily on morphological features particularly the floral characters.

Requirement: Locally available plant specimens of Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Liliaceae. (minimum 3
species for each family other than the ones described for reference in the manual); each specimen
should have at least a small branch with a few inter nodes, leaves, flowers and fruits; glass slides, cover
glass, water, 100 ml beakers, petridish, razor, blade, needles, brush, hand lens, dissecting microscope
and compound microscope.b

Procedure

Keep the twigs in beakers containing water. Make yourself familiar with the terms given to describe the
habit of plant, its root system, stem and leaf, inflorescence and flowers. Describe the vegetative and
floral features of the plant in the same sequence using terms described therein. Observe the flower bud
under dissection microscope or a hand lens and note the aestivation patterns of calyx and corolla,
number of sepals and petals (tri, tetra, pentamerous), number of stamens. Cut LS of the flower, place it
on a slide and observe under the dissecting microscope to study: • Position (attachment) of stamens –
opposite/alternate to petals; free or epipetalous; extrorse/ introrse anthers (anther lobes in the bud
face away from axis – extrorse; anther lobes in the bud face towards the main axis – introrse). • Number
of carpels (mono, bi, tri- carpellary); Position of the ovary (epigynous, perigynous, hypogynous). Mount a
stamen on a slide and study the attachment of filament to anther (basifixed, dorsifixed, versatile,
adnate), dehiscence pattern of anther (porous, longitudinal), number of anther lobes (monothecous,
dithecous). Mount the pistil and study the ovary, style and stigma. Also cut a TS of the ovary to study the
number of locules and placentation. Write the floral formula and draw the floral diagram of each
specimen based on the description. Identify features of the different parts of flower on the basis of
descriptions given in Table 11.1.

Observations

Compare the characters with those given in the table and identify the family to which the plant belongs
to.