2016-CIV-80

ExPErImEnt no.1
TITLE:

DETERMINATION OF THE FLAKINESS AND THE

ELONGATION INDEX FOR THE GIVEN AGGREGATE SAMPLE:

1.1. OBJECTIVE:
To determine the flakiness and the elongation index for the given
aggregate sample.

1.2. STANDARD REFERENCES:

 BS-1241

1.3. SCOPE & SIGNIFICANCE:

This test is used to determine the particle shape of the aggregate and each particle shape being
preferred under specific conditions.

The significance of flakiness & elongation index is as follows;

 The degree of packing of the particles of one size depends upon their shape.
 Due to high surface area to volume ratio, the flaky and elongated particles lower the
workability of concrete mixes.
 Flaky and elongated particles are considered undesirable for base coarse construction as they
may cause weakness with possibilities of braking down under heavy loads.
 BS-1241 specifies a Flakiness index not exceeding 30% irrespective of the aggregate size.
 Maximum permitted Elongated index is 35, 40 or 45% for aggregate sizes 2 ½’’ – 2’’, 1 ½’’
– ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’.
 Both Flakiness and Elongation tests are not applicable to sizes smaller then 6.3mm i.e. ¼’’
sieve.

1.4. RELATED THEORY:

1.4.1. SHAPES OF PARTICLES:
The usual shapes of the particles are;

 Rounded (River Gravel) Flakiness and Elongation Index

 Flaky (Laminated Rock) Flakiness and Elongation Index
 Elongated Flakiness and Elongation Index

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 Angular( Crushed Rock)

FIGURE 1.1. DIFFERENT PARTICLE SHAPES OF COARSE AGGREGATES

1.4.2. PREFERRED USE OF EACH SHAPE:

Rounded Aggregates are preferred in concrete roads (rigid pavements) as the workability of
concrete increases due to the less friction between the surfaces.

Angular Shape of the particles is desirable in granular base coarse (flexible pavement) due to
better interlocking and increased stability.

Flaky and Elongated Particles are considered as a source of weakness.

1.4.3. FLAKY:

 A flaky particle is the one whose least dimension (thickness) is than 0.6 times the mean size.
 These are the materials of which the thickness is small as compared to the other two
dimensions.

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 Limit of flaky particles in the mixes is 30%. If the flaky particles are greater than 30% then the
aggregate is considered undesirable for the intended use.

1.4.4. FLAKINESS INDEX: Flakiness and Elongation Index

It is the percentage by weight of flaky particles in a sample.

1.4.5. ELONGATED PARTICLES:

These are the particles having length considerably larger
than the other two dimensions and it is the particle whose greater dimension is 1.8 times its mean
size.

Limit of elongated particles in the mixes is 45%. Thus, if the elongated particles are greater than
45%, then the aggregate is considered undesirable for the intended use.

1.4.6. ELONGATION INDEX:

It is the percentage by weight of elongated particles in a sample.
The Elongated index is calculated by expressing the weight of Elongated particles as percentage
of total weight of the sample.

1.5. APPARATUS:
Following are the apparatus used in this experiment:

 Thickness / Flakiness Index Gauge

 Length / Elongation Index Gauge
 Sieve Shaker
 Sieves of different sizes (from 1.5 inch to ¼ inch sieve )
 Digital Balance

FIGURE 1.2. FLAKINESS INDEX GAUGE

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FIGURE 1.3. ELONGATION INDEX GAUGE

1.6. MATERIAL:
 Coarse Aggregates

1.7. PROCEDURE:

1.7.1. FOR THE DETERMINATION OF FLAKINESS INDEX:

 Perform the sieve analysis on the given aggregate sample.

 The aggregates are first sorted on test sieves sizing as – 2 ½’’ – 2’’, 1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’.

FIGURE 1.4. SIEVE SHAKER

 Each group is weighted and tested for thickness on appropriate opening of the thickness gauge
by passing each particle through slot of specified thickness along the least dimension repeat
this for all the fractions.

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FIGURE 1.5. PASSING THE AGGREGATE PARTICLES THROUGH THE OPENING IN FLAKINESS GAUGE

 The weight of particles passing the thickness is recorded for each fraction. This is the weight
of Flaky particles.

FIGURE 1.6. MEASURE THE WEIGHT OF FLAKY PARTICLES ON BALANCE

 Flaky Index is calculated by expressing the weight of Flaky particles as a percentage of total
weight of the sample.

1.7.2. FOR THE DETERMINATION OF ELONGATION INDEX:

 The aggregates are first sorted on test sieves sizing as – 2 ½’’ – 2’’, 1 ½’’ – ¾’’ & ½’’ – 3/8’’.

FIGURE 1.7. PASSING THE AGGREGATE PARTICLES THROUGH THE OPENING IN ELONGATION GAUGE

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 Each group is weighted and tested for length in a length gauge. The pieces of aggregate from
each fraction, which do not pass through the specified length gauge with its long side, are
separated and weighed. They are termed as Elongated particles. Repeat this process for all the
fractions.

FIGURE 1.8. MEASURE THE WEIGHT OF ELONGATED PARTICLES ON BALANCE

 Elongated Index is calculated by expressing the weight of Elongated particles as a percentage

of total weight of the sample.

1.8. PRECAUTIONS:
 While sieving, care must be taken that the particles that are chocked in the sieve must not be
forced down into the next sieve. Such particles should be pushed back into the same sieve.
 While placing different fractions on the table, place them some distance apart so that no two
fractions may get mixed.

FIGURE 1.9. PROPER DISTANCE BETWEEN DIFFERENT FRACTIONS OF AGGREGATE

 Be careful while selecting the opening of the flakiness and elongation gauges for any particular
fraction.

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1.9. LABELLED DIAGRAM OF APPARATUS:

FIGURE 1.4. FLAKINESS INDEX GAUGE

FIGURE 1.5. ELONGATION INDEX GAUGE

1.10. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

TABLE 1.1: DETERMINATION OF WEIGHTED FLAKINESS INDEX

SIEVE SIZE WEIGHT PERCENTAGE WEIGHT OF INDIVIDUAL WEIGHTED
RETAINED WEIGHT FLAKY FLAKINESS FLAKINESS
PASSING RETAINED
(inch) (inch) (grams) RETAINED PARTICLES INDEX INDEX
(%) (grams) (%) (%)

2.00 1.50 1099.00 10.94 245.30 22.32 2.44

1.50 1.00 4895.50 48.74 767.30 15.67 7.64
1.00 0.75 2576.60 25.65 209.00 8.11 2.08
0.75 0.50 1019.20 10.15 82.20 8.07 0.82
0.50 0.38 169.30 1.69 33.10 19.55 0.33
0.38 0.25 285.50 2.84 41.90 14.68 0.42
Σ = 10045.10 Σ = 13.73

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TABLE 1.2: DETERMINATION OF WEIGHTED ELONGATION INDEX

SIEVE SIZE WEIGHT PERCENTAGE WEIGHT OF INDIVIDUAL WEIGHTED
RETAINED WEIGHT ELONGATED ELONGATION ELONGATION
PASSING RETAINED
(grams) RETAINED PARTICLES INDEX INDEX
(inch) (inch)
(%) (grams) (%) (%)
2.00 1.50 1099.00 10.94 173.20 15.76 1.72
1.50 1.00 4895.50 48.74 410.40 8.38 4.09
1.00 0.75 2576.60 25.65 462.10 17.93 4.60
0.75 0.50 1019.20 10.15 456.60 44.80 4.55
0.50 0.38 169.30 1.69 36.30 21.44 0.36
0.38 0.25 285.50 2.84 194.70 68.20 1.94
Σ = 10045.10 Σ = 17.26

1.11. RESULTS:
 Flakiness Index of the aggregate sample is 13.73%
 Elongation Index of the aggregate sample is 17.26%

1.12. COMMENTS:
Elongation Index came out to be 17.26%, which does not exceeds the
limit of 45% so this sample is suitable for use and also its Flakiness Index is 13.73%, which is also
within the limits of 30%.

1.13. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FLAKINESS AND

ELONGATION:

 The shape tests give only a rough idea of the relative shapes of aggregates. Flaky and elongated
particles should be avoided in pavement construction, particularly in surface course.
 If such particles were present in appreciable proportions, the strength of pavement layer would
be adversely affected due to possibility of breaking under loads. Workability is reduced for
cement concrete.

1.14. UNDERSTANDING:
This experiment helps us a lot in future life, if we will do
some field job and encounter some problem related to it and we have to find flakiness and
elongation index then this performance of test makes it easy for us to do it accurately.

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ExPErImEnt no. 2
TITLE:

DETERMINATION OF ANGULARITY NUMBER FOR THE

GIVEN AGGREGATE SAMPLE:

2.1. OBJECTIVE:
This test is also carried out for determining shape of the aggregates.
Based upon shape the aggregates may be classified as Rounded, Angular or Flaky. Angular
particles possess well defined edges formed at the intersection of roughly planer faces and are
commonly formed in aggregates prepared by crushing of rocks.

Angularity in general is the absence of rounding of particles of an aggregate. This test is performed
to determine the angularity number i.e. the absence of roundedness or the degree of angularity of
the aggregate specimen.

2.2. RELATED THEORY:

2.2.1. SHAPES OF PARTICLES:
The usual shapes of the particles are;

 Rounded (River Gravel)

 Flaky (Laminated Rock)
 Elongated
 Angular (Crushed Rock)

2.2.2. ANGULARITY:
It is the absence of roundness. An aggregate particle, which is more
rounded, is less angular and vice versa.

2.2.3. ANGULARITY NUMBER:

Angularity number of an aggregate is the amount (to the higher
whole number) by which the percentage of voids in it after compacting in a prescribed manner
exceeds 33.

Where, “33” is the percentage of volume of voids, in a perfectly rounded aggregate. “67” is the
percentage of volume of solids in a perfectly rounded aggregate.

The value of angularity number generally lies between 0 & 11. In road construction angularity
number of 7 – 10 is generally preferred.

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2.3. SIGNIFICANCE:
 The degree of packing of particles of single sized aggregate depends upon the angularity of
aggregate.
 The angularity of the aggregate can be estimated from the properties of voids in a sample of
aggregate compacted in a specified manner.
 The angularity number ranges from 0 for a highly rounded grave to about 11 for freshly crushed
angular aggregates.
 Higher the angularity number, more angular and less workable is the concrete mix.
 In cement concrete roads (rigid pavements) rounded aggregates are preferred because of better
workability and higher strength.
 In bituminous or water bound macadam construction (like flexible pavements), angular
aggregates with high angularity number are preferred because of high stability due to better
interlocking and friction.
 Higher the angularity number, more angular and less workable is the concrete mix.
 In road construction, angularity number of 7 -10 is generally preferred.

2.4. APPARATUS:
 A metal cylinder of about 3-liter capacity.

FIGURE 2.1.

 Temping rod of circular cross-section, 16mm Φ, 60cm in length. Rounded at one end.
 A metal scoop.
 A weighing balance.

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2.5. PROCEDURE:
This procedure is for aggregate size ¾ to No.4. If aggregate is coarser than ¾, a cylinder of large
capacity shall be required but amount of compactive effort or energy should be proportional to the
volume of the cylinder.

FIGURE 2.2.

10 Kg of the sample is taken for the test. The material should be oven dried. The aggregate is
compacted in three layers, each layer being given 100 blows using the standard tamping rod at a
rate of 2 blows/second by lifting the rod 5 cm above the surface of the aggregate and then allowing
it to fall freely. The blows are uniformly distributed over the surface of the aggregate. After
compacting the third layer, the cylinder is filled to overflowing and excess material is removed off
with temping rod as a straight edge.

The aggregate with cylinder is then weighed. Three separate determinations are made and mean
weight of the aggregate in the cylinder is calculated.

2.6. METHODS FOR CALCULATIONS:

2.6.1. METHOD – 1:

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FIGURE 2.3.

Add measured quantity of water in the compacted aggregate till all the voids are filled and water
appears to the surface. Volume of water added is approximately equal to the volume of voids in
the compacted aggregate.

Angularity Number = (Volume of water added/Total volume) x 100-33

2.6.2. METHOD – 2:

Angularity Number = 67-(100W/CGs)

Where,

W = mean weight of the aggregate filling cylinder.

C = Weight/Volume of water that can completely fill the cylinder (= 3 liters = 3000 ml – in our
lab)

Gs = Specific Gravity of the aggregate.

NOTE:

 Method – 1 determines the angularity number from the solids point of view.
 Method – 2 determines the angularity number from the voids point of view.

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2.7. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

 Specific Gravity of the Aggregate = 2.62
 Diameter of Cylinder = 15.4 cm
 Height of Cylinder = 16.5 cm
 Total Volume of the Cylinder = 3073.3729 cm 3
 Volume of Water Added = 1290 ml (Manually)

TABLE 2.1:

WEIGHT (grams) VOLUME ANGULARITY

OF NUMBER
EMPTY CYLINDER + CYLINDER + AGGREGATE WATER METHOD METHOD
CYLINDER AGGREGATE AGGREGATE ADDED 1 2
+ WATER (ml)
5075.2 9907.1 11112.8 4803.75 1233.85 9 8
9850.8
Average =
9878.95

NOTE:
For the calculation of angularity number, we use the value of volume of water added equal
to 1290 milliliters rather than 1233.85 milliliters because there is a error in a calculated value
and we actually added 1290 ml of water in a lab. This error is because of 5% water absorption of
oven dried aggregates.

2.8. COMMENTS:
In the table we have used the volume written on the container, we also
use other way in which we poured water and then measured the volume, both way are easy but we
can say the first way is more reliable and the difference between both the methods may be due to
the face that we did not measure the specific gravity. We used 2.62 which can be different than the
actual value but both the methods should give the approximately same result.

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ExPErImEnt no. 3
TITLE:

SPECIFIC GRAVITY (RELATIVE DENSITY) AND WATER

ABSORPTION TEST FOR AGGREGATES:

3.1. RELATED THEORY: Water Absorption

3.1.1. SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
Specific Gravity is defined as ratio of weight of solid to the weight
of an equal volume of gas free distilled water (no dissolved air/impurities) at a stated temperature.

3.1.2. WATER ABSORPTION:

It is the ratio of weight of water absorbed to the weight of dry
sample expressed as a percentage. It will not include the amount of water adhering to the surface
of the particles.

3.1.3. COARSE AGGREGATES:

Any material which is retained on BS sieve #4 (ASTM sieve
4.75mm) is known as coarse aggregate.

3.1.4. FINE AGGREGATES:

Any material which is passing BS sieve #4(ASTM sieve 4.75mm)
is known as fine aggregate.

3.1.5. SATURATED SURFACE DRY (S.S.D.) CONDITION:

It is the condition related with
the aggregate particles in which the permeable pores of the aggregate particles are filled with water
but without free water on the surface of the particles.

3.1.6. OVEN DRIED SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

It is the ratio of the oven dried density of the
aggregate to the density of the gas free distilled water at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).

3.1.7. SATURATED SURFACE DRY SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

It is the ratio of the saturated
surface dry density of the aggregate to the density of the gas free distilled water at a standard
temperature (i.e. 4 oC).

3.1.8. APPARENT SPECIFIC GRAVITY:

It is the ratio of the apparent density of the aggregate
to the density of the gas free distilled water at a standard temperature (i.e. 4 oC).

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3.1.9. TYPES OF CRUSH AVAILABLE IN PAKISTAN:

Sargodha Crush:
Sargodha crush possess the following properties;

 Greenish/Dark Gray in color

 High strength
 Usually elongated particles

FIGURE 3.1.

Margalla Crush:
Margalla crush possess the following properties;

 Light Gray in color

 Low in strength

FIGURE 3.2.

Sakhi Sarwar Crush:

Sakhi Sarwar crush possess the following properties;

 Whitish in color

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FIGURE 3.3.

3.2. SIGNIFICANCE:
In this test method we will determine the relative density (i.e.
specific gravity) and the water absorption of the coarse aggregates.

 The knowledge of the specific gravity is important for the concrete technologist to determine
the properties of concrete made from such aggregates.
 It is used for the calculation of the volume occupied by the aggregates in various mixes and
generally it ranges from 2.5 to 3.
 The pores at the surface of the particles affect the bond between the aggregate and the cement
paste thus influences the concrete strength. Smaller the number of pores, higher will be the
specific gravity hence more will be the bond strength and more concrete strength.

FIGURE 3.4.

 Though higher specific gravity of aggregate is considered as an indication of its high strength;
it is not possible to judge the suitability on this basis alone without finding other mechanical
properties like aggregate abrasion value etc.
 Water absorption is a measure of porosity of aggregates and its resistance to frost action.
 Higher water absorption means more pores hence aggregate will be the considered as weak.
 Water absorption value ranges from 0.1 – 2.0% for aggregate normally used in roads surfaces.
 Aggregates with water absorption up to 4.0% are acceptable in base coarse.

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FIGURE 3.5.

3.3. APPARATUS:
 Balance 5 Kg capacity readable to 0.5g

FIGURE 3.6.

 Sample container in the form of a wire mesh bucket of capacity 4000 – 7000 cm 3 and not more
than 6.3mm mesh.

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FIGURE 3.7.

 Suitable arrangement for suspending the container in water from center of the balance.

FIGURE 3.8.

 A container for filling water and suspending the wire mesh bucket.
 Shallow tray and absorbent cloth.
 Thermostatically controlled oven.

FIGURE 3.9.

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3.4. SAMPLE:
Take representative sample. Reject all material passing #4, weight of sample
to be used for the test would depend upon the nominal maximum size as given in table below.

TABLE 3.1:

Nominal (mm) 13 19 25 38 50 63 75 90
Maximum (in.) ½ ¾ 1 1½ 2 2½ 3 3½
Size
Maximum Sample Wt. 2 3 4 5 8 12 18 25
Kg

3.5. PROCEDURE:
 Thoroughly wash the aggregates to remove any dust. Oven dry and cool the aggregates for 1
to 3 hours and then immerse in water for 24 hours.

FIGURE 3.10.

 Remove the specimen from water and roll it in a large absorbent cloth until all visible films of
water are removed.

FIGURE 3.11.

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 Weight the specimen in saturated surface dry conditions.

FIGURE 3.12.

 Place the saturated surface dry specimen in wire mesh bucket and weight it in water. Shake the
bucket to remove all entrapped air before weighing.
 Dry the sample to constant weight in oven, cool and weigh.

3.6. OBSERVATIONS:
 Weight of oven dried aggregate in air (gm) = A = 3782 g
 Weight of saturated surface dry aggregate in air (gm) = B = 3791 g
 Weight of saturated aggregate and bucket in water (gm) = W 1 = 4419.2 g
 Weight of bucket in water (gm) = W2 = 2060 g
 Weight of saturated aggregate in water = C (gm) = (W1 – W2) = 2354.2 g

3.7. CALCULATIONS:
Oven Dried Bulk Specific Gravity = Sd = A / (B – C) = 3782/(3791-2354.2) = 2.632
Saturated Surface Dry Bulk Specific Gravity = Ss = B / (B – C)
= 3791 / ( 3791 – 2354.2) = 2.638
Apparent Specific Gravity = Sa = A / (A – C) = 3782/(3782-2354.2) = 2.648
Water Absorption, = WA = [(B – A) / A] x 100 = [(3791-3782)/3782] x 100 = 0.2379

WARNING:
 If the aggregate is not oven-dried before soaking, specific gravity values may be significantly
higher. This is because in the normal procedure the water may not be able to penetrate the
pores to the center of the aggregate particle during the soaking time. If the aggregate is not
oven-dry to start, the existing water in the aggregate pore structure may be able to penetrate
further into the pores (AASHTO, 2000c).

 Make sure to use cloth and not paper towels. Paper towels may absorb water in the aggregate
pores.

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3.8. INTER RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECIFIC GRAVITIES

AND WATER ABSORPTION:
 Ss = (1 + A/100)Sd
 Sa = 1/(Sd – A/100) = Sd/(1 – Asd/100)
 A = (Ss/Sd – 1)*100 = [Sa – Ss/Sa(Ss -1)] x 100

FIGURE 3.13.

3.9. COMMENTS:
Specific gravities of our samples came out to be 2.632 which lies in the
general range of specific gravity values. Water absorption value of our sample comes out to be
0.2379, Value ranges from 0.1 – 2.0% for aggregate normally used in roads surfaces. So our sample
cannot be used in road surfaces whereas aggregates with water absorption up to 4.0% are
acceptable in base coarse. So our sample can be used as base coarse.

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ExPErImEnt no.4
TITLE:
LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST ON AGGREGATE:

4.1. OBJECTIVE:
Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates.
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to relative rubbing
action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive charge.

4.2. APPARATUS REQUIRED:

4.2.1. BALANCE:
Balance should be accurate up to 1 g.
4.2.2. SIEVES:
Sieves required are 80, 63, 50, 40, 25, 20, 12.5, 10, 6.3, 4.75 (as per gradation of
aggregate) and 1.7 mm.
4.2.3. LOS ANGELES TESTING MACHINE:

Inside Length = 50 cm and Inside Diameter = 70 cm.

4.2.4. ABRASIVE CHARGES:

Diameter = 48 mm and Weight = 390 to 445 g

4.3. REFERENCE:
 IS 2386(Part 4):1963 Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete- Mechanical Properties.
Reaffirmed-Dec 2016

4.4. PROCEDURE:
4.4.1. GRADATION OF AGGREGATE:
Gradation of the Aggregate should be carried out so
as to assess the Grade of the Aggregate (A to G).

TABLE 4.1: GRADATION OF AGGREGATE

SIEVE SIZE WEIGHT IN GM. OF TEST SAMPLE FOR GRADE

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PASSING RETAINED A B C D 1 2 3
(mm) ON (mm)
80 63 2500± 50
63 50 2500± 50
50 40 5000± 50 5000± 50
40 25 1250± 25 5000± 25 5000± 25
25 20 1250± 25 5000± 25
20 12.5 1250± 10 2500± 10
12.5 10 1250± 10 2500± 10
10 6.3 2500± 10
6.3 4.75 2500± 10
4.75 2.36 5000± 10

4.4.2. PROCEDURE FOR LOS ANGELES ABRASION TEST:

 The test sample shall consist of clean aggregate which has been dried in an oven at 105 to
110°C to substantially constant weight and shall conform to one of the grading shown in Table
4.1. The grading used shall be those most nearly representing the aggregate furnished for the
work.
 The test sample and the abrasive charge shall be placed in the Los Angeles abrasion testing
machine and the machine rotated at a speed of 20 to 33 rev/min. For grading A, B, C and D,
the machine shall be rotated for 500 revolutions; for grading E, F and G, it shall be rotated for
1000 revolutions as mentioned in Table 4.2.

TABLE 4.2: NUMBER OF CHARGES AS PER GRADING OF AGGREGATE

GRADING NO. OF NUMBER OF WEIGHT OF

REVOLUTIONS SPHERES CHARGE (g)
A 12 5000 ± 25
B 11 4584 ± 25
500
C 8 3330 ± 20
D 6 2500 ± 15
1 12 5000 ± 25
2 1000 12 5000 ± 25
3 12 5000 ± 25

 The machine shall be so driven and so counter-balanced as to maintain a substantially uniform

peripheral speed. If an angle is used as the shelf, the machine shall be rotated in such a direction
that the charge is caught on outside surface of the angle.
 At the completion of the test, the material shall be discharged from the machine and a
preliminary separation of the sample made on a sieve coarser than the l.70 mm IS Sieve.

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 The material coarser than the 1.70 mm IS Sieve shall be washed dried in an oven at 105 to
110°C to a substantially constant weight, and accurately weighed to the nearest gram (B).

4.4. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

The difference between the original weight and the final weight of the test sample is expressed as
a percentage of the original weight of the test sample. This value is reported as the percentage of
wear.

Aggregate Abrasion Value = ((A-B)/A) X 100

Where,

A = Weight in gram of oven-dried sample.

B = Weight in gram of fraction retained on 1.70 mm IS Sieves after washing and oven-dried up
to constant weight.

 Grading used for the Test = 1

 Number of Abrasive Charges used = 12
 Original Weight of the Sample, A (grams) = 10000 g
 No. of Revolutions = 1000 rpm
 Final Weight after Test (retained on sieve # 12), B (grams) = 8471 g

𝐎𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 – 𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭

LOS ANGELES Abrasion Value = x 100
𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭

= ((10000-8471)/ 8471) x 100

LOS ANGELES Abrasion Value = 18

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ExPErImEnt no.5
TITLE:

MEASURING SURFACE FRICTIONAL PROPERTIES USING

BRITISH PENDULUM SKID RESISTANCE TESTER.

5.1. RELATED THEORY:

5.1.1. SKID RESISTANCE:
The British Pendulum Skid Resistance Tester is an impact type
pendulum used to measure the energy loss when a rubber slider edge is propelled over a test
surface.

FIGURE 5.1.

The values measured represent the frictional properties and are expressed as BPN (British
Pendulum Number).

5.1.2. SKIDDING:
In skidding phenomenon, the distance travelled by wheel on the road is more
than the circumferential movement. When brakes are applied, wheels get locked and still if the
vehicle moves ahead, longitudinal skidding is said to occur.

5.1.3. SLIPPING:
In slipping, the distance traveled by wheel on the road is less than the
circumferential movement. If the wheels of the vehicle are rotating but the vehicle is not moving
forward, then slipping is said to occur. Skid Resistance

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5.1.4. MEASUREMENT OF TEXTURE DEPTH:

It is also necessary to record the surface
texture of the road surface tested. This is measured by Sand Patch Method.

FIGURE 5.2.

A known volume of fine sand of uniform particle size is poured on the road and spread to form a
patch of a regular shape so that its area couldn’t be measured. Sand should be spread in such a
manner that all “valleys” are filled to level of “peaks”. Then the texture depth can be computed by
using the formula;

FIGURE 5.3.

TEXTURE DEPTH = VOLUME OF SAND / AREA OF PATCH

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TABLE 5.1:

ROAD SURFACE TEXTURE TEXTURE DEPTH

Coarse/Open Texture ≥ 0.02”
Medium Texture 0.02” – 0.01”
Fine Texture ≤ 0.01”

More the texture depth, better is the road surface but a high value of texture depth also increases
the chances of severe injuries. Skid Resistance

5.1.5. SCOPE & SIGNIFICANCE:

Friction between vehicle and road surface plays a vital role
in determining the:

FIGURE 5.4.

 Maximum operating speed and the distance required in safely stopping the vehicles.
 Road pavements are designed to provide reasonably high coefficient of friction but with the
movement of traffic, the aggregates in the wearing coarse of the road get polished resulting in
reduction of the frictional or skid resistance of the road. Skid Resistance
 British Pendulum Tester is used to measure the frictional resistance of road at sections which
appear to be potentially slippery and unsafe against skidding.

FIGURE 5.5.

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 British Pendulum Tester is used for field and laboratory tests.

FIGURE 5.6.

5.1.6. FACTORS AFFECTING SKIDDING RESISTANCE:

 Condition of Tires – Vehicles having smooth tires would have slightly lower skidding
resistance.

FIGURE 5.7.

 Effect of Road Temperature – Skidding resistance of wet roads is higher in winter than in
summer. Skidding resistance of roads is at its lowest between April and September. So roads
with satisfactory values in winter may prove slippery during summer.

Skid Resistance

 Effect of Water – Skidding resistance is lower on wet than on dry pavements. Skid Resistance

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FIGURE 5.8.

 Type of Aggregate – sand stones and granites are more resistant to polishing action than
limestone.

FIGURE 5.9.

Higher the skid-resistance results, better is the road surface but a high value of skid-resistance also
increases the chances of severe injuries.

5.2. APPARATUS:

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5.2.1. PARTS:

 Slider – Slider assembly consists of an aluminum backing plate to which a rubber strip 3’’ x
1’’ x ¼’’ is bonded.
 Leveling screws
 Scale
 Drag pointer
 Locking and control knobs
 Frictional rings

5.2.2. ACCESSORIES:

 Contact path gauge – shall consist of a thin ruler suitably marked for measuring contact path
length between (4 7/8’’ and 5’’).
 Water container
 Surface thermometer and
 Brush

FIGURE 5.10.

5.3. PREPARATION OF APPARATUS:

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5.3.1. LEVELING:
Apparatus is levelled using 3 levelling screws until the bubble is centered in
the spirit level.

5.3.2. ZERO ADJUSTMENT:

Raise the pendulum mechanism by loosening locking knob, till it
swings free of test surface. Tighten the knob. Place pendulum in release position and drag pointer
in horizontal position and drag pointer in horizontal position. Execute a free swing and note the
pointer reading. If reading is not zero; make adjustment by friction ring until pendulum swing
carries the pointer to zero. Skid Resistance

5.3.3. SLIDE LENGTH ADJUSTMENT:

It is done with pendulum hanging free, place spacer
under adjusting screw of lifting handle and allow pendulum to move slowly to the left until the
edge of the slider touches the surface. Place gauge beside slider and parallel to the direction of
swing to verify the length of contact path which should be between (4 7/8’’ and 5’’) on flat surfaces
as measured from trailing edge to trailing edge of the rubber slider. Skid Resistance
Place pendulum in release position and rotate drag pointer counter clockwise until it comes to
original position.
Inspect the road and choose the section to be tested. Set the apparatus so that the slider swings in
the direction of traffic.

5.4. PROCEDURE:
 Apply sufficient water to cover the test area thoroughly. Execute one swing but don’t record
reading.
 Make four more swings, rewetting the test area each time and record the results. The readings
should not differ by more than 3 units. Skid Resistance
 Report the individual values as B.P.N. also note down the age, condition, texture and location
of test area.

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FIGURE 5.11.

TABLE 5.2:

CATEGORY TYPE OF SITE ‘SKID STANDARD OF SKIDDING

RESISTANCE’ ON RESISTANCE
WET SURFACE REPRESENTED
A Most difficult sites such as; Above 65 ‘Good’: fulfilling the
i)- Roundabouts requirements even of fast traffic,
ii)- Bends with radius and making it most unlikely that
less than 500 ft on the road will be the scene of
derestricted roads. repeated accidents.
iii)- Gradients, 1 in 20 or
steeper, of length greater
than 100 yd.
iv)- Approach to traffic
lights on derestricted roads.
B* General requirements, i.e. Above 55 ‘Generally Satisfactory’:
roads and conditions not meeting all but the most difficult
covered by categories A & conditions encountered on the
C. roads.
C* Easy sites, e.g. straight Above 45 ‘Satisfactory only in favorable
roads, with easy gradients circumstances.’
and curves, without
junctions, and free from any
features, such as mixed
traffic, especially liable to
create conditions of
emergency.
D All sites Below 45 ‘Potentially Slippery’

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* On smooth-looking or fine-textured roads in these categories, vehicles having smooth tyres may
not find skid-resistance adequate. For such road accident studies should also be made to ensure
that there are no indications of difficulties due to skidding under wet conditions.

5.5. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS:

5.5.1. TEXTURE DEPTH:

TABLE 5.3:

Group Dimensions of AREA Volume of Texture Depth

Patch (cm2) Sand (cm) (inches)
(cm x cm) (ml = cm3)
1 19.5 x 28.5 555.75 50 0.08996 0.0354
2 25.67x 20.67 530.513 50 0.09424 0.0371

5.5.2. BRITISH PENDULUM NUMBER:

TABLE 5.4:

Group Date Surface Skid- Mean

Texture Resistance (BPN)
(in) (BPN)
1 03/10/2019 0.0354 73,73,72,73 72.75
2 02/10/2019 0.0371 67,69,69,68 68.25

5.6. COMMENTS:
After performing the experiment and calculating the surface texture it
is concluded that the road surface texture on which we performed the experiment was
Coarse/Open Textured surface for both the groups & the standard of skid resistance for both 1 st
and 2nd group came out to be Good.

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ExPErImEnt no.6
TITLE:

FLASH & FIRE POINT TEST FOR ASPHALT BY CLEVELAND

OPEN CUP:

6.1. RELATED THEORY:

6.1.1. FLASH POINT:

FIGURE 6.1.

Flash point is the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric pressure of 101.3 kPa (760 mm
Hg), at which application of a test flame causes the vapor of a specimen to ignite under specified
conditions of test. The material is deemed to have flashed when a large flame appears and
instantaneously propagates itself over the surface of the specimen.

NOTE:
Occasionally, particularly near the actual flash point, the application of test flame will
cause the blue halo or an enlarged flame; this is not a flash and should be ignored.

6.1.2. FIRE POINT: Fire Point

It is the lowest temperature at which a specimen will sustain burning for 5
seconds. A flammable material is the one, which form flames, but does not sustain fire while a
combustible material is the one, which sustains fire/burning.

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6.1.3. SOURCES OF BITUMEN:

Bitumen is generally obtained from the following three
sources;

 Naturally occurring (in West Indies).

 Extracted from Limestone and Sandstone (procedure adopted in USA).
 From Oil Refineries (this is the major source of bitumen in Pakistan).

6.1.4. ASPHALT CEMENT (AC):

Asphalt Cement shall be oil asphalt or a mixture of refined
liquid asphalt and refined solid asphalt, prepared from crude asphaltic petroleum. It shall be free
from admixture with any residues obtained by the artificial distillation of coal, coal tar or paraffin
and shall be homogeneous and free from water. Fir

TABLE 6.1: e Point

Temperature Condition * Asphalt

Grade
Cold, mean annual air AC-10
temperature < 7 °C (45 °F) AR-4000
80 / 100 pen
Warm, mean annual air AC-20
temperature between 7 °C (45 AR-8000
°F) and 24 °C (75 °F) 60 / 70 pen
Hot, mean annual air AC-40
temperature > 24 °C (75 °F) AR-8000
40 / 50 pen

6.1.5. SCOPE & SIGNIFICANCE:

 Flash point measures the tendency of the sample to form a flammable mixture with air under
controlled laboratory conditions. It is only one of a number of properties that must be
considered in assessing the overall flammability hazard of a material.
 Flash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to differentiate between ‘‘flammable’’
and ‘‘combustible’’ materials.
 Flash point can indicate the possible presence of highly volatile and flammable materials in a
relatively nonvolatile or nonflammable material.
 Fire point measures the characteristics of the sample to support combustion.
 Bituminous materials give rise to volatiles at high temperature, as they are basically the
hydrocarbons. These volatiles catch fire causing a flash, which is very hazardous.
 During construction of bituminous pavements, the engineer may restrict the mixing or
application temperatures well within the limits. The test therefore gives indication of critical
temperature at and above which suitable precautions should be taken to eliminate fire hazards

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during use of asphalts. In other words heating should be limited to a temperature well below
the flash point.

6.2. APPARATUS:

FIGURE 6.2.

6.2.1. CLEVELAND CUP APPARATUS:

It consists of test cup, heating plate, test flame
applicator, heater, thermometer support and heating plate support, all conforming to the following
requirements.

Test Cup:
It is made of brass. The cup may be equipped with a handle.

Heating Plate:
A brass, cast iron, wrought iron, or steel plate with a center hole surrounded by an
area of plane depression, and a sheet of hard asbestos board which covers the metal plate except
over the area of plane depression in which the test cup is supported. The metal plate may be square
instead of round and have suitable extension for mounting the test flame applicator device and the
thermometer support. The metal bead is mounted on the plate so that it extends through and slightly
above a small hole in the asbestos board.

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FIGURE 6.3.

Test Flame Applicator:

The device for applying the test flame may be of any suitable design, but
the tip shall be 1.6 to 5.0 mm in diameter at the end and the orifice shall have an approximate
diameter of 0.8 mm. The device for applying the test flame shall be so mounted to permit automatic
duplication of the sweep of the test flame, the radius of swing being not less than 150 mm and the
center of the orifice moving’ in a plane not more than 2.5 mm above the cup. A bead having a
diameter of 3.8 to 5.4 mm may be mounted in a convenient position on the apparatus so the size
of the test flame can be compared to it. Fire Point

Heater:
Heat may be supplied from any convenient source. The use of a gas burner or alcohol lamp
is permitted, but under no circumstances are products of combustion or free flame to be allowed
to come up around the cup. An electric heater controlled by a variable voltage transformer is
preferred. The source of heat shall be centered under the opening of the heating plate with no local
superheating.

Thermometer Support:
A device which will hold the thermometer in the specified position during
a test and permits easy removal of the thermometer from the test cup upon completion of a test.

Heating Plate Support:

Any convenient support which will hold the heating plate level and steady
may be employed. Fire Point

6.2.2. SHIELD:
A shield having an area of 460mm2 and 610mm high and having an open front is
used.

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6.2.3. THERMOMETER:
A thermometer having the required range. Fire Point

6.3. PREPARATION OF APPARATUS:

Support the apparatus on a level table.
Shield the top of the apparatus from strong intensity of light by any suitable means to permit ready
detection of the flash point. Fire Point

Wash the test cup with an appropriate solvent to remove any oil or traces of gum or residue
remaining from a previous test. If any deposits of carbon are present, they should be removed with
steel wool. Flush the cup with cold water and dry for a few minutes over an open flame, on a hot
plate, or in an oven to remove the last traces of solvent and water. Cool the cup to at least 56 °C
below the expected flash point before using.

Support the thermometer in a vertical position with the bottom of the bulb 6.4 mm from the bottom
of the cup and located at a point halfway between the center and side of the cup on the diameter
perpendicular to the line of the sweep of the test flame and on the side opposite to the test flame
burner arm. Fire Point

6.4. PROCEDURE:
 Fill the cup; at any convenient temperature not exceeding 100 °C or above the softening point;
so that the top of the meniscus is at the filling line.
 Remove the excess sample using a pipette or other suitable device; however, if there is sample
on the outside of the apparatus, empty, clean, and refill it. Destroy any air bubbles on the
surface of the sample.
 Lit the test flame and adjust it to a diameter of 3.8 to 5.4 mm.
 Apply heat initially so that the rate of temperature rise of the sample is 14 to 17 °C per minute.
When the sample temperature is approximately 56 °C below the anticipated flash point,
decrease the heat so that the rate of temperature rise for 28°C before the flash point is 5 to 6°C
per minute.
 Starting at least 28 °C below the flash point, apply the test flame when the temperature read
on the thermometer reaches each successive 2 °C mark. Pass the test flame across the center
of the cup, at right angles to the diameter, which passes through the thermometer. With a
smooth, continuous motion apply the flame either in a straight line or along the circumference
of a circle having a radius of at least 150 mm. The center of the test flame must move in a plane
not more than 2.5 mm above the plane of the upper edge of the cup passing in one direction
first, then in the opposite direction the next lime. The time consumed in passing the test flame
across the cup shall be about one second (1 s.). During the last 17 °C rise in temperature prior
to the flash point, care must be taken to avoid disturbing the vapors in the test cup by careless
movements or bathing near the cup.
 Record as the observed flash point the temperature read on the thermometer when a flash
appears at any point on the surface of the material, but does not confuse the true flash with the
bluish halo that sometimes surrounds the test flame.
 To determine the fire point, continue heating so that the sample temperature increases at a rate
of 5 to 6 °C. Continue the application of the test flame at 2°C intervals until the oil ignites and
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continues to burn for at least 5 second. Record the temperature at the point as the fire point of
the oil.

6.5. PRECAUTIONS:
 Do not breathe close to the apparatus as the fumes are injurious to health.
 Turn the fans off so that the fumes can be accumulated over the cup.
 Tip of the thermometer should not touch the bottom or sides of the cup.
 The operator must exercise and take appropriate safety precautions during the initial
application of the test flame, since samples containing low flash material may give an
abnormally strong flash when the test flame is first applied.

6.6. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Observe and record the barometric pressure at the time of the test. When the pressure differs from
760 mm Hg, correct the flash or fire point, or both, by means of the following equations:

Corrected flash or fire point, or both = C + 0.03 (760 — P)

Where:

C = observed flash or fire point, or both, to the nearest 2 °C, and

P = Barometric pressure, mm Hg.

Record the corrected flash or fire joint value, or both, to the nearest 5 °C or 2°C.

TABLE 6.2: FLASH POINT OF DIFFERENT GRADES OF ASPHALT

Property AC – 2.5 AC – 5 AC – 10 AC – 20 AC – 40
Flash Point COC, 163 177 219 232 232
°C min.

NOTE:
AC – 10 is most commonly used in Pakistan.

TABLE 6.3:

Time Temperature Remarks

(minutes) (°C)
0 32
1 45
2 58

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3 72
3:30 76 Flumes
4 80
5 118
6 160
7 196
8 220
9 240
10 261
11 280
12 298
12:42 302 Flash
Point
13 312
14 326
15 338
15:28 342
16 350 Fire
Point

FIGURE 6.4.

6.7. COMMENTS:

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The Experiment has been performed successfully and the results which
we have got are showing that the flash point of the bitumen sample came out to be at 308 ◦ and time
corresponding to this temperature was 9.12 minutes. Whereas the fire point was found out to be at
temperature of 352◦ and the time corresponding to this temperature was 24.25 minutes. The trend
line of the graph is showing the relationship between temperature and time.

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ExPErImEnt no. 7
TITLE:

PENETRATION TEST ON BITUMINOUS MATERIALS.

ASTM DESIGNATION: D 5-97

7.1. RELATED THEORY:

7.1.1. PENETRATION:
Consistency of a bituminous material expressed as the distance in tenths
of a millimeter that a standard needle vertically penetrates a sample of the material under known
conditions of loading, time, and temperature.

7.1.2. SOURCES OF BITUMEN:

FIGURE 7.1.

Bitumen is generally obtained from the following three sources;

 Naturally occurring (in West Indies)

 Extracted from Limestone and Sandstone (procedure adopted in USA).
 From Oil Refineries (this is the major source of bitumen in Pakistan).

7.1.3. GRADES OF BITUMEN:

Bitumen is usually characterized in the following three types of
grades;

 Viscosity grades
 Penetration grades
 Density grades

7.1.4. SCOPE & SIGNIFICANCE:

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 The penetration test is used as a measure of consistency. Higher values of penetration indicate
softer consistency.
 The test is widely used all over the world for classifying bituminous materials into different
grades.
 Depending upon the climatic conditions and type of construction, bitumen of different
penetration grade are used. Commonly used grades are 30/40, 60/70 and 80/100.
 In warmer regions, lower penetration grades are preferred and in colder regions bitumen with
higher penetration values are used.
 The test is not intended to estimate consistency of softer materials like cut back which are
usually graded by viscosity test.

7.2. APPARATUS:

FIGURE 7.2.

7.2.1. PENETRATION APPARATUS:

Any apparatus that permits the needle holder (spindle) to
move vertically without measurable friction and is capable of indicating the depth of penetration
to the nearest 0.1 mm, will be acceptable. The weight of the spindle shall be 47.5 ± 0.05 gram. The
total weight of the needle and spindle assembly shall be 50.0 ±0.05 grams. Weights of 50 ± 0.05
grams and 100 ± 0.05 grams shall also be provided for total loads of 100 gram and 200 gram, as
required for some conditions of the test. The surface on which the sample container rests shall be
flat and the axis of the plunger shall be at approximately 90° to this surface. The spindle shall be
easily detached for checking its weight.

7.2.2. PENETRATION NEEDLE:

The needle shall be made from fully hardened and tapered
stainless steel. The standard needle shall be approximately 50 mm in length. The diameter of
needle shall be 1.00 to 1.02 mm. It shall be symmetrically tapered at one end by grinding to a cone
having an angle between 8.7° and 9.7° over the entire cone length. The cone should be coaxial

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with the straight body of the needle. The truncated tip of the cone shall be within the diameter
limits of 0.14 and 0.16 mm and square to the needle axis within 2°. The needle shall he mounted
in a non-corroding metal ferrule. The exposed length of the standard needle shall be within the
limits of 40 and 45 mm and the exposed length of the long needle shall be 50 to 55 mm. The
needle shall be rigidly mounted in the ferrule. The weight of the ferrule needle assembly should
be 2.50 ± 0.05 grams.

7.2.3. SAMPLE CONTAINER:

A metal or glass cylindrical, flat-bottom container of the
following dimensions shall be used.

TABLE 7.1:

7.2.4. WATER BATH:

A bath having a capacity of at least 10 Liter and capable of maintaining a
temperature of 25 ± 0.1 °C or other temperature of test within 0.1 °C.

7.2.5. TIMING DEVICE:

For hand operated Penetrometers any convenient timing device such as
an electric timer, a stop watch, or other spring activated device may be used provided it is
graduated in 0.1 second or less and is accurate to within ± 0.1 second for a 60 second interval.

7.2.6. THERMOMETERS:
Calibrated liquid-in-glass thermometers of suitable range with
subdivisions and maximum scale error of 0.1 °C or any other thermometric device of equal
accuracy, precision and sensitivity shall be used.

7.3. PREPARATION OF TEST SPECIMEN:

Heat the sample with care,
stirring when possible to prevent local overheating, until it has become sufficiently fluid to pour.
In no case should the temperature be raised to more than 90 °C above expected softening point for
petroleum asphalt (bitumen). Do not heat samples for more than 30 minutes. Avoid incorporating
bubbles into the sample.

Pour the sample into the sample container to a depth such that, when cooled to the temperature of
test, the depth of the sample is at least 10 mm greater than the depth to which the needle is expected
to penetrate. Pour two separate portions for each variation in test conditions.

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Loosely cover each container as a protection against dust (covering with a lipped beaker) and allow
cooling in air at a temperature between 15° and 30 °C for 1 to 1.5 hours for the small container
and 1.5 to 2 hours for the taller.

7.4. TEST CONDITIONS:

Where the conditions of test are not specifically mentioned,
the temperature, load, and time are understood to be 25 °C, 100 gram, and 5 seconds, respectively.
Other conditions may be used for special testing, such as the following:

TABLE 7.2:

In such cases the specific conditions of test shall be reported.

7.5. OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS:

Report to nearest whole unit the average of three penetrations whose values do not differ by more
than the following:

TABLE 7.3:

7.6. PROCEDURE:

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FIGURE 7.3.

Examine the needle holder and guide to establish the absence of water and other extraneous
materials. Clean a penetration needle with toluene or other suitable solvent, dry with a clean
cloth, and insert the needle into the penetrometer. Unless otherwise specified place the 50 gram
weight above the needle, making the total weight 100 ± 0.1 gram. Place the sample container in
the transfer dish, cover the container completely with water with the constant temperature bath and
place the transfer dish on the stand of the penetrometer.

Position the needle by slowly lowering it until its tip just makes contact with the surface of the
sample. This is accomplished by bringing the actual needle tip into contact with its image reflected
on the surface of the sample from a properly placed source of light. Either note the reading of the
penetrometer dial or bring the pointer to zero. Quickly release the needle holder for the specified
period of time and adjust the instrument to measure the distance penetrated in tenths of a
millimeter. If the container moves, ignore the result.

Make at least three determinations at points on the surface of the sample not less than 10 mm from
the side of the container and not less than 10 mm apart. If the transfer dish is used, return the
sample and transfer dish to the constant temperature bath between determinations. Use a clean
needle for each determination. If the penetration is greater than 200, use at least three needles
leaving them in the sample until the three determinations have been completed.

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FIGURE 7.4.

TABLE 7.4:

SAMPLE PENETRATION
NO. READINGS MEAN
61
64
1 63.5
63
66

7.7. COMMENTS:
The experiment has been performed successfully and the mean
penetration value came out to be 79.33. According to the tables the values ranging from 50 to 149
should have difference of maximum 4. In our case the difference is = 80-79 = 1 which is lesser
then 4 so our performed experiment and the penetration value is correct. We performed the
experiment at room temperature.

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