Acids and Bases

 Aqueous solutions of acids contain H⁺ ions and aqueous solutions of alkalis contain
OH⁻ ions.

o Acids release hydrogen ions (H⁺) when dissolved in water, while alkalis release
hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in solution.

 Define acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors.

o Acids are substances that donate protons (H⁺ ions) in a chemical reaction, while
bases are substances that accept protons.

 State that bases are oxides or hydroxides of metals and that alkalis are soluble bases.

o Bases typically include metal oxides and hydroxides, such as copper (II) oxide
(CuO) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Alkalis are a subset of bases that are soluble
in water, like sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH).

 Describe the characteristic properties of acids in terms of their reactions with:

o (a) Metals: Acids react with metals to produce hydrogen gas (H₂) and a salt.
Example:
2HCl (aq)+Zn (s)→ZnCl₂ (aq)+H₂ (g)

o (b) Bases: Acids neutralize bases to form water and salts.

Example:
HCl (aq)+NaOH (aq)→NaCl (aq)+H₂O (l)

o (c) Carbonates: Acids react with carbonates to produce carbon dioxide gas,
water, and a salt.
Example:
HCl (aq)+Na₂CO₃ (aq)→2NaCl (aq)+H₂O (l)+CO₂ (g)

 Describe the characteristic properties of bases in terms of their reactions with:

o (a) Acids: Bases neutralize acids to form water and a salt.

Example:
NaOH (aq)+HCl (aq)→NaCl (aq)+H₂O (l)

o (b) Ammonium salts: Bases react with ammonium salts to produce ammonia gas
(NH₃), water, and a salt.
Example:
NaOH (aq)+NH₄Cl (aq)→NaCl (aq)+NH₃ (g)+H₂O (l)
  State that a neutralisation reaction occurs between an acid and a base.

o A neutralisation reaction occurs when an acid reacts with a base, resulting in the
formation of water and a salt.

 Describe the neutralisation reaction between an acid and an alkali to produce water:

o When an acid reacts with an alkali, hydrogen ions (H⁺) from the acid combine
with hydroxide ions (OH⁻) from the alkali to form water.
Example:
H⁺ (aq)+OH⁻ (aq)→H₂O (l)

 Describe acids and alkalis in terms of their effects on:

o Litmus paper:

 Acids turn blue litmus paper red.

 Alkalis turn red litmus paper blue.

o pH:

 Acids have a pH less than 7.

 Alkalis have a pH greater than 7.

o Taste and feel:

 Acids typically have a sour taste (e.g., citric acid in lemon).

 Alkalis feel slippery and bitter (e.g., sodium hydroxide solution).

Properties of Acids & Bases

Properties of acids:
 Acids have pH values of below 7, have a sour taste (when edible) and are corrosive
 Acids are substances that can neutralise a base, forming a salt and water
 When acids are added to water, they form positively charged hydrogen ions (H+)
 The presence of H+ ions is what makes a solution acidic
Example: Hydrochloric acid.
HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Acids and metals:
 Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute acids.
 When acids react with metals, they form a salt and hydrogen gas:
acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
 The name of the salt is related to the name of the acid used, as it depends on
the anion within the acid
 Examples of the names of salts from specific acids and metals

Acids with bases:

 Metal oxides and metal hydroxides (alkalis) can act as bases

 When they react with acid, a neutralisation reaction occurs
 In all acid-base neutralisation reactions, salt and water are produced

acid + base → salt + water

Examples of reactions between acids and bases

Acids with metal carbonates:

 Acids will react with metal carbonates to form the corresponding metal salt, carbon
dioxide and water:
 acid + metal carbonate → salt + carbon dioxide + water

 Examples of reactions between acids and carbonates

What are indicators:

 Two colour indicators are used to distinguish between acids and alkalis
 Many plants contain substances that can act as indicators and the most common one
is litmus which is extracted from lichens
 Synthetic indicators are organic compounds that are sensitive to changes in acidity and
appear different colours in acids and alkalis
 Thymolphthalein and methyl orange are synthetic indicators frequently used in acid-
alkali titrations

Two Colour Indicators Table

What are synthetic indicators:

  Synthetic indicators are used to show the endpoint in titrations as they have a very
sharp change of colour when an acid has been neutralised by alkali and vice-versa
 Litmus is not suitable for titrations as the colour change is not sharp and it goes through
a purple transition colour in neutral solutions making it difficult to determine an
endpoint
 Litmus is very useful as an indicator paper and comes in red and blue versions, for
dipping into solutions or testing gases,

Properties of bases & alkalis:

 Bases have pH values of above 7

 A base which is water-soluble is referred to as an alkali
 In basic (alkaline) conditions red litmus paper turns blue, methyl orange indicator
turns yellow and thymolphthalein indicator turns blue
 Bases are substances which can neutralise an acid, forming a salt and water
 Bases are usually oxides or hydroxides of metals
 When alkalis are added to water, they form negative hydroxide ions (OH–)
 The presence of the OH- ions is what makes the aqueous solution an alkali

Example: Sodium hydroxide.

NaOH (s) → Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

Bases and acids:

 When bases react with an acid, a neutralisation reaction occurs

 Acids and bases react together in a neutralisation reaction and produce a salt and water:

Acid + base → salt + water

Examples of reaction between bases and acids

Alkalis and ammonium salts:

  Ammonium salts undergo decomposition when warmed with an alkali
 Even though ammonia is itself a weak base, it is very volatile and can easily be displaced
from the salt by another alkali
 A salt, water and ammonia are produced
o For example:

NH4Cl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O + NH3

 This reaction is used as a chemical test to confirm the presence of the ammonium ion
(NH4+)
 Alkali is added to the substance with gentle warming followed by the test for ammonia
gas using damp red litmus paper
 The damp litmus paper will turn from red to blue if ammonia is present.

Definition of Strong and Weak Acids:

 Strong Acid: A strong acid is an acid that completely dissociates (or ionizes) in aqueous
solution. This means that all of the acid molecules break apart to release hydrogen ions
(H⁺).
 Weak Acid: A weak acid is an acid that partially dissociates in aqueous solution. This
means that only a small fraction of the acid molecules break apart to release hydrogen
ions (H⁺), and the rest stay undissociated.

Examples of Strong Acids and Their Dissociation Equations:

 Hydrochloric acid (HCl):

HCl (aq)→H+(aq)+Cl−(aq)

 Nitric acid (HNO₃):

HNO3(aq)→H+(aq)+NO3−(aq)

 Sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄):

H2SO4(aq)→2H+(aq)+SO42−(aq)

These acids dissociate completely in water, producing hydrogen ions and their respective
anions.

Examples of Weak Acids and Their Partial Dissociation Equations:

  Ethanoic acid (CH₃COOH) (also known as acetic acid):

CH3COOH (aq)⇌H+(aq)+CH3COO−(aq)

In this case, the dissociation is reversible, meaning that a significant amount of CH₃COOH
remains undissociated in solution.

Comparison of Hydrogen Ion Concentration, Neutrality, and Acidity/Alkalinity Using Universal

Indicator Paper:

 pH and Universal Indicator: Universal indicator paper changes colour depending on the
pH of the solution. The colour is directly related to the concentration of hydrogen ions
(H⁺) in the solution:
o Acidic solutions (pH < 7) will turn the indicator red, orange, or yellow, depending
on the strength of the acid.
o Neutral solutions (pH = 7) will cause the indicator to turn green, indicating a
balance of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions.
o Basic or alkaline solutions (pH > 7) will turn the indicator blue or purple,
indicating a lower concentration of hydrogen ions and a higher concentration of
hydroxide ions.
o
 Hydrogen Ion Concentration: The concentration of H⁺ ions increase as the pH
decreases. A strong acid will show a low pH (close to 0), indicating a high concentration
of hydrogen ions. A weak acid will have a higher pH (closer to 7), indicating fewer
hydrogen ions in solution.

 Neutrality: A neutral solution has a pH of 7, and its colour on universal indicator paper
will be green, showing an equal concentration of hydrogen ions (H⁺) and hydroxide ions
(OH⁻).
 Relative Acidity and Alkalinity:
o A strong acid will have a low pH (near 0-3), and its universal indicator paper will
turn red.
o A weak acid will have a higher pH (close to 4-6), and its universal indicator paper
will be orange or yellow.
o A strong base will have a high pH (near 12-14), with universal indicator turning
blue or purple.
o A weak base will have a pH closer to 8-11, with the universal indicator turning
green or blue.

Oxides
Description of Amphoteric Oxides:

 Amphoteric oxides are oxides that can react with both acids and bases to produce a salt
and water. This behaviour makes them versatile and capable of neutralizing both acidic
and basic substances. Examples include:
o Aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃), which reacts with acids to form aluminium salts and
with bases to form aluminates.
o Zinc oxide (ZnO), which reacts with acids to form zinc salts and with bases to
form zincates.

Classification of Oxides (Acidic, Basic, Amphoteric):

 Acidic Oxides: These are oxides of non-metals and typically react with water to form
acids or react with bases to form salts. Examples include:
o Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) reacts with water to form sulfurous acid (H₂SO₃).
o Carbon dioxide (CO₂) reacts with water to form carbonic acid (H₂CO₃).
 Basic Oxides: These are oxides of metals and generally react with water to form
hydroxides (bases). Examples include:
o Copper(II) oxide (CuO) reacts with water to form copper(II) hydroxide (Cu(OH)₂).
o Calcium oxide (CaO) reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂).
 Amphoteric Oxides: These oxides can react with both acids and bases. Examples
include:
o Aluminium oxide (Al₂O₃) reacts with acids to form aluminium salts and with
bases to form aluminates.
o Zinc oxide (ZnO) reacts with acids to form zinc salts and with bases to form
zincates.

These classifications depend on whether the oxide behaves like an acid or a base when
interacting with other substances.