Winter Camp 2009

Pre-camp problem set

1. Prove that n − 1 < √ 1√ + √2+3 √5 + √5+5√10 + . . . + √ 2n−1 √

< n for every positive
1+ 2 (n−1)2 +1+ n2 +1
integer n.
a+b
2. Prove that c+d is irreducible if ad − bc = 1.

3. The first five terms of a sequence are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. From the sixth term on, each term is 1 less
than the product of all the preceding ones. Prove that the product of the first 70 terms is
equal to the sum of their squares.

4. Prove that the equation y 2 = x5 − 4 has no integer solutions.

5. Let ABC be an equilateral triangle of altitude 1. A circle, with radius 1, and center on the
same side of AB as C, rolls along the segment AB. Prove that the length of the arc of the
circle that is inside the triangle remains constant.

6. What real-valued functions f satisfy the inequalities

f (x) ≤ x, f (x + y) ≤ f (x) + f (y)

for all real x, y?

7. Let S be a finite set of points in the plane, and let r be a positive real number. Suppose it is
possible to place several circular discs of radius r on the plane such that: (a) every point in
S is covered by exactly one disc, and (b) the center of every disc is a point in S. Prove that,
no matter how this is done, the number of discs used will be constant.

8. Let a, b, c, d be positive real numbers such that a + b + c + d = 1. Prove that

a3 b3 c3 d3 1
+ + + ≥ .
b+c c+d d+a a+b 8

9. Fix a prime p > 2. An integer x is called a quadratic residue mod p if there exists an integer
y so that y 2 − x is a multiple of p.

(a) Determine the number of integers x in {0, 1, 2, . . . , p − 1}, for which both x and x − 1
are quadratic residues mod p.
p−1
(b) Prove that −1 is a quadratic residue mod p if and only if 4 is an integer.

10. Prove that there exists a unique function f defined on the positive reals such that f (f (x)) =
6x − f (x) and f (x) > 0 for all positive x.

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11. Let O be the circumcenter of an acute-angled triangle ABC and let A1 be a point on the
smaller arc BC of the circumcircle of 4ABC. Let A2 and A3 be points on the sides AB and
AC respectively, such that ∠BA1 A2 = ∠OAC and ∠CA1 A3 = ∠OAB. Show that the line
A2 A3 passes through the orthocenter of 4ABC.

12. The numbers 1, 2, . . . , 22008 are stored in 2009 memory locations of a computer. Two pro-
grammers take turns choosing five memory locations, and then subtracting 1 from each of
these locations. If any location ever acquires a negative number, the computer breaks and
the guilty programmer pays for the repairs. Which programmer can ensure himself financial
security, and how?

13. (Pascal’s Theorem) Let A, B, C, D, E, F be points on a circle, and let P , Q, R respectively

be the intersection of AB and DE, BC and EF , CD and F A respectively.

(a) Let ω be the circumcircle of 4CF R, and let G and H be the second intersections of
lines BC and EF with ω. Prove that triangles RGH and P BE have parallel sides.
(b) Prove that P , Q, and R lie on a line.

14. A positive integer is written in each square of an 8 × 8 chessboard. One is allowed to choose
a 3 × 3 or a 4 × 4 square on the chessboard and increase all numbers in it by 1. Is it always
possible, applying such operations several times, to arrive at a situation where all squares
contain multiples of 10?

15. Let P and Q be points in the plane and let ω1 , ω2 , and ω3 be circles passing through both.
If A, B, C, D, E, and F are points on a line in that order so that A and D lie on ω1 , B and
E lie on ω2 , and C and F lie on ω3 , prove that AB · CD · EF = BC · DE · F A.

16. Given x, y, z ≥ 0 with xy + yz + zx = 2. Prove that

7(x + y + z)3 − 9(x3 + y 3 + z 3 ) ≤ 108.

Determine when equality holds.

17. Find all positive integers m, n such that m|n2 + 1 and n|m2 + 1.

18. For every finite set of positive integers A, define the collection A2 to be

A2 = {a + b|a, b ∈ A, a 6= b}.

For example, if A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then A2 = {3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7}. (Note that we are allowed to
repeat elements in a collection.) Suppose there exist two finite sets A, B such that A2 = B2
but A 6= B. Prove that the number of elements in A and in B are the same and this number
is a power of 2.

2
 Solutions

2k−1 √
√ p
1. Note that √ = k 2 + 1 − (k − 1)2 + 1. Therefore,
(k−1)2 +1+ k2 +1

n
X n p
X p p
2k − 1
p √ = k 2 + 1 − (k − 1)2 + 1 = n2 + 1 − 1,
k=1
(k − 1)2 + 1 + k 2 + 1 k=1
√
and the result follows from the fact that n < n2 + 1 < n + 1.

2. d(a + b) − b(c + d) = ad − bc = 1, which implies a + b and c + d are relatively prime.

P Q
3. Let xn denote the nth term in the sequence, and let sn = ni=1 x2i , pn = ni=1 xi . For n ≥ 6,

sn − pn = sn−1 + (pn−1 − 1)2 − pn−1 (pn−1 − 1)

= sn−1 − pn−1 + 1

Since s5 − p5 = 55 − 120 = −65, it follows that s70 − p70 = 0.

4. For any integers x, y, one can check y 2 ∈ {0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 9} mod 11 and x5 ∈ {−1, 0, 1} mod 11.
Therefore, the equation has no solutions mod 11, and hence no integer solutions.

5. Suppose the circle is centered at O. We assume without loss of generality that O is closer to
B than A. Since O and C are both distance 1 from AB, we know CO is parallel to AB, and
hence ∠OCB = 60◦ .
Now let P and Q be where the circle hits CA and CB respectively. Also let Q0 be the point
−−→
on CB such that ∠P OQ0 = 60◦ . Note that ∠P OQ0 = 60◦ = ∠P CQ0 , so P COQ0 is cyclic.
Therefore, ∠OP Q0 = ∠OCQ0 = ∠OCB = 60◦ , which implies that 4OP Q0 is equilateral and
−−→
OQ0 = OP = 1. However, we know Q is the unique point on CB such that OQ = 1, which
means Q0 = Q, and hence ∠P OQ = ∠P OQ0 = 60◦ .
Therefore, the arc contained within 4ABC is always one-sixth of the circumference, regardless
of where O is.

6. Setting x = y = 0, we have f (0) ≤ f (0) + f (0) =⇒ f (0) ≥ 0. We are given f (0) ≤ 0, so it

follows that f (0) = 0. Setting y = −x, we have 0 = f (0) ≤ f (−x) + f (x). On the other hand,
f (−x) + f (x) ≤ 0 with equality only if f (−x) = −x and f (x) = x. It follows that f (x) = x
for all x.

7. Let X and Y be two sets of discs, each fulfilling the given requirements. We define a function
f : X → Y as follows. Fix a disc C ∈ X. Then, its center must be covered by some unique
disc D in Y . Define f (C) = D. Suppose f (C) = f (C 0 ) = D for some discs C, C 0 . Then, the
center of D is within distance r of the centers of C and C 0 , meaning C and C 0 both cover
the center of D, which is impossible. Therefore, f is one-to-one and |Y | ≥ |X|. Similarly,
|X| ≥ |Y |, and the result follows.
µq q q q ¶
a3 b3 c3 d3
8. By the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality applied to the vectors b+c , c+d , d+a , a+b and

3
 √ √ √ √
( b + c, c + d, d + a, a + b), we have
¡ 1.5 ¢2
a3 b3 c3 d3 a + b1.5 + c1.5 + d1.5
+ + + ≥
b+c c+d d+a a+b (b + c) + (c + d) + (d + a) + (a + b)
µ 1.5 ¶2
a + b1.5 + c1.5 + d1.5
= 8· ,
4
¡ a+b+c+d ¢3
which, by the power-mean inequality is at least 8 · 4 = 18 .

9. Let n denote the number of consecutive quadratic residues mod p, and let m denote the
number of solutions (x, y) to x2 − y 2 ≡ 1(mod p). Since every quadratic residue except for 0
has exactly two square roots mod p, every pair of consecutive quadratic residues corresponds
to 4 solutions to x2 −y 2 ≡ 1(mod p), unless one of the residues is 0, in which case it corresponds
to 2 solutions. Therefore, m = 4n − 4 if −1 is a quadratic residue and m = 4n − 2 otherwise.
We now calculate m. Note that x2 −y 2 ≡ 1(mod p) is equivalent to there existing z 6= 0 so that
−1
x + y ≡ z(mod p) and x − y ≡ z −1 (mod p), which in turn is equivalent to x ≡ z+z2 (mod p)
−1
and y ≡ z−z2 (mod p). Thus, there is one unique solution (x, y) for each z 6= 0, and m = p−1.
Therefore, n = p+3 p+1
4 or 4 depending on whether −1 is a quadratic residue. Since § n¨ is an
integer, −1 is a quadratic residue if and only if p ≡ 1(mod 4), and either way, n = p4 .

10. For any x > 0, define the sequence {xn } by x0 = x and xn = f (xn−1 ) for n > 0. Then,
f (f (xn−2 )) = 6xn−2 − f (xn−2 ) =⇒ xn = 6xn−2 − xn−1 for all n. It follows1 that there exist
constants A, B so that xn = A · 2n + B · (−3)n . Since xn > 0 for all n, we must have B = 0,
and since x0 = x, we then have A = x. Therefore, f (x) = x1 = 2x. Conversely, it is easy to
check f (x) = 2x does satisfy the given condition.

11. Let B 0 and C 0 be where the altitudes from B and C hit the circumcircle of 4ABC. Then,
∠BA1 A2 = ∠OAC = 90◦ − ∠B = ∠BCC 0 = ∠BA1 C 0 , so A2 is the intersection of AB and
A1 C 0 . Similarly, A3 is the intersection of AC and A1 B 0 . Now, Pascal’s theorem (see #13),
applied to the “hexagon” ABB 0 A1 C 0 C, states that A2 , H, and A3 are collinear.
Remark: Instead of applying Pascal’s theorem, one can show HA2 = C 0 A2 and HA3 = B 0 A3 ,
and then angle-chase.

12. Let us call the programmers Alice and Biff. Also label the first 2005 memory locations as
good, and the remaining ones as bad. Alice can guarantee a win as follows. On her first turn,
she chooses the first good memory location and the four bad ones. From then on, she always
copies Biff’s last move.
This ensures that at the end of every one of Alice’s turns, all good memory locations have
even parity. On the other hand, there are only 4 bad memory locations, so each turn must
decrease a good memory location. Therefore, a good location will become negative in at most
1 + 1 + 2 + 4 + . . . + 22004 = 22005 turns. Conversely, no bad location can become negative
that quickly.
Since all good memory locations are even at the end of every one of Alice’s turns, it follows
that Biff must be the first one to turn one of these location negative.
1
We
Pare using a general theorem here: let c1 , c2 , . . . , cnn be P
constants, and let {x1 , x2 , . . .} be a sequence satisfying
xm = n i=1 ci xm−i for m ≥ n. Suppose the polynomial Pnx = i=1
n
ci xn−i has n distinct roots α1 , α2 , . . . , αn . Then,
m
there exist constants C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn such that xm = i=1 Ci · αi for all m.

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 13. It is important to correctly handle all possible configurations while doing part (a).

(a) Claim: Let circles ω1 and ω2 intersect at X and Y . If AB is a chord on ω1 , and C and
D are the second intersections of AX and BY with ω2 , then AB and CD are parallel.
Proof: Using directed angles2 , we have ∠XAB = ∠XY B = ∠XY D = ∠XCD. There-
fore, lines AB and CD make the same angle with line AXC, and thus are parallel.
The result follows from applying this claim to chords BA, BE, and DE.
(b) Since triangles RGH and P BE have parallel sides, P R, BG, and EH all meet at a
common point, namely Q, so Q lies on P R.

14. It is not always possible. We consider all positions modulo 10. In this setting, adding 1 to a
square 10 times has no effect.
If a position A can reach the zero position by adding 1 to various squares, the zero position
can reach A by subtracting 1 from the same squares. Since there are 52 + 62 = 61 squares
to choose from, and each square can be subtracted from between 0 and 10 times, a total of
1061 < 1064 positions can be reached from the zero position in this way.
However, there are 1064 positions altogether modulo 10, so not all of them can be reached.

15. Let R = P Q ∩ AF , and let a = AR, b = BR, c = CR, d = DR, e = ER, f = F R denote
−−→
signed distances along the line AB. Also let x denote the signed product P R · QR. By power
of a point on each circle, we have ad = be = cf = x. Now:

AB · CD · EF − BC · DE · F A = (b − a) · (d − c) · (f − e) − (c − b) · (e − d) · (f − a)
= bdf − bde − bcf + bce − adf + ade + acf − ace −
cef + ace + cdf − acd + bef − abe − bdf + abd
= bdf − dx − bx + cx − f x + ex + ax − ace −
ex + ace + dx − cx + f x − ax − bdf + bx = 0.

Remark: A slicker solution is to perform an inversion around P , and then use angle-Ceva’s
theorem to exploit the fact that lines A0 D0 , B 0 E 0 , and C 0 F 0 concur at Q0 .

16. Let s = x + y + z and p = xyz. Then,

x3 + y 3 + z 3 = (x + y + z)3 − 3(x + y + z)(xy + yz + xz) + 3xyz = s3 − 6s + 3p,

which implies:

108 − 7(x + y + z)3 + 9(x3 + y 3 + z 3 ) = 108 + 2s3 − 54s + 27p

= 2(s − 3)2 (s + 6) + 27p ≥ 0.

Equality holds iff s = 3 and p = 0, or equivalently, x, y, z are the roots of w3 − 3w2 + 2w = 0.

This means equality holds iff (x, y, z) = (0, 1, 2) or a permutation thereof.
2
We define the directed angle ABC to be the counter-clockwise angle (mod 180◦ ) one has to rotate A around
B by in order to make A lie on line BC. We use the following key properties: ∠ABD = ∠ACD iff A, B, C, D are
concyclic, and ∠ABC = ∠ABD iff B, C, D are collinear. These properties hold regardless of configuration, which is
a big improvement over traditional angle-chasing!

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17. Let Fk denote the Fibonacci sequence. Then, the full set of solutions for (m, n) is:

T = {(1, 1), (F2k−1 , F2k+1 ), (F2k+1 , F2k−1 )}.

2
That these solutions are all valid follows immediately from the fact that F2i+1 + 1 = F2i−1 ·
³ √ ´i ³ √ ´i
1+ 5 1− 5
F2i+3 . (This identity can be proven directly by substituting Fi = √15 2 − √1
5 2 ,
on both sides and then expanding).
Now suppose there is a solution not in T . Take a minimal such solution (m, n), and assume
without loss of generality that m ≤ n. If m = n, then gcd(n, m2 +1) = 1, implying m = n = 1,
2
and giving a contradiction. Otherwise, let x = m n+1 , which we assumed to be an integer.
2 +1
Note x ≤ mm+1 ≤ m < n. On the other hand, working modulo m, we have x2 + 1 ≡
x2 + (m2 + 1)2 ≡ x2 + n2 x2 ≡ x2 (n2 + 1) ≡ 0. Therefore, (x, m) is a smaller solution than
(m, n).
Since
³ 2 x ≤´m, and since³ (m, n) was
´ assumed to be the smallest solution not in T , we have
m +1 m2 +1
n , m = {1, 1} or n , m = {F2k−1 , F2k+1 }. In the former case, (m, n) = (1, 2). In
the latter case, (m, n) = (F2k+1 , F2k+3 ). Either way, we have contradicted the assumption
that (m, n) 6∈ T , and the proof is complete.
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
18. Suppose A2 = B2 . Then |A2 | = |A| 2 and |B2 | = |B|
2 so |A| = |B|. Let n = |A| = |B|.
P P
Let f (x) and g(x) be the polynomials a∈A x and b∈B xb . Factor f (x) − g(x) as (x − 1)t ·
a

h(x) for a non-negative integer t and a polynomial h satisfying h(1) 6= 0. Then,

(x − 1)t · h(x) · (f (x) + g(x)) = f 2 (x) − g 2 (x)

X X X X
= x2a + 2 xa − x2b − 2 xb
a∈A a∈A2 b∈B b∈B2
X X
2a 2b
= x − x
a∈A b∈B
= f (x2 ) − g(x2 )
= (x2 − 1)t · h(x2 )
= (x − 1)t · h(x2 ) · (x + 1)t .

Dividing through by (x − 1)t , we have h(x) · (f (x) + g(x)) = h(x2 ) · (x + 1)t . Now, letting
x = 1 and dividing through by h(1) (which we know is not 0), we have 2n = f (1) + g(1) = 2t .
It follows that n is a power of 2.