E-WASTE MANAGEMENT IN

BHUTAN

SUBMITTED BY:
05200033
05220034
05220033
Contents
Abstract. ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
Introduction. ..................................................................................................................................................3
Methodology................................................................................................................................................. 4
Literature review Health Hazards of E-Waste. .............................................................................................. 4
Challenges of E-Waste Management. (globally) ....................................................................................... 4
International Laws and Regulations on E-Waste. ......................................................................................5
Bhutan’s E-Waste Situation. ...................................................................................................................... 6
E-Waste Management in Bhutan and Developing Nations: Challenges, Technical Solutions, and
Economic Models ...................................................................................................................................... 7
1. Technical Solutions for Small Nations ................................................................................................7
2. Economic Models for E-Waste Management in Bhutan ................................................................... 8
3. Climate Change and Policy Synergies ................................................................................................ 9
Recommendation for Bhutan. ....................................................................................................................... 9
Data analysis. ...............................................................................................................................................11
1. Familiarity with E-Waste ......................................................................................................................11
2. Awareness of Recycling Programs ....................................................................................................... 11
3. Knowledge of E-Waste Disposal Location ........................................................................................... 12
4. Handling of Old Electronics ................................................................................................................. 12
5. Participation in Recycling Programs .................................................................................................... 13
6. Perceived Challenges ...........................................................................................................................13
7. Accessibility of Collection Points ......................................................................................................... 14
8. Importance of E-Waste Management ................................................................................................. 14
9. Suggested Improvements ....................................................................................................................15
Data analysis conclusion. .........................................................................................................................15
Recommendations: ..................................................................................................................................15
Conclusion. ..................................................................................................................................................16
Reference. ....................................................................................................................................................17

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Abstract.
E-waste is a term used to cover all the items of electrical and electronic equipment and it has
been discarded by its owner as a waste with no intent of reuse. E-waste management system in
Bhutan is a critical challenge due to the increasing reliance on the electronic devices and the lack
of recycling infrastructure. In this paper, it outlines the sustainable e-waste management system
tailored to Bhutan’s unique economic and environmental context. The proposed system
emphasizes on the policy development aligned with Bhutan’s National Waste Prevention and
Management Act, 2009, public awareness, infrastructure enhancement and fostering international
collaboration among the stakeholder to combat the informal handling of e-waste, by adopting
circular economy principles and promoting safe recycling practices, this system aims to mitigate
environmental harm, safeguard public health and contribute towards Bhutan’s sustainability
goals.

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Introduction.
Electronic waste, or e-waste, refers to discarded electronic devices such as computers, mobile
phones, televisions, and other gadgets. The rapid pace of technological advancement has led to a
surge in electronic consumption, which in turn has resulted in large quantities of e-waste globally.
It has become a major problem in both developed and developing countries, presenting
significant challenges to waste management systems due to the toxic substances contained in
electronic waste and its potential risks to human health and the environment (Kuensel, 2014).

E-waste management is an emerging environmental challenge globally and in Bhutan. Bhutan

generated between 1,105 and 1,810 metric tons of e-waste in 2014 (Kuensel, 2014). Developing
countries face significant e-waste management problems due to a lack of proper infrastructure,
inadequate legislation, limited awareness, and weak enforcement of existing regulations (Jan,
2008). Additionally, these nations often experience an influx of e-waste from developed
countries, leading to improper recycling practices such as open dumping and burning, which can
harm both human health and the environment (ResearchGate, 2008).
Effective e-waste management is crucial for Bhutan to mitigate these risks. Proper recycling and
disposal methods can help reduce environmental pollution, conserve valuable resources, and
protect public health. Additionally, managing e-waste can create economic opportunities through
material recovery and the development of a formal recycling industry. Addressing this issue
requires a comprehensive approach that includes policy development, public awareness,
infrastructure enhancement, and international collaboration (Jan, 2008).
This case study aims to explore current e-waste management practices in Bhutan and identify
key challenges and opportunities for improvement. By examining existing policies, practices,
and stakeholder engagement, the study seeks to contribute to Bhutan’s broader sustainability
goals while ensuring the health and safety of its citizens and the environment.

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Methodology.
This methodology focuses on key areas like public awareness, infrastructure enhancement,
recycling and collaboration with stakeholder. Public awareness is the foundational step involving
campaigns about hazards of e-waste and proper disposal methods. Enhancement of infrastructure
is essential to support efficient e-waste collection and processing. Investing in advance
technologies for sorting and recycling can improve material recovery rates and minimize waste,
Recycling plays a vital role in reducing the volume of e-waste and collaboration with
stakeholders ensures the success of the e-waste management system. Therefor in order to gather
for this study, different questionnaires were set up and circulated among the student of JNEC and
other RUB colleges in Bhutan. This diverse group was chosen to reflect varied backgrounds and
regions, providing a comprehensive understanding of e-waste awareness and practices in Bhutan.

Literature review
Health Hazards of E-Waste.
E-Waste contains many harmful substances such as brominated flame retardants,
chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochlorofluorocarbons, approximately 60 percent of e-waste consist of
metals ions, from which 2.7% are toxic metals, hazardous chemicals such as cadmium, arsenic,
lead, and mercury. These content of toxic chemicals and metals in e-waste and the increasing
levels of e-waste, lower rate of collection, improper disposal and treatment of this waste
possesses disruption to the environment ecosystem, the human health (causes neuro-toxicants
and endocrine disruptors, affecting infants and children) and the global atmosphere.
“A total of 50 tons of mercury and 71 kilotons of brominated flame retardants plastics are found
globally undocumented flows of e-waste annually which is largely released into the environment
and impacts the health of the exposed workers.” (Forti et al., 2020)
Anyone exposed to such toxic containing e-waste is expected to associate with many medical
problems, severe medical problems such as cardiovascular problems, cancer, damage in DNA,
unfavorable birth outcomes, altered neurodevelopment, and learning disabilities. Some
temporary medical problems such as stress, headaches, dizziness and respiratory problems
because of continuous exposure to heavy metals and toxic substances like mercury, lead and
PCBs are known to affect organ system. (Hossain et al., 2015).
Improper burning of these toxic e-wastes releases brominated flame retardants, aromatic
hydrocarbons, and polychlorinated biphenyls which can cause severe respiratory illness, liver
damages and development of disorders in the body.

Challenges of E-Waste Management. (globally)

"In 2019, the world generated 53.6 Mt of e-waste, with only 17.4% properly collected and
recycled. This leaves over 44 Mt unaccounted for, contributing to illegal dumping and
environmental contamination."​ (Forti et al., 2020). In many parts of Africa and Asia people

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still handle e-waste in backyards using informal techniques despite growing awareness, which
leads to significant health risks. Although some South Asian nations have taken the interest in
regulation of e-waste, however the enforcement of the initiatives remains weak. Bhutan for
example has regulations regarding the e-waste under “Waste Prevention and Management Act
2009”, but the implementation challenge still remains.
There is still lack of investment in formal proper recycling facilities, many developing countries
don’t have adequate investment, and the cost of establishing e-waste recycling plants remains
prohibitively high. Lack of public awareness and ineffective collection system contributes
mainly to the rising volume to improper disposal of discarded electronic waste and most are
unaware of how to dispose the e-waste safely and mostly these wastes are disposed with other
wastes together without knowing the impact it can cause to the environment and public health.

International Laws and Regulations on E-Waste.

"The Basel Convention (1989) established international regulations on the transboundary

movement of hazardous waste, including e-waste. However, weak enforcement has allowed
continued illegal exports from developed nations to developing countries."​ (Widmer et al.,
2005)

"The European Union’s WEEE Directive (2004) requires manufacturers to take back their
products for responsible disposal, but many developing nations have no similar policies in
place." (Widmer et al., 2005)

Countries in Asia like India and China have recently introduced e-waste regulations, but still
informal recycling remains dominant due to the economic incentives of low-cost processing.

The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and
Their Disposal aims to restrict the movement of hazardous waste, including e-waste, between
countries. It was adopted in 1989 and came into force in 1992. The convention mandates that e-
waste cannot be freely traded like ordinary goods and must follow a written notification and
approval process before being exported.
However, the enforcement of this law remains unaffected which leads to illegal e-waste dumping
in developing countries. The Basel Convection bans or prohibits the export of hazardous waste
from developed to developing countries, which was adopted in 1995 but has not been ratified by
any signatories.

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Bhutan’s E-Waste Situation.
"Bhutan generated approximately 2821 metric tons of e-waste in 2012, making it the second-
lowest producer in the South Asian region. However, on a per capita basis, Bhutan ranked second
with 3.79 kg per person."​ (Hossain et al., 2015).
Bhutan has launched waste management flagship program in 2019, which aims to achieve a
“Zero waste Bhutan” by revising the trend of disposing over 80% of waste to landfills to less
than 20% by 2030. (National Environment Commission [NEC], 2019).
National Waste Management Strategy 2019: This strategy outlines comprehensive approaches to
waste management This strategy outlines comprehensive approaches to waste management,
including the prevention and management of e-waste. The Department of National Properties
(DNP) is tasked with organizing auctions and maintaining records of e-waste surrendered by
government agencies. Between 2016 and 2017, approximately 912 e-waste items were generated,
which were typically auctioned and purchased as scrap by companies.
The National Environment Commissions (NEC) launched the zero waste Bhutan initiative to
reduce waste at every point and establish a strict management and monitoring around every
corner of the country in which every second day of the month is used as zero waste day, whereby
the citizens of the country take time on that day to collect all the waste around the community
and road sides and dump in the landfills.
Despite all the laws and initiatives taken by the government of Bhutan, the country still faces
challenges in managing e-waste.
Establishing e-waste recovery and recycling facilities in Bhutan has been deemed unfeasible due
to the small market size and high operational costs. As a result, most e-waste is either stored,
discarded, or exported.
Many repair shops and consumers are unaware of proper e-waste disposal methods, often selling
non-recyclable electronics to scrap dealers or discarding them improperly. ​
There is a lack of comprehensive data on e-waste generation and composition, hindering
effective policy formulation and implementation. The NWIS 2019 provides baseline data but
does not specifically quantify e-waste.

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E-Waste Management in Bhutan and Developing Nations: Challenges, Technical Solutions,
and Economic Models
Electronic waste (e-waste) is a rapidly growing concern worldwide due to the increasing
consumption of electronic devices and their short lifespan. The challenge is particularly pressing
for developing nations, where proper collection, recycling, and disposal mechanisms are often
lacking. Bhutan, like many developing countries, faces significant obstacles in managing e-waste
due to its limited recycling infrastructure, geographical challenges, and lack of public awareness.
To address this issue, alternative technical and economic models must be explored to implement
low-cost, decentralized, and sustainable e-waste management solutions. This section examines
technical innovations, economic strategies, and lessons from other developing nations to provide
insights for Bhutan’s evolving e-waste management system.

1. Technical Solutions for Small Nations

One of the biggest challenges for Bhutan in e-waste management is its mountainous terrain and
scattered population, which makes centralized recycling facilities difficult to establish and
maintain. To overcome this, decentralized waste management strategies and mobile e-waste
collection units have been proposed as viable solutions.
1.1 Decentralized E-Waste Recycling in Remote Areas
Studies conducted in Himalayan regions highlight the inefficiency of centralized e-waste
management systems due to transportation challenges and high operational costs (Shrestha et al.,
2023). Nepal has successfully piloted community-based recycling hubs where small-scale
collection and dismantling centers operate at the district level, making recycling more accessible
for remote populations (Mamgain, 2022).
To improve waste collection, some countries have introduced mobile e-waste units, which travel
to different locations, collecting and sorting e-waste before sending it to larger processing
facilities (Li & Zeng, 2014). In Bhutan, such mobile units could help collect e-waste from rural
areas and reduce improper disposal practices. Additionally, integrating IoT-based waste
monitoring systems could help track collection efficiency and optimize transportation routes
(Shrestha et al., 2023).
1.2 Low-Cost Recycling Technologies for Small-Scale E-Waste Management
Developing nations such as Nepal, Bangladesh, and India have explored cost-effective e-waste
recycling techniques, including manual dismantling, mechanical shredding, and bioleaching
(Shrestha et al., 2023). Manual dismantling is a feasible option for Bhutan as it requires low
investment costs and provides employment opportunities. Some developing nations have also

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adopted community-based refurbishing hubs, which extend the lifespan of electronics through
repair and resale, reducing overall e-waste volume (Mamgain, 2022).
Innovative metal recovery techniques such as bioleaching—using microorganisms to extract
valuable metals—have also been explored as non-toxic alternatives to chemical processes in
some remote regions (Li & Zeng, 2014). Such methods could be adapted to Bhutan’s scale of e-
waste generation, making local recycling more sustainable and environmentally friendly.

2. Economic Models for E-Waste Management in Bhutan

Beyond technical solutions, economic viability remains a key challenge for Bhutan’s e-waste
management. Without financial sustainability, even well-designed systems fail to operate
effectively. Various economic strategies have been proposed to improve collection efficiency,
incentivize recycling, and promote a circular economy.
2.1 Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) for E-Waste Management
Public-private partnerships (PPP) have been successfully implemented in India and Nepal, where
government agencies collaborate with private waste management firms to improve collection,
processing, and recycling operations (Shrestha et al., 2023). These partnerships provide financial
support and technical expertise, allowing e-waste programs to function more efficiently.
Bhutan could explore incentivizing local businesses to become certified collection centers for e-
waste. This approach has proven successful in small economies like Mauritius, where local
businesses receive tax benefits for participating in e-waste collection and disposal programs
(Mamgain, 2022).
2.2 Circular Economy Potential: Upcycling and Refurbishment Markets
Many developing nations have successfully integrated upcycling and refurbishing into their e-
waste management plans, creating secondary markets for used electronics (Li & Zeng, 2014).
Bhutan can adopt similar strategies by encouraging electronic repair shops to serve as collection
points, ensuring that functional devices are reused rather than discarded.
Some countries have also implemented buyback programs, where consumers return old
electronics to retailers for a discount on new purchases (Mamgain, 2022). Bhutan could
introduce similar manufacturer take-back schemes, helping reduce illegal disposal and encourage
responsible recycling.
2.3 Financial Challenges and Export Limitations
Unlike larger economies, Bhutan does not have a dedicated e-waste export framework, making
local recycling essential (Shrestha et al., 2023). Many developing nations export e-waste to
larger recycling facilities, but Bhutan’s lack of international agreements makes this difficult.
Moreover, the high cost of establishing formalized recycling plants and the absence of major
investors slow down progress (Mamgain, 2022).

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To overcome these challenges, Bhutan could explore government subsidies or international
funding initiatives to support small-scale recycling operations and incentivize private sector
involvement.

3. Climate Change and Policy Synergies

E-waste not only contributes to land pollution and resource depletion but also has a significant
climate impact. Bhutan’s commitment to carbon neutrality provides an opportunity to align e-
waste policies with broader environmental goals.
3.1 E-Waste’s Contribution to Bhutan’s Carbon Footprint
Improper disposal of e-waste, including landfilling and incineration, releases toxic chemicals and
greenhouse gases such as methane and dioxins (Shrestha et al., 2023). Bhutan’s dependence on
landfill-based waste disposal increases the risk of contaminating soil and water sources.
Countries with limited waste-processing capabilities have integrated e-waste management into
their carbon reduction strategies by reducing landfill dependency and promoting material
recovery (Mamgain, 2022). Bhutan could adopt similar strategies by encouraging formalized e-
waste processing units to limit emissions.
3.2 Policy Recommendations for Bhutan
To ensure a sustainable and climate-conscious e-waste strategy, Bhutan should:
1. Implement strict regulations to prevent e-waste dumping and illegal burning.
2. Introduce carbon offset incentives for companies engaged in e-waste collection and recycling.
3. Partner with international organizations such as UNEP to fund clean technology for e-waste
processing.
By integrating e-waste solutions into its environmental and climate policies, Bhutan can achieve
both waste reduction and carbon neutrality goals.

Recommendation for Bhutan.

Bhutan’s e-waste management challenges require a multi-faceted approach that includes
technical innovations, economic sustainability, and environmental responsibility. Decentralized
recycling models, mobile collection units, and low-cost recycling technologies offer practical
solutions for Bhutan’s unique terrain. Economic models such as public-private partnerships,
circular economy initiatives, and financial incentives can help establish a functional recycling
system.
Furthermore, integrating e-waste management with Bhutan’s climate policies will ensure long-
term sustainability. By learning from other developing nations and implementing tailored
solutions, Bhutan can develop a resilient and effective e-waste management system that aligns
with its environmental values and economic capabilities.

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Data analysis.

1. Familiarity with E-Waste

Over 86% of respondents have at least basic awareness of e-waste, indicating successful awareness
campaigns. However, ~13.6% lack familiarity, signaling a need for targeted education.

2. Awareness of Recycling Programs

Nearly half are aware of programs, but 52.3% (No + Maybe) remain uncertain. This suggests poor
visibility or inconsistent outreach about existing initiatives.

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3. Knowledge of E-Waste Disposal Location

Only 27% know disposal locations. The majority (72.7%) are uninformed or unsure, highlighting a critical
gap in accessible information or infrastructure.

4. Handling of Old Electronics

Hoarding electronics (40.9%) and improper disposal (13.6%) pose environmental risks. Recycling rates
(27.3%) are modest but need improvement.

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5. Participation in Recycling Programs

Despite partial awareness, participation is extremely low (15.9%). Structural barriers (e.g., inaccessible
facilities) or lack of incentives may deter engagement.

6. Perceived Challenges

Respondents acknowledge systemic issues: awareness campaigns are fragmented, and infrastructure is
inadequate. The "lack of awareness" refers to collective societal gaps, not individual knowledge.

Public perception identifies awareness gaps as the top challenge, followed by infrastructure deficits. This
aligns with earlier findings (e.g., Q3 and Q5).

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7. Accessibility of Collection Points

Over 70% find collection points inaccessible or are unsure of their existence. This underscores the need
for better infrastructure and communication

8. Importance of E-Waste Management

Near-unanimous agreement (97.7%) on the importance of e-waste management, reflecting strong

public support for systemic improvements.

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9. Suggested Improvements

Respondents prioritize awareness campaigns (61.4%) and infrastructure (18.2%). Incentives and
regulations are seen as secondary but still relevant

Data analysis conclusion.

1. Awareness vs. Action Gap: While 86.4% are familiar with e-waste, low participation (15.9%) and
poor disposal knowledge (27.3%) reveal a disconnect between awareness and actionable
behavior.

2. Infrastructure Deficits: Limited recycling facilities (27.3%) and inaccessible collection points
(47.7% unsure) are major barriers.

3. Public Demand for Solutions: Strong support for awareness campaigns (61.4%) and systemic
improvements (97.7% prioritize e-waste management) signals readiness for change.

Recommendations:
 Launch targeted awareness campaigns to convert passive knowledge into action.

 Expand recycling infrastructure, especially in underserved regions.

 Strengthen government policies (e.g., incentives, stricter regulations) to support recycling efforts.

 Improve visibility of existing e-waste programs through community outreach.

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Conclusion.

Bhutan faces an increasing e-waste challenge due to limited infrastructure, public awareness, and
the mountainous terrain, despite policies like the National Waste Management Strategy 2019 and
the Zero Waste Bhutan initiative by the National Environment Commission, gaps in facilities and
law enforcement still persist.
To tackle these issues, the country can try decentralized waste management, mobile collection
units, and community-based recycling hubs.
By prioritizing a circular economy and learning from world’s best practices, Bhutan can slowly
transform its e-waste management scenario into a sustainable waste managing system, protecting
both the public health and the environment while setting an example for other nations struggling
with e-waste management.

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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.07.052
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