Psychoanalytic criticism is an approach to interpreting literature that draws on the

principles of psychoanalysis, a theory of the human mind developed by Sigmund Freud.

This form of literary criticism analyzes the unconscious motivations, desires, and
anxieties of characters and authors, exploring how these psychological elements are
revealed through the text. Psychoanalytic criticism can also examine the text's structure,
symbols, and themes through the lens of psychoanalytic theory.

Key Theorists and Theories in Psychoanalytic Criticism:

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)

Freud is the founder of psychoanalysis, and his theories provide the foundation for
psychoanalytic literary criticism. Some of his key concepts include:

 The Unconscious Mind: Freud argued that much of human behavior is motivated
by unconscious desires, fears, and memories. These are often repressed because
they are too disturbing or threatening to the individual's conscious self.
 The Id, Ego, and Superego: Freud’s model of the psyche consists of three parts:
o Id: The unconscious part of the psyche driven by basic desires, instincts,
and pleasures.
o Ego: The conscious self that mediates between the desires of the id and
the moral constraints of the superego.
o Superego: The moral conscience that imposes societal rules and
expectations.
 Repression: Freud suggested that individuals often repress traumatic memories or
desires, which then manifest in various forms (including in dreams, behavior, and
artistic expression).
 Oedipus Complex: Freud's theory that young boys develop unconscious desires
for their mothers and a rivalry with their fathers. This theory can be explored in
literary works that involve father-son or mother-son relationships.

Jacques Lacan (1901–1981)

Lacan, a French psychoanalyst, revised and extended Freud's ideas, particularly in the
areas of language and identity. Lacan emphasized the importance of language in shaping
the unconscious and the formation of the self.

 Mirror Stage: Lacan theorized that the infant first develops a sense of "I"
through the reflection in a mirror. This "mirror stage" marks the point at which
the child begins to form an identity, but it is also the beginning of alienation, as
the child realizes that their image in the mirror is separate from their actual self.
 The Symbolic Order: Lacan argued that individuals are always positioned within
a "symbolic order" of language, culture, and society. Language is not just a way
of communicating; it shapes our very understanding of the world.

Karen Horney (1885–1952)

Horney was a prominent psychoanalyst who critiqued Freud’s emphasis on biological
factors and male-centered theories. She introduced a more sociocultural perspective on
psychoanalysis and emphasized the role of anxiety in human development.

 Neurotic Needs: Horney identified ten neurotic needs that arise from a lack of
emotional fulfillment during childhood. These needs shape an individual's
relationships and personality.

Key Terms in Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism:

1. The Unconscious: As mentioned, this is the part of the mind that houses
repressed memories, desires, and fears. Psychoanalytic critics look for evidence of
these unconscious forces in texts.
o Example: In Shakespeare's Hamlet, Hamlet’s hesitation to act on his
father's ghost's command is often interpreted as reflecting his unconscious
guilt and repression.
2. Repression: The unconscious blocking of distressing thoughts, memories, or
desires. These repressed elements can emerge in disguised forms, such as in
dreams or symbols in literature.
o Example: In The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, Gatsby’s obsessive
desire for Daisy may be seen as a form of repression—his fixation with
the past prevents him from moving forward emotionally.
3. Oedipus Complex: Freud’s theory that children experience unconscious desires
for the opposite-sex parent and jealousy toward the same-sex parent.
o Example: In Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, Oedipus unknowingly kills his
father and marries his mother, mirroring the unconscious desires Freud
outlined in the Oedipus Complex.
4. Dream Analysis: Freud believed that dreams reveal unconscious desires and
conflicts. In literature, critics may analyze characters’ dreams as symbolic
representations of repressed feelings or desires.
o Example: In Moby-Dick by Herman Melville, Ishmael’s dreams and
visions serve as a window into his subconscious and his existential
struggles.
5. The Return of the Repressed: This refers to the idea that repressed desires or
emotions eventually find their way back into the conscious mind, often in
distorted forms.
o Example: In Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, the monster can be seen as the
return of Dr. Frankenstein’s repressed guilt and fear, which he can no
longer ignore.
6. Narcissism: A focus on self-obsession, self-love, or self-regard, often linked to
the psychological stages of development.
o Example: In The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde, Dorian’s
obsession with his own image and youth represents a form of narcissism
that leads to his downfall.
 7. The Phallic Stage: This stage in Freud's theory of psychosexual development is
focused on the child's identification with the opposite-sex parent, which often
forms the basis for later adult sexual behavior.
o Example: The relationship between male characters and their mothers in
Hamlet can be analyzed through the lens of the phallic stage.

Applications of Psychoanalytic Criticism to Literary Works:

 James Joyce's Ulysses: Joyce's protagonist, Leopold Bloom, is often analyzed

using psychoanalytic criticism, especially concerning his complex relationship
with his wife, Molly. Freud's concepts of repression and desire come into play in
Bloom's constant search for identity and meaning.
 Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper: This short story can be read
through the lens of Freudian repression, as the narrator’s descent into madness
reflects the repressed anger and frustration she feels from her confinement and
treatment by her husband. The wallpaper itself becomes a symbol of her mental
state.
 William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury: Faulkner’s fragmented narrative
is often analyzed through Lacanian psychoanalysis, particularly the development
of identity through language and the unconscious desire to return to an idealized
past.

1. Freud's Key Concepts in Psychoanalytic Criticism:

The Unconscious Mind

The unconscious mind is central to psychoanalytic theory. Freud believed that much of
human behavior and thought is influenced by unconscious desires and thoughts that we
repress because they are too disturbing or anxiety-inducing to acknowledge consciously.
In literature, characters' behavior often reveals hidden desires, fears, or repressed
memories.

 Example: Dracula by Bram Stoker

o In Dracula, the characters' interactions with the vampire can be interpreted
as unconscious fears and desires coming to the surface. The vampire
represents repressed sexual desires and a fear of the unknown. For
instance, the character of Lucy Westenra can be seen as a symbol of
suppressed sexual desire. Her transformation into a vampire reflects a
breaking free of societal repression and the manifestation of unconscious,
forbidden desires.
o Freudian Interpretation: Lucy’s transformation represents the fears and
desires surrounding sexuality and female autonomy in Victorian society.
Her blood becomes the symbolic site of her sexual awakening, and the act
of Dracula biting her can be seen as a metaphor for sexual violation, a
common theme in Freud’s discussions of repressed sexuality.
The Id, Ego, and Superego

Freud's model of the psyche comprises three parts:

 The Id: The primal, unconscious part of the psyche driven by basic instincts and
desires (e.g., hunger, sexual desire).
 The Ego: The rational part of the psyche that mediates between the desires of the
Id and the moral constraints of the Superego.
 The Superego: The moral compass, representing internalized societal and
parental standards.

Characters in literature often embody these different parts of the psyche, and
psychoanalytic criticism examines how the conflict between these forces shapes their
actions and motivations.

 Example: Macbeth by William Shakespeare

o Macbeth’s internal conflict can be analyzed through the lens of the id, ego,
and superego. Initially, Macbeth's desire (id) to gain power through
murdering King Duncan dominates. His ego struggles with the decision,
balancing the desire for power with his fear of the consequences. His
superego, represented by his conscience and Lady Macbeth’s
manipulation, urges him to justify the murder as a necessary step toward
greatness.
o Freudian Interpretation: The murder of Duncan is the moment where
Macbeth’s id (his raw desire for power) overwhelms his superego (his
moral compass), leading to a series of tragic consequences. His
deteriorating mental state and guilt are symptoms of the psychological
consequences of ignoring the superego.

Repression and the Return of the Repressed

Repression refers to the unconscious blocking of distressing thoughts or desires. Freud

believed that these repressed feelings often manifest in disguised forms, such as through
dreams, symptoms, or art. Psychoanalytic critics look for these manifestations in texts.

 Example: Frankenstein by Mary Shelley

o In Frankenstein, Dr. Victor Frankenstein’s creation of the monster can be
seen as the return of the repressed. Victor’s desire to transcend human
limits and create life reflects his unconscious fear and guilt about playing
God. The monster, whom Victor creates and then abandons, symbolizes
his repressed guilt and horror at what he has done. The monster’s
appearance and violent behavior represent the repressed consequences of
Victor’s actions, coming back to haunt him.
o Freudian Interpretation: The monster is a physical manifestation of
Victor's repressed guilt and fear. His refusal to acknowledge the creature
 or take responsibility for its creation leads to his eventual downfall,
illustrating the concept of the "return of the repressed."

2. Lacanian Psychoanalysis and Literature

Lacan focused on how the unconscious is structured by language and how identity is
formed through a process of alienation. His key concept of the mirror stage—the
moment when an infant recognizes their own reflection and begins to form a sense of
self—is particularly important in understanding identity and the symbolic order.

Mirror Stage

According to Lacan, the "mirror stage" is a crucial point in human development when a
child first recognizes their reflection. This marks the beginning of the child’s
understanding of themselves as a separate individual. However, this recognition is also a
moment of alienation, as the child realizes they are not a unified whole but a fragmented
self dependent on external validation.

 Example: The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald

o Jay Gatsby's entire persona is built on a fabricated identity. He creates an
idealized version of himself in order to win Daisy’s love, but this identity
is fragile and disconnected from his true self. Gatsby’s obsession with the
past (his memories of Daisy) and his constant desire to be recognized as a
man of wealth and sophistication can be seen as a reflection of Lacan's
mirror stage, where Gatsby's identity is based on an image that is both
desired and unattainable.
o Lacanian Interpretation: Gatsby’s constructed identity is a manifestation
of his search for wholeness and recognition. His “mirror stage” occurs
when he dreams of winning Daisy back, but it is always an illusion—he
can never truly achieve the ideal image of himself that he yearns for.

The Symbolic Order

For Lacan, the symbolic order is the realm of language, culture, and social structures that
shape a person’s identity. It’s through language and societal norms that individuals come
to understand their place in the world.

 Example: Beloved by Toni Morrison

o In Beloved, Sethe’s struggle to reconcile her past as a slave with her
identity as a mother is shaped by the symbolic order of post-slavery
America. Sethe’s actions—especially the act of killing her child to prevent
her from being captured—can be seen as an attempt to assert control over
her own identity in a world that refuses to recognize her humanity.
o Lacanian Interpretation: Sethe's act of killing her daughter is an attempt
to free her from the horrors of slavery, but it also reflects her inability to
escape the symbolic order that categorizes her as a slave. Sethe’s trauma is
 tied to her struggle with language and identity, as she is caught in a system
that denies her freedom and humanity.

3. Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism in Action

Example 1: Hamlet by William Shakespeare

In Hamlet, Freud’s ideas about the Oedipus Complex are often applied. Hamlet's
reluctance to kill his uncle Claudius, despite knowing Claudius murdered his father, is
seen as the result of his unconscious feelings of rivalry and desire for his mother,
Gertrude. Freud argued that Hamlet’s hesitation reflects the repressed guilt over his
desire to usurp Claudius’s position as Gertrude’s husband.

 Freudian Interpretation: Hamlet’s delay in avenging his father’s death is a

reflection of his unconscious Oedipal desires. He harbors a deep, unconscious
wish to replace his father and marry his mother, which leads to his internal
conflict. His inability to act is rooted in his suppressed feelings, manifesting as
inaction and hesitation.

Example 2: Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë

In Jane Eyre, the relationship between Jane and Mr. Rochester can be explored through
the psychoanalytic lens, particularly the idea of repressed desire and identity
formation.

 Freudian Interpretation: Rochester’s dark secret—the existence of his first

wife, Bertha Mason—represents repressed aspects of his own psyche. Bertha is
the embodiment of Rochester’s repressed desires, his guilt, and the darker,
unacknowledged part of himself. Jane’s role as the “pure” woman contrasts with
Bertha’s madness, and the novel explores how Jane’s own desires and her search
for autonomy and selfhood are shaped by her interactions with Rochester and the
hidden parts of his identity.

Conclusion

Psychoanalytic criticism provides a rich framework for understanding the unconscious

forces that shape characters’ actions and relationships in literature. By applying Freud,
Lacan, and other theorists, psychoanalytic criticism can uncover hidden meanings,
desires, and psychological conflicts in literary texts. As you analyze works like Hamlet,
Dracula, Frankenstein, or Beloved, you can use psychoanalysis to explore how
characters' unconscious desires, repressed emotions, and identities are reflected in their
actions and the narratives themselves. This approach enriches our understanding of the
complexity of human nature and how literature serves as a window into the psyche.

1. Other Key Concepts in Psychoanalytic Theory

While we've covered foundational concepts such as the unconscious, repression, the id,
ego, and superego, and the Oedipus complex, there are other important ideas from
Freud and his followers that are relevant to psychoanalytic criticism:

Thanatos and Eros (The Death and Life Drives)

 Eros represents the life instincts, those urges that drive an individual toward
survival, creativity, and reproduction (such as love, work, and procreation).
 Thanatos represents the death drive, or the instinct toward destruction,
aggression, and a return to an inorganic state. Thanatos often manifests in self-
destructive behavior, aggression, or violence in literature.
 Example: Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë
o Heathcliff’s obsessive and destructive love for Catherine Earnshaw can be
interpreted as a clash between Eros and Thanatos. His passion for
Catherine is deeply tied to his desire to possess her and his ultimate
destruction of himself and others around him. His obsession leads him to
create a cycle of violence and pain, demonstrating the destructive nature of
unbalanced drives.

Psychosexual Development and Literary Characters

Freud’s theory of psychosexual stages of development—oral, anal, phallic, latency, and

genital stages—explains how early childhood experiences shape adult personalities.
These stages and the issues associated with each can be used to analyze characters'
behaviors in literature. For instance, if a character exhibits traits related to a particular
stage, a psychoanalytic critic may trace these behaviors back to childhood trauma or
unresolved issues from that stage.

 Example: Great Expectations by Charles Dickens

o In Great Expectations, the protagonist Pip can be analyzed in terms of
Freud's stages of development. Pip’s emotional development is marked by
his relationship with his desires, wealth, and social class. His obsession
with becoming a gentleman can be seen as related to a phallic fixation—
the desire for recognition and success, which can be linked to his
unresolved feelings about masculinity, class, and self-worth.

Defense Mechanisms

Freud identified various defense mechanisms that individuals use to protect themselves
from anxiety or distress. These mechanisms include:

 Denial (refusing to acknowledge reality)

 Projection (attributing one’s own feelings or impulses to others)
 Displacement (redirecting emotional impulses to a safer target)
 Sublimation (channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable actions)
 Example: Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky
o In Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov demonstrates several defense
mechanisms. His denial of his guilt after the murder is the most obvious
example, as he tries to convince himself that his crime was justified for the
greater good. He also uses projection when he sees others as inferior and
believes he is above moral laws.