STEEL DESIGN

Introduction
Structural Design
It is determining and selecting the overall dimensions of the supporting frameworks or
members in a structure. Here, we determine a required cross-sectional area for a certain
structural member and select the safest dimension based on this area. Also, in RC we
determine the required number of steel bar to be used on a member just to resist and
safely carry the effects caused by loadings.
Structural Steel
Steel is a mixture, or alloy, of an element iron with certain other minerals. Steel is
stronger and tougher than the other forms of man-made iron. The great strength of the
different kinds of modern steel comes from the crude iron and form the addition of
special elements, such as manganese, nickel and chromium.

Iron – principal component

Carbon – contributes to strength but reduce ductility

Classification according to carbon content

Very high carbon steel 0.90 – 1.5%
High carbon steel 0.60 - 0.90%
Medium carbon steel 0.30 – 0.60%
Low carbon steel 0.15 – 0.30%
Very low carbon steel 0.05 – 0.15%
TABLE 1. Comparison between the low and high carbon steel
PARAMETERS LOW CARBON STEEL HIGH CARBON STEEL
Uses For making all types of For making tools and
beams, ginders, angles cutlery
iron, chanel iron, tee
For making device that can
iron, I-beams, plates,
withstand shock and
rods, bolts rivet
vibration.
Used in rain concrete
Also in corrugated sheet
and sheet piles

Characteristics
Amount of impurities No No
Percentage 0.08 – 0.45% 0.55 – 1.2%
Properties Malleable, ductile, More elastic and tough than
tough LCS granular
Structure fibrous Granular
Hardening With difficulty Easily done
Tempering With difficulty Easily
Welding and Forging Easily With difficulty
Magnetization Permanent Permanent
Tensile Strength (kg/cm) 7,500 9,000
Strength (kg/cm) 4,500 13,000
Compressive strength 6,000 10,500
(kg/cm)

Common Steel that Produce the Same Processes

a. Rivet steel
b. Structural steel
c. Machinery steel
d. Rail steel
It refers to a number of steel that, because of their economy and desirable mechanical
properties, are suitable for load carrying members in structures. Structural steel is 100%
recyclable and one of the most reused materials in the world.
ASTM (American Society for Testing materials) Designation
For Ferrous Metals – the designation has the prefix letter “A” followed by two or three
numerical digits.
Ex. ASTM A36, ASTM A514
Three groups of hot rolled structural steels used in buildings
1. Carbon Steel: Fy = 220-290 MPa
2. High Strength Low Alloy Steel (HSLA) : Fy = 480 - 840 MPa
3. Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel: Fy = 480 - 690 MPa
Steel Treatments:
1. Quenching – rapid cooling
2. Tempering – reheating

Different Types of Hot Rolled Structural Steel

2. Angles - Either equal legs or unequal legs.
Example - L4 x 3 x1/4 where 4 and 3 are the
actual leg dimensions in inches and 1/4 =
angle thickness in inches. Used for lintels,
bracing, built-up beams and columns,
secondary framing and other light-duty
applications.

3. Steel Channels - These "C" shaped members are used

for beams, built-up columns, bracing, secondary
framing and other light to medium-duty applications.
An example of a channel is C10x30 where "C" indicates channel, 10 is the actual height of the
channel in inches, and 30 = pounds per linear foot.

4. Steel Pipe - Circular pipe is used most often for columns.

Comes in three categories based upon diameter and wall
thickness, and are "standard weight", "extra strong" and
"double extra strong". The double extra strong pipe is the
strongest because it has the thickest walls. Example - Standard
Weight 4" dia. pipe.

5. Tube Steel - These square or rectangular sections are

used most often as columns, but may also be used as
beams, bracing or other applications. A typical example
is TS6x4x1/4 where TS = Tube Steel, 6 and 4 are the
actual width and depth in inches, and 1/4 is the wall
thickness in inches.
As of 2003, tube steel is now referred to as "Hollow
Structural Section" (HSS) by the American Institute of
Steel Construction. A typical designation is
HSS6x4x1/4.
6. Plates - Flat pieces of steel cut to size. Generally in the range of 1/8" thick up to 6" thick.
Used as column base plates, built-up beams and columns (i.e., plate girders), connection
pieces (I.e., gusset plates, weld plates, etc.), and any other application where specific sized
pieces are required. Example - PL 6x4x3/8 where 6 and 4 are length and width of the plate
in inches and 3/8 is the plate thickness in inches.
7. Cut Sections - Typically these are wide flange sections that are cut in half to form a "T"
section. Used for lintels, beams, bracing and columns. Example - WT7x19 is a section cut from
a W14x38 wide flange.
5. Connections:

6. Rivets - Generally not used any more for reasons such as low strength, safety and poor-
quality control.
Different Types of Cold Formed Steel
There are more options for member cross-section when using cold-formed steel than hot
rolled steel

A.R. Dar, 2018. Experimental Study on Externally Stiffened Built-up Cold-formed Steel
Beams
Properties of Steel
1. Yield Stress, 𝐹𝑦 - Unit tensile stress at which the stress strain curve exhibits a well
defined increase strain (deformation) without an increase in stress.
2. Ultimate Tensile Strength, 𝐹𝑢 – Largest unit stress that the materials achieve in a
tension test.
3. Modulus of Elasticity, 𝑬 – The slope of the initial straight-line proportion of the stress
strain diagram, 𝐸𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙 = 200,000 MPa
4. Ductility – Ability of the material to undergo large inelastic deformation without
failure.
5. Toughness – Ability of the material to absorb energy and is characterized by the area
under a stress strain curve up to rupture.
6. Weldability – Ability of steel to be welded without changing its mechanical properties.
 7. Poisson’s Ratio, 𝝁 – Ratio of the transverse strain to the longitudinal strain.
8. Shear Modulus, G – Ratio of the shearing stress to shearing strain during the elastic
behavior of the steel. It is often called Modulus of Rigidity.
9. Modulus of Resilience – Maximum energy that the material can absorb per unit
volume before it becomes permanently deformed. It is characterized by the area
under the Stress-Strain Diagram up to the yield point.
10. Modulus of Toughness – Energy absorbed by the material per unit volume up to
rupture. It is characterized by the area under the entire Stress-Strain Diagram up to
rupture.

1. Proportional Limit 4. Ultimate Tensile Strength, Fu

2. Elastic Limit 5. Theoretical Rupture Strength
3. Yield Point, Fy 6. Actual Rupture Strength

Figure __ . Stress-Strain Diagram of Ductile/Mild Steel (e.g. A36 Steel)

Property A36 A572 Gr. 50 A992

Yield Point, min. 248 MPa 345 MPa 345 MPa
Tensile Strength, min. 400 MPa to 552 MPa 448 MPa 448 MPa
Yield to Tensile ratio - - 0.85
Elongation in 200 mm 20% 18% 18%
Typical Properties of ASTM A36 Steel

E = 200, 000 MPa

𝐹𝑦 = 248 MPa
𝐹𝑢 = 400 MPa
Density = 7780 kg/𝑚3
Shear modulus, G=77,200 MPa
Coeff. of thermal expansion, 𝛼 = 11.7 𝑥 10−6 /𝐶 𝑜

𝐸
𝐺=
2(1 + 𝜇)

Typical Structural Steel Section

Nominal depth (d) = 6 inches

Nominal weight per linear length (w) = 20 lbs/ft

Shapes (https://www.frankminnella.com/structural-steel-drawings.html)
The three most common types of structural members are the W-shape (wide flange), the S-
shape (American Standard I-beam), and the C-shape (American Standard channel). These
three types are identified by the nominal depth, in inches, along the web and the weight per
foot of length, in pounds. As an example, a W 12 x 27 indicates a W-shape (wide flange) with
a web 12 inches deep and a weight of 27 pounds per linear foot.

The cross-sectional views of the W-, S-, and C-shapes are illustrated in Figure ___. The
difference between the W-shape and the S-shape is in the design of the inner surfaces of the
flange. The W-shape has parallel inner and outer flange surfaces with a constant thickness,
while the S-shape has a slope of approximately 17 degrees on the inner flange surfaces. The
C-shape is similar to the S-shape in that its inner flange surface is also sloped approximately
17 degrees.

Figure ____. Structural Shape and Designation

W-Shape

The W shape is a structural member whose cross section forms the letter H and is the most
widely used structural member. It is designed so that its flanges provide strength in a
horizontal plane, while the web gives strength in a vertical plane. W-shapes are used as
beams, columns, and truss members, and in other load-bearing applications.
Bearing Pile

The bearing pile (HP-shape) is almost

identical to the W-shape. The only
difference is that the flange thickness and
web thickness of the bearing pile are
equal, whereas the W-shape has different
web and flange thicknesses.

S-Shape

The S-shape (American Standard I-beam) is distinguished by its cross section being shaped
like the letter I. S-shapes are used less frequently than W-shapes since the S-shapes possess
less strength and are less adaptable than W-shapes.

C-Shape

The C-shape (American Standard channel) has a cross

section somewhat similar to the letter C. It is especially
useful in locations where a single flat face without
outstanding flanges on one side is required. The C-shape
is not very efficient for a beam or column when used
alone. However, efficient built-up members may be
constructed of channels assembled together with other
structural shapes and connected by rivets or welds.
Channels

A cross section of a channel is similar to the squared letter C. Channels are identified by their
nominal depth and weight per foot. For example, the American Standard channel notation C9
x 13.4 in Figure 7-1 shows a nominal depth of 9 inches and a weight of 13.4 pounds per linear
foot, Channels are principally used in locations where a single flat face without outstanding
flanges on a side is required. However, the channel is not very efficient as a beam or column
when used alone. But the channels may be assembled together with other structural shapes
and connected by rivets or welds to form efficient built-up members.

Angles

An angle (Figure 7-3) is a structural shape whose cross section resembles the letter L. Two
types are commonly used: an equal-leg angle and an unequal-leg angle. The angle is identified
by the dimension and thickness of its legs, for example, angle 6 inches by 4 inches by 1/2
inch. The dimension of the legs should be obtained by measuring along the outside of the
backs of the legs. When an angle has unequal legs, the dimension of the wider leg is given
first, as in the Figure 7-3 — Angles. example just cited. The third dimension applies to the
thickness of the legs, which always have equal thickness. Angles may be used in combinations
of two or four to form main members. A single angle may also be used to connect main parts
together.

Plates

Generally, a main point to remember about plate is that it has a width of greater than 8 inches
and a thickness of 1/4 inch or greater. Plates are generally used as connections between other
structural members or as component parts of built-up structural members. Plates cut to
specific sizes may be obtained in widths ranging from 8 inches to 120 inches or more, and in
various thicknesses. The edges of these plates may be cut by shears (sheared plates) or be
rolled square (universal mill plates).

Frequently, plates are referred to by their thickness and width in inches, as plate 1/2 inch x
24 inches. The length in all cases is given in inches. Notice in Figure 7-4 that 1 cubic foot of
steel weighs 490 pounds. This weight divided by 12 equaling 40.8, which is the weight (in
pounds) of a steel plate 1 foot square and 1-inch thick. The fractional portion is normally
dropped and 1-inch plate is called a 40-pound plate. In practice, you may hear plate referred
to by its approximate weight per square foot for a specified thickness. An example is 20-
pound plate, which indicates a 1/2-inch plate.

The designations generally used for flat steel have been established by the American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI). Flat steel is designated as bar, strip, sheet, or plate, according to the
thickness of the material, the width of the material, and (to some extent) the rolling process
to which it was subjected.

Tees

A structural tee is made by slitting a standard I- or H- beam through the center of its web,
thus forming two T-shapes from each beam. In dimensioning, the structural tee symbol is
preceded by the letters ST. For example, the symbol ST 5 WF 10.5 means the tee has a nominal
depth of 5 inches, a wide flange, and weighs 10.5 pounds per linear foot. A rolled tee is a
manufactured shape. In dimensioning, the rolled tee symbol is preceded by the letter T. The
dimension T 4 x 3 x 9.2 means the rolled T has a 4-inch flange, a nominal depth of 3 inches,
and a weight of 9.2 pounds per linear foot.

Zee

These shapes are noted by depth, flange width, and weight per linear foot. Therefore,
Z 6 x 3 1/2 x 15.7 means the zee is 6 inches in depth, has a 3 1/2-inch flange, and weighs 15.7
pounds per linear foot.
Flat Bar

The structural shape referred to as bar has a width of 8 inches or less and a thickness greater
than 3/16 of an inch. The edges of bars usually are rolled square, like universal mill plates.
The dimensions are expressed in a similar manner as that for plates, for instance, bar 6 inches
by 1/2 inch. Bars are available in a variety of cross-sectional shapes—round, hexagonal,
octagonal, square, and flat. Four different shapes are illustrated in Figure 7-5. Both squares
and rounds are commonly used as bracing members of light structures. Their dimensions, in
inches, apply to the side of the square or the diameter of the round.

Columns

Typically, wide flange members, as nearly square in cross section as possible, are used for
columns, but sometimes large diameter pipe is used, even though pipe columns can present
connecting difficulties when you are attaching other members (Figure 7-6). Columns may
also be fabricated by welding or bolting together a number of other rolled shapes, usually
angles and plates (Figure 7-7).
Girders

Girders are the primary horizontal members of a steel frame structure. They span from
column to column and are usually connected on top of the columns with cap plates (bearing
connections) (Figure 7-8). An alternate method is the seated connection (Figure 7-9). The
girder is attached to the flange of the column using angles, with one leg extended along the
girder flange and the other against the column. The function of the girders is to support the
intermediate floor beams.

Members

The main parts of a structure are the load-bearing members. These support and transfer the
loads on the structure while remaining equal to each other. The places where members are
connected to other members are called joints. The total sum of the load supported by the
structural members at a particular instant is equal to the total dead load plus the total live
load.

The total dead load is the total weight of the structure, which gradually increases as the
structure rises and remains constant once it is complete. The total live load is the total weight
of movable objects, such as people, furniture, and bridge traffic, the structure happens to be
supporting at a particular instant.

Section Properties
a) Dimensions
b) Area / Perimeter
c) Center of Gravity / Centroid (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅)
d) Moment of Inertia (𝐼𝑥 , 𝐼𝑦 )
e) Section Modulus ((𝑆𝑥 , 𝑆𝑦 )
f) Radius of Gyration (𝑟𝑥 , 𝑟𝑦 )

Centroid of an Area (First Moment of Area)

𝐴 𝑇 𝑥𝑐 = ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝐴

𝐴 𝑇 𝑦𝑐 = ∫ 𝑦𝑑𝐴

Varignon’s Theorem
𝐴 𝑇 𝑥̅ = 𝐴1 𝑥1 + 𝐴2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 𝑥𝑛
𝐴 𝑇 𝑦̅ = 𝐴1 𝑦1 + 𝐴2 𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 𝑦𝑛
Moment of Inertia (Second Moment of Area)

It measures the ability of a member to resist bending

𝐼𝑥 = ∫ 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴

𝐼𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴

Polar Moment of Inertia, J

𝐽 = ∫ 𝑟 2 𝑑𝐴 = ∫(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦

Radius of Gyration, r

An imaginary distance from the centroid axis at which the entire area can be assumed to exist
without affecting the moment of inertia.
𝐼
𝑟= √
𝐴

Steel Design Principles

The design of a structural member entails the selection of a cross section that will safely and
economically resist the applied loads. Economy means minimum weight --- that is, the
minimum amount of steel.

Limit States

Represent conditions that limit the usefulness of the member. No applicable strength or
serviceability limit state shall be exceeded when the structure is subjected to all appropriate
load combinations such that:

𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 ≤ 𝑨𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

Limit state can be ……

a) Fracture
b) Yielding
c) Buckling
d) Serviceability (maximum deflection)
Allowable Strength Design (ASD)
Member selection such that properties prevent the maximum applied loads under service
load combinations to exceed an allowable or permissible value (maintains an elastic
behavior).
Member Selection by:
• Cross-sectional area, A
• Moment of inertia, I
• Elastic section modulus, S
𝑹𝒂 ≤ 𝑹𝒏 /𝛀 NSCP Eq. 502.3-2 (ASD)
where: 𝑹𝒂 – required strength based on ASD load combinations
𝑹𝒏 – nominal strength
𝛀- safety factor
𝑹𝒏 /𝛀 - allowable strength

In ASD, a member is selected based on either area or moment of inertia that are large enough
to prevent the maximum load from exceeding an allowable value.
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
Design based on plastic design which considers failure conditions rather than working
conditions. The design strength is nominal strength multiplied by a reduction factor
(resistance factor). In LRFD the loads are factored to bring the members to its limit state.
LRFD is similar to plastic design where factored loads are applied. In addition, the theoretical
strength of the member is reduced by the application of a resistance factor.
Design shall be performed in accordance with equation 502.3-1
𝑹𝒖 ≤ 𝝓𝑹𝒏 NSCP Eq. 502.3-1 (ASD)
where: 𝑹𝒖 – required strength based on LRFD load combinations
𝑹𝒏 – nominal strength
𝝓 - resistance factor
𝝓𝑹𝒏 - design strength

LRFD Load Combination NSCP 203.3.1

𝑼𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟒 𝑫
𝑼𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝑫 + 𝟏. 𝟔 𝑳
𝑼𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝑫 + 𝟏. 𝟔 𝑳𝒓 + 𝟎. 𝟓 𝑾
𝑼𝟒 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝑫 + 𝟏. 𝟎 𝑾 + 𝒇𝟏 𝑳𝟏
𝑼𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝑫 + 𝟏. 𝟎 𝑬 + 𝒇𝟏 𝑳𝟏
𝑼𝟔 = 𝟎. 𝟗 𝑫 + 𝟏. 𝟎 𝑾
𝑼𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟗 𝑫 + 𝟏. 𝟎 𝑬
ASD Basic Load Combination

𝑺𝟏 = 𝑫
𝑺𝟐 = 𝑫 + 𝑳
𝑺𝟑 = 𝑫 + 𝟎. 𝟔 𝑾
𝑬
𝑺𝟒 = 𝑫 +
𝟏. 𝟒

ASD Alternate Load Combination

𝑺𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 (𝑫 + 𝑳 + 𝟎. 𝟔 𝑾)
𝑬
𝑺𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 (𝑫 + 𝑳 + )
𝟏. 𝟒
𝑺𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝑫 + 𝟎. 𝟔 𝑾
𝑬
𝑺𝟒 = 𝟎. 𝟔 𝑫 +
𝟏. 𝟒

Note: The 0.75 factor is used as a one-third increase in allowable stresses shall be permitted
for all combinations with W or E.

References:

NSCP 2015

https://www.frankminnella.com/structural-steel-drawings.html