Stainless Steel Manufacturing

Dr. Santanu Ray

 Stainless Steel Process Flow for flat products

Slab Caster

UHP EAF Ladle

Raw VOD Convertor Refining
Materials AOD Convertor

Bloom Caster

Hot Rolled Coils

Grinding Reheat Furnace Descaling Roughing mill Steckel Mill

Slab

Blooms
Hot Rolled
Grinding Reheat Furnace Descaling Roughing mill Tandem Mill Coils
 Stainless Steel Process Flow for Long Products
Bars+Billets
Mill
Wire Rod
EAF/IF AOD Ladle Wire Continuous Reheating Roughing Mill
Injection Casting with/ Stand
without EMS Section
Mill

VOD
Austenitic,Ferritic,Martensitic,Duplex, Precipitation Hardening Stainless Varieties

Applications
Bright Bar Reinforcement bars Wire&Wire rod
Round Bar

Welded/Seamless
Bolts pipe/tube Nuts Tubes and Pipes
Flanges
 Stainless Steelmaking in EAF
❖ Until 1970 bulk of S S was manufactured via EAF:
Decarburisation by lancing the bath with pure Oxygen.
•Less Cr in Charge Mix Silicon
added to revert half of oxidized Cr
•Expensive Low Carbon Ferro Chrome added
A
DISADVANTAGES
Less SS scrap usage
High refractory cost
•Expensive Low Carbon Ferro Chrome additions
•Poor Cr yield
•Long process time : up to 8 hours.

•It was the only way to make stainless steel

 Optimum Furnace Size

✔Diameter of the Furnace depends upon the effect of arcing on furnace wall
✔Optimised furnace diameter limits wear of furnace refractory & effect of
arc on wall.
✔Computation optimises size
 AOD ( Argon Oxygen Decarburiser )
AOD Converters are Side Blown(2-8 tuyeres)
Centre tube is made of Copper and
outer tube is of Stainless Steel
Mixture of O2 and either Ar or N2 is
blown through centre tube ,
Ar or N2 through outer tube
Modern AOD has top lance
[ 1.0-1.5 Nm3/min/MT flow of oxygen ]
Top lance can be operated in two ways :
Hard Blowing or Soft Blowing
 Decarburisation in VOD or AOD
Decarburisation : [ C ] + [ O ] = CO ( gas )
Equilibrium relation [ hc ] [ ho ] = K pco
•Reaction favourable at low partial pressure of CO
-Use of vacuum ( VOD ) or Argon ( AOD ) useful
-Theoratically it is possible to bring down [ C ]
from 0.05 % ( 500 ppm ) to 20 ppm
 AOD Process
FLUX ADDITIONS
•AOD refractory lining is basic
•Sufficient dolomite should be added for DUAL
saturation of slag
•Slag basicity ratio (CaO /SiO2) of 1.8 :1 is desirable to
protect lining.
DECARBURISATION

•C removal starts after Al and Si oxidation

•Top lance is used till C is reduced to ~ 0.4%
 Desulphurisation in AOD Process

Bath has to be deoxidised and at higher temperature

Double slag practice for low S grades
Slag should have a high dissolved lime content i.e.
high sulphide capacity (Cs)
Slag should be liquid & fluid
Total reducible oxides in the slag, i.e Cr2O3, MnO,
FeO etc, should be low < 2 %
Kinetics of mass transfer at slag/metal interface
 Important Issues
To prevent reoxidation and P reversal in liquid steel
• Carryover of slag ( > 20 % FeO ) from primary furnace
towards end of tapping has to be restricted
( FeO ) + [ Al ] = Al2O3 , ( P2O5 ) + [ Al ] = [ P ] + Al2O3

Decrease in dissolved Al will increase

dissolved O in liquid steel
•Use of effective Slag Stopper is essential
•Basic slag and basic refractory lining essential
•Adequate time required to allow Al2O3 to float up
LRF ( Ladle Refining Furnace )
Electrode
Arms
Alloy addition
port

Electrodes Electrode
Masts

Mast
Support
Furnace Roof

Tapped steel
LF Station
in the ladle

Stirring
bubbles

Ladle
Car
 Ladle Furnace
AIM

•Temperature control
•Thermal and Chemical
homogenisation
•Precise alloying

PRODUCTION EFFICIENCY

•Cycle difference between the melting unit and the

casting facility can be easily be accommodated
•Increased availability in the melting unit
•Increased proportion of sequence casting
•Reduced overall idle time for the melting process
•Use of process models for process control
•Increased number of on-target heats
 Deoxidation
Reaction represented as x [ M ] + y [ O ] = ( MxOy )
M is any deoxidiser : Mn , Si , Al , Ca
MxOy is deoxidation product : MnO , SiO2 , Al2O3 , CaO
Equilibrium constant KM/ = a MO / ( hM )x ( h )y
o
Assuming deox product as pure oxide , a MO = 1
M and O content in liquid steel being very low ,
Assuming Henry’s law for dilute solution , h = weight %
(WM)x (WO)y = 1 / KM/ = KM , known as deox constant
 Relative Deoxidation Ability
( wt % M )X ( wt % O )Y = KM , constant for a
temperature
At 1600 C , values of K for common deoxidisers
Mn : 0.2 – 0.3 , Si : 2 x 10-5 , Al : 3 x 10-14 , Ca : 10-12
Using the same amount of deoxidiser , soluble O
will be very low for Ca and Al , moderate for Si ,
but high for Mn
Therefore , of the common available elements ,
Al has been extensively used as Strong
Deoxidiser
 Stages of Deoxidation
• Addition and dissolution of deoxidiser Al in
liquid steel
• Chemical reaction between dissolved O and Al
• Nucleation and initial growth of Al2O3 particles
At this stage dissolved O and Al are low ,
but Al2O3 is high
Removal of Al2O3 from liquid steel is necessary to
enhance oxide cleanliness and thereby reducing total O
Further growth of Al2O3 by agglomeration , floating
up , and subsequent absorption by basic slag take
time
Floatation and Consumption of Al-oxide
 Desulphurisation
• High CaO in Secondary Refining slag is essential
• Low O in liquid steel i.e. good deoxidation is essential
Slag – metal reaction ( CaO ) + [ S ] = ( CaS ) + [ O ]
Equilibrium constant K/ = a CaS * h O / a CaO * h S

Assuming activity of CaS and CaO in slag related

to weight % of S and CaO , and Henrian
activity of S and O in liquid steel related to
their weight % in liquid steel
Sulphide Capacity L S = ( WS ) / [ WS ] = K ( WCaO ) / [ WO ]
VOD ( Vacuum Oxygen Decarburisation )
PROCESS
•Based on readily formation of CO bubbles at lower pressures
•Start Carbons can be up to 0.8 % but typically 0.3 –0.4%.

ADVANTAGES
•Low C (0.003 –0.005%) & N2 (0.006 –0.007%) can be achieved

DISADVANTAGES
•Triplex route is slow
•Overall refractory consumption high
•Not much flexibility with start conditions
Removal of H and N by Vacuum Degassing
• [ H ] = ½ H2 ( g ) [ hH ] = KH pH21/2
• [ N ] = ½ N2 ( g ) [ hN ] = KN pN21/2
These relations indicate that soluble [ H ] and [ N ] in
liquid steel will be low under vacuum , and it is possible
to find out theoretical solubility at different pressure
from the K values at any temperature
At 1600 C and normal atmospheric pressure ( 760 mm Hg )
[ H ] ~ 5 ppm , [ N ] ~ 50 ppm
[ H ] ~ 1 ppm , [ N ] ~ 15 ppm at 1 torr ( 1 mm Hg )
 Difficulty in Degassing of N
• In reality actual and theoretical [ H ] almost equal
• N removal ( only 30 % ) difficult because of slow kinetics
Rate controlled by all the three steps
• Mass transfer of [ N ] in liquid steel
• Slow surface chemical reaction
• Mass transfer of N2 in the gas phase
Surface-active O and S in liquid steel retard N degassing
Control of O and S essential for efficient removal of N
 Continuous Casting

Strand Electro Magnetic

Stirrer(SEMS)

2.Slab Caster with SEMS

Mould Electro Magnetic

1.Continuous slab caster without EMS Stirrer(MEMS)

Final Electro Magnetic

Stirrer(FEMS)

3.Bloom Caster with MEMS+FEMS

Layout of Ladle , Tundish and Mould
 Cleanliness Measures during Casting

Prevention of reoxidation and renitrogenation

during transfer of liquid steel from ladle to tundish
and to mould

Additional control measures in tundish and mould

for ensuring prevention of exogenous
entrapments and further improvement in oxide
cleanliness
 DISTRIBUTION OF ENTRAPMENTS IN CASTING
❑ Start of Casting
• Reoxidation products at subsurface and interior
• Tundish slag at interior
❑ Steady-state Casting
• Normal deoxidation products at subsurface
• Mould slag at interior
❑ Ladle Changeover
• Ladle slag at subsurface and interior
❑ End of Casting
• Ladle and tundish slags at interior
• Reoxidation products at subsurface
❑ Sudden change in meniscus level or speed
• Mould slag or powder at subsurface

More defects corresponding to non-steady state casting

Effect of reoxidation owing to absence of shroud or argon
on incidence of lamination defect and total oxygen content
 Surface and Internal Quality
in Continuously Cast Product

• Types of defects
• Influence of chemistry on solidification
• Role of segregation during solidification
• Strength and ductility of solidifying shell
• Cast structure : size and distribution of
dendrites
• Influence of casting parameters
 IMPERFECTIONS IN CAST PRODUCT
Blow hole and pin hole result from high gas content
( O, H, N)
Crack, depression, oscillation marks and segregation
influenced by Casting process
Speed & superheat, Powder characteristics : mould heat transfer
Mould lubrication Mould oscillation & setting
Secondary cooling SEN configuration & submergence
Specific steel grade
• Solidification characteristics : δ or ϒ
• Sticking or depression tendency
• High-temperature strength and ductility
• Trace elements ( S , P , B , Al , N )
Caster type & alignment
• Magnitude and distribution of strain
 Blow Holes and Pin Holes
Relatively high content of soluble O , N and H responsible
Adequate deoxidation and degassing are essential
With progress of casting, content of solute O, C, N, H in
remaining liquid steel increases due to segregation, and
partial pressure of CO , N2 and H2 consequently increase .
[HH] = KH ( pH2 )½ , [HN] = KN ( pN2 )1/2 , [HC] [HO] = KCO pCO
It is possible to calculate pH2 , pN2 and pCO from
above relations
Total sum Ptotal = pH2 + pN2 + pCO is important
Gas bubbles form , if Ptotal > Patm + Pferro
 Flow in Meniscus Oscillation Mark
mould
 Vc : strand velocity
Vm : mould velocity
m d : mould position

tn : negative strip time for Vm > Vc

Mould Oscillation
t p : positive strip time Cycle
Mould
Cyclefrequency
time = n + tf p ( cycle / min )
Mould stroke S ( mm )
 Influence of mould
oscillation and heat
transfer on OM

tn is negative strip
time : cycle time for
Vm < V c

Deep OM related to high

tn
Depth of Oscillation Mark increases with Negative
Strip
 Effect of Parameters on Oscillation Mark Depth

Oscillation marks form and become more deep

during Negative Strip Time tn
• Increase in tn results in deep oscillation marks
tn = ( 60 / π f ) arc cos ( Vc / π S f )
Vc is casting speed , S is oscillation stroke , f is frequency

tn is low , when Vc and f are high , but S is small

Effect of Chemistry on Solidification Mode
of Different Stainless Steels
 Bulging Strain ~ F / σ SA2
Contraction Strain = Thermal + Transformation
Thermal Strain ~ β (TSA – T 0)
δ -> γ transformation in temp. range fs = 0.9 to 1.0

depression

bulging bulging
 Schematic of Austenite Grain Structure in Solid Shell
Cast grain size is finer for higher rate of solidification
⇒ High heat transfer in mould
⇒ Grades with sticking tendency
Final grain size largely influenced by δ and λ contents during and after
solidification

FP > 1 or < 0 FP ~ 1
AISI 430 or 310 AISI 304
Longitudinal Depression along with
Sub-surface Crack in AISI 304 Slab
 Bulging or Depression Behaviour based on
Solidification Characteristics
AISI 430 301 304 316 310S

Solidification Entirely δ Entirely δ δ till fs ~ 0.75 δ till fs ~ 0.3 Entirely γ

Mode δ + γ at fs > 0.75 δ + γ at fs > 0.3

Solid Shell Thick but Thick Thick and strong Moderate Thin but
weak strong

Mushy Zone Thin Thin Thin Moderate Thick

δ → γ around --- Minor Large Moderate ---

Solidus
Mould Sticking High --- --- --- High

Bulging High --- --- --- High

Depression --- Minor Large Moderate Minor
Effect of Chemistry on Surface Depression
in Cast Slab of AISI 304
Effect of Residuals on Intercolumnar Cracks
in Cast Slab of AISI 310S
 GRADE-SPECIFIC MEASURES
❑ Optimum Base Chemistry (within spec.)
• Higher Nieq / Creq in ferritic grades ( FP > 1 ) facilitates early δ → ϒ ,
restricts growth of columnar grains, improves strength of solid shell
• Lower Nieq / Creq in peritectic grades ( FP ~ 1 ) avoids δ → ϒ
around solidus (Fs: 0.9 to 1), controls longitudinal crack, depression
and coarse ϒ
❑ Minimum Residuals
• Lower N, Al in peritectic grades restrict AIN precipitation at
coarse ϒ boundary , and control transverse crack
• Lower P, S and higher Mn/S in austenitic grades restrict
microsegration , increase shell thickness , control central
segregation

❑ Grade-specific Selection of CC Parameters

• Mould slag with better lubrication for sticking grades
• Mould slag with lower heat transfer for grades prone to
depression
• Higher secondary cooling to control bulging in ferritic grades.
 SHOT BLASTING

before after
Various stages of Hot Rolling
 Hot Rolling Mills
1.Steckel Mill with Single Stand

2.Steckel Mill with Twin Stand

Reheating Furnace
 Reheating Furnace
Furnace split in 4 zones along its length: Make : FIVE STEIN
Recuperative zone Digital Fired control
P.H zone mode
Heating zone Wide Flame Burners
Soaking zone.

12 burners 8+8 burners 12 burners No burners

L- 9MTR L- 11.5MTR L- 8MTR L- 15.5MTR
 Roughing Mill
It is Primarily used for maximum reduction in thickness of slabs.
It consists of reversible mill (4-HI) with rolls horizontally
inserted in the housing.
 Coiler Box
The coiler box is installed between the RM stand & finishing mill.
It wraps the transfer bar in the form of coils.
It also serves as heat accumulator.
During uncoiling the transfer bar tail runs into the finishing mill as
transfer bar head.
 Tandem Mill
It consists of several stands (as shown below) that the work material
constantly passes through.

At each stand the thickness of the work strip is reduced by a certain amount.
Various control systems are used to keep the entire operation synchronized as
each stand has a different speed.

Tandem rolling can be even more advantageous when integrated with CC.
 Hot Rolled Continuous Annealing and Pickling Lines
1.Hot Rolled Continuous Annealing and Pickling Line

Furnace Quenching Scale Shot

Breaker Blasting
Entry
Section Electrolytic Mixed acid
H2So4

Pickling Section
Exit Section
2.Hot Rolled Continuous Annealing and Pickling Line with In-Line Rolling

Furnace Scale Shot

In-Line Rolling Quenching Breaker Blasting
Entry
Section
Electrolytic Mixed acid
Exit
H2So4
Section
Pickling Section
Bell
Annealing
Cold Rolling

Automated Shape
Control System
Continuous Cold Rolled Annealing Pickling Line
1.Cold Rolled Continuous Annealing and Pickling Line

Furnace Neutral Electrolytic Mixed

Degreasing Air+ Mist
Electrolytic HNO3 Acid
cooling
Pickling Section
Entry Section

2.Cold Rolled Continuous Annealing and

Pickling Line with In-Line Tandem Mill SPM TLL
Exit Section

Furnace
Degreasing
In-Line Tandem Mill Air+ Mist cooling
Entry Section
Exit
Section

Pickling Section SPM TLL