MATH REVIEWER

L esson 1: Introduction to Probability

Probability→a branch of mathematics that deals with the

likelihood of occurrence of a random event.
●​ Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat– (mid-17th century)
laid the foundation for probability
●​ Pascal is credited with laying the fundamental
groundwork of probability theory. (which became the SIMPLE PROBABILITY
foundation of the modern theory of probability.) -Consider tossing two coins. What is the probability of getting
Sample space (S) - is a collection or a set of possible outcomes exactly two heads?
of a random experiment.
●​ The subset of possible outcomes of an experiment is
called events.
Sample point – possible outcome
S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}
●​ The number of sample points in a sample space is called
the size of a sample space n(S) - A playing card is drawn at random from a standard deck of 52
playing cards. Find the probability of drawing:
EX:
a. a diamond b. a queen
a.​ Tossing a coin
S = {H, T}
n(S) = 2
b.​ Choose a student at random from a class and record the
corresponding month of birth
S = {January, February, March, April, May, June,
July, August, September, October, November,
- If you roll two dice, what is the probability of getting a total of
December}
7?
n(S) = 12
S = { (1,6), (2, 5), (3, 4), (4, 3), (5, 2), (6, 1) }
Kind of sample space: NOT AN EQUIPROBABLE
SPACE
c.​ There are 3 red balls and 1 white ball in a bag. A ball is
drawn at random from the bag and its color is recorded
S = {R₁, R₂, R₃, W}
n(S) = 4
EXPERIMENTAL PROBABILITY:
Kind of sample space: EQUIPROBABLE
THEORETICAL PROBABILITY:

- Throw the lid onto the table 100 times and record the
frequencies of the events

IN SET NOTATION

●​ The total probability of all events is 1, therefore, there

is no probability higher than 1
●​ The probability must be expressed in either fraction or L esson 2: Compound Events
decimal
●​ A probability of 0 means that an event is impossible. 1.​ Probability of the Complement of an Event
●​ A probability of 1 means that the event is certain to
happen FORMULA: P (E’) = 1- P (E)
●​ The closer a probability is to 1, the more likely it is to - A pair of dice are rolled. What is the probability of not rolling
happen. doubles?
P(E) = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (5,5), (6,6)}
n(E) = 6
MATH REVIEWER
by: Caitlin S.
 6.​ Conditional Probability

2.​ Probability of Mutually Exclusive Events

- The probability that Erwin studies and passes his math test is
- A die is rolled once. What is the probability of getting an even 0.45. If the probability that he studies is 0.80, what is the
number or a 5? probability that he passes that math test, given that he has
studied?
●​ Let A = event of getting an even number
●​ Let B = event of getting 5
S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} n(S) = 6
A = {2, 4, 6} n(A) = 3
B = {5} n(B) = 1

L esson 3: Introduction to Sampling

STATISTICS- Latin: statisticus = “the study of people, supplies,

3.​ Probability of Inclusive Events and the like in a state”
SIR RONALD AYLMER FISHER (British statistician)
→”Father of Statistics”
- A die is rolled once. What is the probability of getting an even POPULATION- refers to the entire collection of observations
number or a number greater than 2? such as people or objects being considered.
●​ Let A = event of getting an even number SAMPLE- small portion or part of a population.
●​ Let B = event of getting a number greater than 2
COLLECTION OF DATA- refers to the process of obtaining
information.
ORGANIZATION OF DATA- refers to the ascertaining manner
of presenting data into tables, graphs or charts
ANALYSIS OF DATA- refers to the process of extracting from
the given data relevant information from which numerical
description can be formulated.
4.​ Probability of Independent Events
INTERPRETATION OF DATA- task of drawing conclusions
from analyzed data.
AREA OF STATISTICS
●​ Two events A and B are independent if the occurrence of
Event A does not affect the occurrence of event B. 1.​ DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
-​ chart or graph
- A die is tossed twice. Find the probability of getting a 2 or 3 on
-​ describing the properties and characteristics of a set of
the first toss and a 4, 5, or 6 on the second toss.
data.
2.​ INFERENTIAL STATISTICS
-​ statistical method concerned with the analysis of a
sample date leading to prediction, inferences,
interpretation, or conclusion about the entire population.
APPLICATIONS OF STATISTICS
-​ Medicine (diagnosis, treatment, and the prevention of
5.​ Probability of Dependent Events certain diseases)
-​ Education (national examinations)
-​ Business and Economics (financial transactions and
marketing of new products, forecasting of business
●​ Two events A and B are dependent if the outcome of the trends, controlling the quality of goods produced)
first event A affects the outcome of the second event B -​ Government (ascertain the manpower and material
- Event A is drawing a King first, and Event B is drawing a King strength of the nation for military and fiscal reasons)
second. What is the probability of getting 2 kings? -​ Psychology (intelligence test scores, aptitudes,
personality trait ratings and attitudes)
-​ Sociology (study of conditions of the society)
-​ Sports (strategies in playing and records that help to
keep track of succeeding performances for comparison)
SAMPLING- is the process of getting information from a
proper subset of the population.
●​ Saves time
●​ Saves money

MATH REVIEWER
by: Caitlin S.
CONSIDERATIONS IN CHOOSING SAMPLE ●​ QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD (Indirect method) -
Must be attractive to encourage respondents to answer.
●​ Who are your respondents? Free from any influence.
●​ Why are they the most appropriate individuals for your ●​ REGISTRATION METHOD- Provide information in
research study? compliance. (Marriage contracts, Birth certificates,
●​ What sampling did you use to obtain these respondents? Vehicle registration)
WHEN TO SAMPLE THE ENTIRE POPULATION? ●​ OBSERVATION METHOD- Gather data about the
attitude, behaviour, values and cultural patterns.
●​ When your population is small. ●​ TELEPHONE INTERVIEW METHOD- Questions
●​ When you have extensive resources. to be asked are brief and few.
●​ When you don’t expect a very high response. ●​ EXPERIMENT METHOD- Identify the possible
cause and effect relationship between variables. The
STEPS IN SAMPLING researcher can control other factors affecting the
variables in study.
1. Identify the population of interest.
DATA PRESENTATION
2. Specify a sampling frame.
●​ TEXTUAL PRESENTATION- Data are presented in
3. Specify a sampling method.
paragraph form.
4. Determine the sample size. ●​ TABULAR PRESENTATION- A systematic
arrangement of information into columns and rows.
5. Implement the plan. ●​ GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION- Data are presented
in visual form. It is a picture that displays numerical
SLOVIN'S FORMULA- a common way of identifying the
information.
sample
1.​ BAR GRAPH- Used to show relatives sizes of
data.
2.​ LINE GRAPH- Shows the relationship of two
or more sets of continuous data.
3.​ PIE CHART- Best used to compare parts of a
whole.
EXAMPLE: 4.​ PICTOGRAPH- Used to show data through
symbols.
- 385 SHS students, e = 5% (desirable degree of error)
L esson 5: Measures of Central Tendency (Grouped &
Ungrouped)

→Identifying the number/s which will best represent the data set
GENERAL TYPES OF SAMPLING
→are numerical descriptive measures which indicate or locate
●​ PROBABILITY SAMPLING- sample is a proportion the center of a distribution or data set.
of the population (selected by means of some systematic
way in which every element of population has a chance UNGROUPED DATA- raw data that are recorded as they occur.
of being included in the sample)
●​ NONPROBABILITY SAMPLING - sample is not a ●​ Frequency Distribution Table- shows the data arranged
proportion of the population and there is no system in into different classes and the number of cases that fall
selecting the sample. into each class.
●​ SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING- basic probability ●​ Frequency-number of times a certain value occurs.
sampling design. All elements in the population are
given equal chances of being selected in simple ways. MEAN- The average of the data set
●​ SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING- Order all units in the
sampling frame. Then every nth number on the list is
selected.
●​ STRATIFIED SAMPLING- divides a population into
groups of the same interest or categories and then
selecting a sample randomly from each group.
●​ CLUSTER SAMPLING- every member of the
population is assigned to only one group. Each group is
called a cluster. A sample of cluster is chosen using
●​ Weighted Mean- It is the mean of a set of values
simple random sampling and only individuals within
sampled clusters are surveyed. wherein each value or measurement has a different
●​ MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING- Carried out in stages. weight or degree of importance.
Using smaller and smaller sampling units at each stage.
L esson 4: Data Gathering

Data collection→procedure of collecting, measuring and

analyzing accurate insight for research using standard validated
techniques.
●​ DIRECT/INTERVIEW METHOD- Person to person
exchange of information. Clarifications may be given by
the interviewee.

MATH REVIEWER
by: Caitlin S.
MEDIAN- The middle score in a data set. Arrange the scores in Ex: Data = 25, 23, 24, 20, 17, 18, 16, 17, 16, 19, 11, 12, 12, 13,
an increasing order. 14, 15, 11, 15, 11, 13, 13, 14, 12, 15, 14, 14, 13, 6, 6, 13, 10, 9,
15, 7, 6, 9, 15, 8, 9, 23

Step 1: Find the range

R= H-L (highest - lowest) H=25 R=6

= 25 - 6= 19
Median for odd:
Step 2: Identify the number of class
- The number of books borrowed in the library from Monday to
Friday last week were 58, 60, 54, 35, and 97 respectively. class= 5 to 7 (NOTE: the class is always 5)
35, 54, 58, 60, 97 Step 3: Find the class interval
The median is 58 i= R/c R= 19 c= 5
Median for even: Win’s quizzes for the second quarter are 8, 7, 6, = 19 / 5 = 3.8= 4
10, 9, 5, 9, 6, 10, and 7.
Step 4: Arrange the class
5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 8, 9, 9, 10, 10

The median is 7.5

MODE- The score with highest frequency

Count the frequency of each score

L esson 6: Measures of Position
0- No Mode 2– Bimodal 4– Multimodal
→”Measures of Location”
1– Unimodal 3– Trimodal
→these are identified as values which divides the data set into a
desired equal parts.

DECILE - these numbers divide the data set into 10 equal parts

Ex

1. Data: 5, 6, 7, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,

17, 18, 18, 19, 22, 25, 28, 33, 34, 34,
35, 37, 39, 42, 45, 47, 48, 49, 52, 54

2. Data: 5, 6, 7, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 18, 19, 22, 25, 28,
33, 34, 34, 35, 37, 39, 42, 45, 47, 48, 49, 52, 54, 55, 62, 65

GROUPED DATA PERCENTILE- these numbers divide the data set into 100
●​ UPPER CLASS LIMIT-largest data value equal parts
●​ CLASS BOUNDARIES- used to separate the classes
so that there are no gaps in the frequency distribution.
●​ CLASS MARKS- midpoint of the classes.
●​ CLASS WIDTH- Difference between two consecutive
lower-class limit.
Ex:

Data: 5, 6, 7, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 18, 18, 19, 22, 25, 28, 33,
34, 34, 35, 37, 39, 42, 45, 47, 48, 49, 52, 54, 55, 62, 65
●​ CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY- It is the sum of the
frequencies for that class and all the previous classes, in
a class that is in increasing order.

MATH REVIEWER
by: Caitlin S.
 N + 1 is NOT DIVISIBLE by 4

●​ SPECIAL SIMILARITIES- Measures of Position is

directly connected with Measures of Central
Tendency. The 5th decile, the 50th percentile are equal
to the median.
Data: 67, 69, 71, 72, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87, 89, 91,
QUARTILE- these numbers divide the data set into 4 equal 93, 95
parts

Ex:

CASE 1:

N is an ODD number,

N + 1 is DIVISIBLE by 4

Data: 67, 69, 71, 72, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 87, 89, 91

CASE 2:

N is an ODD number

N + 1 is NOT DIVISIBLE by 4

Data: 67, 69, 71, 72, 74, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 87, 89, 91,
92

CASE 3:

N is an EVEN number

N + 1 is DIVISIBLE by 4

Data: 67, 69, 70, 71, 72, 74, 75, 77, 79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 87, 89, 91

CASE 4:

N is an EVEN number
MATH REVIEWER
by: Caitlin S.