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Oseas Bezerra Viana Júnior

 4 2 B a sic c o n c e p ts in s y n t a x

Three essential concepts figure in the theory we use to describe English syntax in tbis
grammar. Each is very simple to grasp, but together they perm it extremely broad and
powerful theories to be constructed for indefinitely large collections of sentences. We
express them tersely in [r ].
[1 ] i Sentences have parts, which may themselves have parts.
ii The parts of sentences belong to a limited range of types.
iii The parts have specific roles or functions within the larger parts they belong to.
The idea that sentences have parts which themselves may have parts, i.e. that larger
stretches of material in a sentence are made up by putting together smaller stretches, is
the basis of ‘constituent structure’ analysis. The idea that the parts fali into a limited
range of types that we can name and refer to when giving a grammatical description is
the root of the concept of ‘syntactic categories’. And the idea that the parts also have
specific roles or functions, or special slots that they fill in the larger parts they belong to, is
the idea o f ‘grammatical functions’. The next three subsections are devoted to explaining
these three fundam ental ideas.

4.2.1 Constituent structure

Sentences contain parts called constituents. Those constituents often have constituents
themselves, and those are made up from still shorter constituents, and so on. This
hierarchical composition of wholes from parts is called constituent structure.
Consider a simple one-clause sentence like A bird hit the car. It is divisible in the first
instance into two parts, a bird (the subject) and hit the car (the predicate). The phrase a
bird is itself made up of smaller parts, a and bird; so is hit the car, which we divide into
hit and the car; and finally the car also has two parts, the and car. This structure can be
represented a sin [2 ].

Such representations of the constituent structure are called trees or tree-diagrams

(though the trees are upside down, with the root at the top and the ends of the smallest

1
 4-2.2 Syntactic categories

branches at the bottom ). The words are the smallest constituents, and the points closer
to the root where branches join identify the larger constituents. A storm, for example,
is identified as a constituent because this word sequence can be traced via the branches
to a single point in the tree; similarly with the car and hit the car. The sequence bird hit,
on the other hand, is not a constituent, as there is no point in the tree that leads down
branches to just these two words and no others.
The parts o f the sentence shown at the first levei down, a bird and hit the car are
said to be the immediate constituents of the sentence; similarly, hit and the car are the
immediate constituents of hit the car. The words are the ultimate constituents of the
sentence.
The evidence that this is the correct analysis of the sentence comes from the whole
of the rest of the grammar, all of which provides, by virtue of the coherence of the
description it gives, the evidence that the lines of separation have been drawn in the
right place. We can give an illustrative example of how other parts of the grammar
can provide supportive evidence by considering where we can insert an adverb such
as apparently (indicating that what the rest of the sentence asserts appears to be true).
A rough account of where English gram m ar permits it to be positioned (at least in
clauses as simple as our example) is that it can be anywhere in the clause it mod-
ifi.es, provided it does not interrupt a constituent. This is illustrated in [3 ], where
the grammatical [a] examples conform to this rule, and the ungrammatical [b] ones
do not:
[3 ] i a . Apparently a bird hit the car. b. *An apparently bird hit the car.
ii a. A bird apparently hit the car. b. *A bird hit apparently the car.
iii a. A bird hit the car, apparently. b. ' A bird hit the apparently car.
The five words of our example sentence perm it six different logically possible placements
for apparently that are between words (before any of the five words, or after the last one),
but only three are permissible. Breaking the sentence into constituents in exactly the
way we have done, we are able to make a general statement about where an adverb like
apparently (a ‘m odal’ adverb) can be positioned in it: such an adverb m ust not interrupt
a constituent of the clause. Hence [ib] above is disallowed because it would interrupt
the constituent a bird; [iib] is disallowed because it would interrupt hit the car; and
[iiib] is disallowed because it would interrupt the car. Inspecting the diagram in [2 ], we
see that each of these uninterr uptible sequences is a constituent smaller than the whole
sentence.
The fui 1 support for a decision in grammatical description consists of confirmation
from hundreds of m utually supportive pieces of evidence of m any kinds, this being only
one very simple example.

4.2.2 Syntactic categories

Diagram [2 ] shows just the hierarchical part-w hole relationships in the sentence. This
is only the starting-point for a description, identifying the constituents that have to be
described. The next step is to classify these constituents, to say what syntactic category
they belong to. For words, these syntactic categories correspond to what are traditionally

2
 Chapteri Preliminaries

called the ‘parts of speech’, and most of the categories for larger constituents are based
on the ones for words. Where we need to refer to just the categories that have words as
members, we will call them lexical categories.

Lexical categories
Any theory of syntax of the general sort we provide, and most types of dictionary, must
include a list of the lexical categories or parts of speech assumed. For nearly all theories
and nearly all dictionaries, noun, verb, adjective, and adverb will be among them,
these being terms that have a history going back to the grammar of Classical Latin and
Classical Greek some 2,000 years ago, but they are apparently applicable to almost all
hum an languages. Our complete list is given, with some illustrations of membership,
in [4 ]:
[4] CATEGORY LABEL EXAM PLES

i noun N tree, pig, sugar, hatred, luiiotu Picasso, London

ii verb V do,fly, melt, think, damage, give, have, be, must
iii adjective Adj good, ríice, big, easy, ugly, helpful, reddish, fond
iv adverb Adv obviously, easily, helpfully, frankly, sooti, so, too
v preposition Prep of, to, by, into, between, over, since, toward(s)
vi determinative D the, this, that, a(n), some, all, every, each
vii subordinator that, for, to, whether, if
viii coordinator and, or, but, nor
ix interjection ah, damn, gosh, hey, oh, ooh, ouch, whoa, wow

This scheme differs in several respects from the classification familiar from traditional
grammar. Our determinatives are traditionally subsumed under the adjective category:
they are said to be ‘limiting adjectives’ as distinct from the ‘descriptive adjectives’ illus-
trated in [4ÍIÍ] - though some traditional grammars do recognise the articles the and
a(n) as a distinct part of speech. We also take subordinators and coordinators to be
distinct categories, not subclasses of the traditional conjunction category. Conversely,
we regard pronouns as a subclass of nouns, not a distinct prim ary category. Our reasons
for departing from the traditional analysis are given in the relevant chapters.

Phrasal categories
Constituents containing more than one word (more specifically, containing a central and
m ost im portant word augmented by appropriate accompanying words that elaborate its
contribution to the sentence) are called phrases, and are assigned to phrasal categories.8
The lexical categories have corresponding phrase types that are in a sense expansions of
them . A phrase consisting of a no un and the constituents that go with it m ost closely is
a nominal; a nom inal plus a determinative makes a noun phrase; a verb and its various
complements makes up a verb phrase; a noun phrase and a verb phrase make up a
clause; and so on. The full list of phrasal categories we employ in this book, together
with our abbreviatory labeis for them and an example phrase of each type, is given in
[5 1-9

'^There are circumstances in which phrases may consist o f a single word: see the discussion o f ‘singulary
branching’ in §4.2.3.
9The term ‘sentence’ does not figure here. As will be explained more fully in Ch. 2, §i, a sentence in our terms
is typically either a main clause or a coordination o f main clauses.

3
 § 4 - 2.3 Grammatical constructions and functions

[5 ] CATEGORY LABEL EXAMPLE

i clause Clause she saw something in there

ii verb phrase VP saw something in there
iii noun phrase NP this clear case of deâication to duty
iv nominal Nom clear case of deâication to duty
v adjective phrase AdjP very eager for further news
vi adverb phrase AdvP quite separately from this issue
vii preposition phrase PP right out ofthe area
viii determinative phrase DP almost every
We can represent the structure of sentences in more detail than is done in a diagram
like [2] if we show the category to which each constituent belongs, as in [6].

4.2.3 Grammatical constructions and functions

The third central theoretical idea we m ust introduce is that constituents always have
particular roles to play in the constructions, the larger units, that they belong to. We call
these roles graminatical functions. In our example sentence the phrases a storm and the
roof belong to the same category, NP, but they have different functions, subject and object
respectively. They belong to the same category because they are alike in their internai
structure (both have a noun as the m ajor element), but they have different functions
because they stand in different relations to the verb. The opposite type of situation is
illustrated in such a pair as:
[7 ] a. His guilt was obvious. b. That he was guiltv was obvions.
Here the underlined constituents have the same function (subject) but belong to different
categories (NP and cia use respectively). They have the same function because they stand
in the same relation to the predicate, and they belong to different categories because the
first is centred on a noun (guilt) while the second is centred, ultimately, on a verb (was).
We say that the subject is realised by an NP in [a], by a clause in [b].

4
 Chapteri Preliminaries

□ Heads and dependents

There is a set of functions that to a large extent applyin the same way within all phrasal
categories. The first division we make is that between the head and the various depen-
. dents that can combine with it.
The head, normally obligatory, plays the prim ary role in determining the distribution
of the phrase, i.e. whereabouts in sentence structure it can occur. Note, then, that while
hisguilt and thathe was guilty can both function as subject they differ in other aspects of
their distribution - we can have, for example, The news that he was guilty was devastating,
but not *The news his guílt was devastating (we need a preposition: The news ofhis guilt
was devastating), and this difference is attributable to the fact that the head of the former
is a noun while the (ultimate) head of the latter is a verb.
Dependents, often optional, are syntacticallysubordinate elements. The term ‘depen-
dent’ reflects the fact that in any given construction what kinds of dependent are permit-
ted depends on the head. For example, too (with the sense “excessively”) can function as
dependent to an adjective or adverb ( too careful, too carefuüy), but not to a noun or verb
Çtheir too extravagance, *You shouldrít too worry). Similarly sufficiently can function as
dependent to an adjective, adverb, or verb, but not to a noun (sufficientlygood, sufficiently
often, practised sufficiently, *sufficiently reason).
Predicate and predicator as special cases of the head function
W ithin this framework, what is traditionally called the predicate is a special case of the
head function: the predicate is the head of a clause. Similarly, the term predicator is
com m only used for the function of the verb itself, i.e. for the head of a verb phrase.
We will retain the traditional terms, which indicate the characteristic semantic role of
the element concerned, but it should be kept in m ind that they are particular kinds of
head.

5
Adapted from: WEKKER, H.; HAEGEMAN, L. A modern course in English
syntax. London; NY: Routledge, 1985.

1.2 REPRESENTING SENTENCE STRUCTURE

1,2.1 BRACKETING
The syntactic structure of sentence (1) above may be represented pro-
visionally by marking off each constituent from sentence levei to word levei

6
 Aims and Methods

by square brackets: [ ]. To simplify matters, we shall ignore the mor-

pheme boundaries here. This convention of bracketing yields the following
analysis, which looks rather daunting at first sight:

(2) [[[[T he] [snake] ] [ [killed] [[the] [rat] ] ] ]

[and]
[ [ [swallowed] [ [it] ] ] ] ]
Analysis (2) is the result of first bracketing the sentence, then the two
clauses, then the phrases, and fínally the words, as follows:

Sentence.
(3a) [The snake killed the rat and swallowed it]
Clauses:
(3b) [ [The snake killed the rat]
and
[swallowed it] ]
Phrases:
(3c) [ [ [The snake] [killed [the rat] ] ]
and
[ [swallowed [it] ] ] ]
Words:
(3d) [ [ [ [The] [snake] ] [ [killed] [ [the] [rat] ] ] ]
[and]
[ [ [swallowed] [ [it] ] ] ] ]
Analysis (3d) is of course identical with (2) above.
The bracketing has here been done on a purely intuitive basis. In the follow­
ing chapters we shall deal with the formal arguments which justify those
choices. Check through the above analysis carefully again, and try to bracket
the following sentences from sentence levei to word levei in the same way:
(4) The terrorists assassinated the ambassador.
(5) Her husband is an aristocrat.
(6) He gave his mother a present.
In (2) above we can see that word and morpheme boundaries may co­
incide: the, snake, rat, etc. are all one word and one morpheme, as
opposed to killed and swallowed, which are words consisting of two mor-
phemes each. Words and phrases may also coincide, as in:
(7) John laughed.

7
 Aims and Methods

In this sentence John is both a phrase (a noun phrase) and a word (a

noun); laughed is also both a phrase (a verb phrase) and a word (a verb).
The units sentence and clause also coincide in (7). Bracketing from sen-
ténce levei to word levei yields (8):
(8) [[[[J o h n ]] [[laughed]]]]
Word, phrase, clause and sentence may also coincide, as in:
(9) Run!
The bracketing of sentence (9) is as follows:
(10) [[[[R u n ]]]]
It is structurally one sentence, one clause, one phrase and one word (also
one morpheme).
The above examples show that a sentence is not necessarily longer than
a clause, a clause not necessarily longer than a phrase, and a phrase not
frecessarily longer than a word (in general, we shall not go beyond the levei
o f the word in our analyses). We shall see that sentences may vary in length
and complexity from one clause to indefinitely many clauses, clauses from one
phrase to indefinitely many phrases, and phrases from one word to indefi­
nitely many words.
In Chapter 2 we shall look at each of these grammatical uiíits in more
detail.

1.2.2 LABELLED BRACKETING

The system of bracketing which we have used so far is not very satisfactory.
It is diffícult to see, for example, which brackets go together to mark off a
constituem. The notation introduced above could be improved by adding
an appropriate grammatical labei to each pair of square brackets. The labei
indicates what type of constituent (or grammatical category) is contained
within the brackets. This convention is called Sabelled bracketing. To
illustrate the new system, let us consider again the structure of the sentence
The snake killed the rat and swallowed it ( (1) above).
We shall use square brackets with the labei S (short for ‘sentence’) to
mark off the boundaries of the whole sentence, as follows:
(11) [sThe snake killed the rat and swallowed it]
The category labei is inserted in the bottom comer of the left-hand
bracket. This sentence, as we have seen, consists of two clauses: the clause
The snake killed the rat and the clause (it) swallowed it. The two clauses
are joined together by the coordinator and The clauses can be bracketed
and labelled as follows: .

8
 Aims and Methods

(12) [ s, U The snake kilied the rat] and [ S3 (it)swallowed it] ]

The two clauses are labelled S2 and S3 here, and the whole sentence is
jabelled S,. S2 and S3 are clauses inside Sj (the numbeirs 1,2,3 etc. are
added herè and elsewhere just for convenience: they enable us to refer
unambiguously to the different Ss). We use the labei S for sentences as well
as clauses, since clauses can be defined as Ss inside an S or inside a phrase.
The clauses in (12) can be further analysed into phrases as follows:
( 13) U [s2[NpThe snake] [VPkilled [NPthe rat] ] ]

and U [ np (il)] [vpswallowed [ NPit] ] ] ]

The labei NP stands for noun phrase, and the labei VP for verb phrase. The
snake and the rat are NPs, because their most important element is a noun
(N); it, which replaces an NP, is also an NP (cf. 1.2.4 and 2.4.2.2). The
VPs in (13) consist of a verb (V) followed by an NP. The verbs are kilied
:m&swallowed. The NPs the rat in kilied the rat and it in swallowed it are
parts of the VPs, and act as Complements of the verbs kilied and
swallowed respectively.
The words that make up the above phrases can also be bracketed and
labelled as follows:
(H ) [,, [S2 [ np [ Det The] [ Nsnake] ] [ VP [ vkilled]

[ np U th e ][Nrat]]]]
[and]
[ s3[ npOO] [ vp [vswallowed] [NP [ Nit] ] ] ] ]
The labei Det stands for determiner, the labei N for noun, and the labei V
for verb. Noun and verb are major word classes, and Det is a collective
term for various items preceding the noun, e.g.: the, a, that, this, some,
any. Now compare (14) with (2) in section 1.2.1 above. The only dif-
ference between the two is that pairs Of brackets are labelled here.
Our syntactic analysis of the sentence does not usually go below the
levei of the word or even the phrase* but occasionally it will be useful to
mark off the morpheme structure of a given word, for example the
structure of the past tense forms of verbs, or of the plurais and genitives of
nouns. This, too, can be done by means of labelled bracketing, as, for
example, in the case of kilied:
0 6 ) [ v [ b^ h] [s u ff^ ]]
Here the labei B is used for the base (of the verb), and the labei Suff for suffix
(see section 1.1).
Throughout this book we shall frequently use this kind of labelled brack­
eting to represent sentence structure.

9
Adapted from: CRYSTAL, D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. 3rd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 2019.

LEVELS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Major sentences can be very simple (/ loveyou), but they

have the potential to contam a great deal of grammati-
cal structure, as is evident from almost every instance
on this page. Literature, oratory, and other sophisticated
forms of communication provide particularly striking
examples of sentence complexity (p. 74). To demonstrate
the order which Controls this complexity, all grammars
work with the idea of ‘leveis’ of organization.
A ‘levei’ is a way of recognizing the fact that a sen­
tence is not a simple linear string of items. Rather, items
are grouped together into units, which then work as
wholes in relation to other units. Adult native-speakers
do not have to be told that these units exist: they ‘know’
that they do, subconsciously, as a result of learning the
language. (They may not be able to describe the elements
they sense to be present, of course, for that is a more
conscious task - the difference between ‘knowing about’
rather than just ‘knowing’ language, p. 203.)
The sentence The big dogs enjoyed their unexpected
bones quickly yields evidence of a hierarchy of leveis of
organization. The smallest levei of this hierarchy hardly
needs an explanation. If asked to divide this sentence
into its parts, most people would immediately identify
the seven words. But this is not the whole story. The following sentences are Phrase levei Word levei
• Four of these words contain smaller units: dog + -s, taken from the regularized Only multi-word phrases are The existence of several irregu­
monologue on p. 226. listed below. However, it is lar forms makes the analysis of
enjoy + -ed, un- + expect + -ed, and bone + -s. The
important to note that in this word structure more complex
We usually went out quite
use of suffixes and prefixes shows that there is a approach the notion of phrase than may appear at first sight:
soon after that. The children
levei of structure within the word (the morphological were always up at the crack
also extends to single words, went, for example, is the past
levei, §14). as long as they are poten- tense of go, and can thus be
of dawn with the farmer, and
tially expandable into a larger analysed as go + -ed.
• The first three words, and the last three, both combine they went into the milking
unit: for example, supper is
sheds and helped him feed usual/y(a derivational suffix,
into larger units: the big dogs and their unexpected considered an example of a
the pigs. We didn't see the p. 223)
bones. These larger units are called phrases, and they children. So we'd generally go
noun phrase (p. 234) because
went (an irregular past tense
show that there is a levei of structure between the word it could be expanded into
for a tea somewhere, just in form, p. 216)
our supper, the big supper,
and the sentence. case supper was delayed. children (the changed vowel of
etc. Grammarians can spend
child is not apparent in the
• It would be possible to make the sentence bigger by Clause levei hours debating the merits and
written form)
linking it to a similar sequence of words: The big dogs The conjunctions and other demerits of such decisions. The
were (another irregular past
enjoyed their unexpected bones, and the little puppies linking words have been omitted point shows that even a simple
tense form)
below. Note that the subject of instruction as 'find the phrases'
liked the scraps. The sentence now consists of two milk/ng(a derivational suffix,
helped has to be understood raises interesting questions
clauses (p. 228), showing that there can be a further p. 220)
from the previous clause, as has of analysis. Similarly, there
sheds (milking sheds can also
levei of structure between the phrase and the sentence. the subject of feed. Helped him are issues over the analysis of
be analysed as a compound
These four leveis - word, phrase, clause, sentence - feed the pigs presents a problem clauses (see above) and words
word, p. 139)
of analysis, as some grammar- (see below).
comprise the grammatical hierarchy summarized in the helped
ians would take this construction went out
him (objective form of he,
figure (above), which also gives further examples of as a single clause. quite soon p. 215)
the units which operate at each levei. The figure also we usually went out quite soon after that pigs
suggests the possibility of a levei of grammatical organi­ after that the children didn'f (d/d is another irregular
zation which is larger than the sentence: this is discussed the children were always up at were...up past tense form)
the crack of dawn with the at the crack of dawn we'd
on p. 244 and in § 19. farmer with the farmer general/y (another derivational
they went into the milking sheds into the milking sheds suffix)
helped him the pigs somewhere (a compound form,
feed the pigs didn't see p. 139)
we didn't see the children 'd...go was (another irregular past
we'd generally go for a tea for a tea tense form)
somewhere in case delayed
just in case supper was delayed was delayed

10
 C FURTHER RESOURCES
)

PHRASES
NOUN PHRASE STRUCTURE

A phrase is a syntactic construction which typically The noun phrase (NP) is the main construc­ and the commonest determiners (the and
tion which can appear as the subject, object, a) are among the most frequent words in
contains more than one word, but which lacks the
or complement of a clause (p. 233). It con- the language.
subject-predicate structure usually found in a clause sists essentially of a noun or noun-like word The determiner can be the centre of
(p. 232). Phrases are traditionally classified into types which is the most important constituent of its own cluster of words which share in
based on the most important word they contain: if this the phrase: a fatcat, the horses in the the expression of quantity. In the present
stable, the poor, ten Chinese. Sometimes approach, those which appear before the
is a noun, for example, the phrase would be called a the noun appears alone in its phrase (Cats determiner are called (logically enough)
noun phrase; if an adjective, an adjective phrase; and are nice). More often, it is accompanied by predeterminers; they include all the people,
so on. Six word classes (§15) - nouns, verbs, adjectives, one or more other constituents, some of twice the cost, half the money. Those which
which are themselves fairly complex syntactic immediately follow the determiner, preceding
adverbs, pronouns, and prepositions - are found as the
units in their own right. As a result, noun any adjectives which may occur, are called
identifying elements (or heads) of phrasal constructions. phrases are more varied in their construction postdeterminers; they are chiefly the numer­
However, there are considerable differences between than any other kind of phrase in English. ais (my three fat cats, the second big party)
the syntactic patterns which can occur within each type The parts of a noun phrase
and a few other quantifying words (such as
of phrase, ranging from the very limited possibilities of many and severa!}.
No matter how complex a noun phrase is,
it can be analysed into one or more of the • The premodification comprises any other
pronoun phrases to the highly variable patterns found
following four constituents: words appearing between the determiner
within noun phrases. and the head noun - mainly adjectives or
• The head is the most important constituent,
• Pronoun phrases are restricted to a small number around which any other constituents cluster.
adjective-like words. In the phrase those
of constructions, and tend not to be recognized as a lovely old French wooden spoons, every-
It is the head which Controls any agreement
thing between those and spoons is said to
productive type in English. Examples include Silly with other parts of the sentence. Thus we
'premodify' the noun. (In some grammars,
have His new book is interesting alongside
me!, You there!, she herself, we all, nearly everyone, the notion of premodification is broader,
His new books are interesting, and The girl
and such relative clause constructions as those who and includes everything in the noun
in the garden saw it herself alongside The
phrase which appears before the head,
knew Fred.. .They are usually analysed as a minor type boy in the garden saw it himself.
including the determiner and its satellites.)
of noun phrase. • The determiner appears before the noun.
• The postmodification comprises everything
This constituent decides ('determines')
• Adverb phrases are typically found as short inten- what kind of noun is in the phrase -
which appears in the phrase after the
sifying expressions, such as terribly slowly and very head. The chief types are prepositional
in particular, whether it is definite or
phrases (the car in the garage), finite
happily indeed. Also common are such time phrases indefinite, proper or common, count or
clauses (the film thatlsaw ), and nonfinite
noncount (pp. 220-1). Words such as a,
as quite often and very soon, and constructions of the clauses (the new car parked outside).
those, some, and any are determiners. It is
type as quickly (as I could). not essential for a noun phrase to have a
Adverbs and adjectives are also sometimes
used to 'postmodify' the noun, as in the
• Adjective phrases are usually combinations of an adjec­ determiner (for example, proper nouns do
journey home and something different.
tive and a preceding intensifier, such as very happy and not take one), but most noun phrases do,

not too awkward. Other types include cold enough and

a wide range of constructions which complement the GROWING NOUN PHRASES
adjective, such as easy to please and loath to do it. Buns are for sale
• Verb phrases display very limited syntactic possibili­ The buns are for sale
ties: a main verb preceded by up to four auxiliaries All the buns are for sale
(p. 219), as in may have gone and won’t have been All the currant buns are for sale
Not quite all the currant buns are for sale
listening. However, this limitation does not prevent the Not quite all the hot buttered currant buns are for sale
verb phrase from expressing a wide range of meanings Not quite all the hot buttered currant buns on the table are for sale
to do with time, mood, and manner of action. Not quite all the hot buttered currant buns on show on the table are for sale
• By contrast, noun phrases allow an extremely wide Not quite all the many fine interesting-looking hot buttered home-
made currant buns which grandma cooked on show on the table are for sale
range of syntactic possibilities, from such simple con­
structions as the hat to such complex phrases as not Predetermíner Determiner Postdetermíner Premodification Head Postmodification

quite all the jine new hats which were on sale. They
need to be described separately (see right). Not quite all the many fine...currant buns which...table
• Prepositional phrases are combinations of a preposi-
PO ST CARD~
tion plus a noun phrase: in the back garden, beneath the Dear Mum
hedge. They typically perform the role of adverbial in a
clause: I saw itin the garden =1 saw it there. They are
also adjectival: the linguist with the red beard. z s M & s ã s p

ruins — mttbrollir* mm*

Kdte X.X.
11
 UNIT 9: NOUN PHRASES
Lesson 28: The basic structure of noun phrases

T here a re all kinds of noun phrases and we can discover them by seeing some of th e things
we can su b stitu te for the noun phrase, the little boy. The u n d erlin ed p o rtio n s of the senten-
ces below are all noun phrases and any one of them can replace thelitüe boy in the sentence
The little boy laughed.
1. A udienceslaughed.
2. Younger audiences laughed.
3. The g ir llaughed.
4. The little girl laughed.
5. The cute little girl laughed.
6. John laughed.
7. T h e y laughed.
Of course, th e re a re lots of things th a t can n o t replace the little boy, for exam p le:
8. *My v ery q u ick ly lau g h ed .
9. *N earhis laughed.
10. *W entaway laughed.
You’re probably not su rp rised to le a rn th a t My very quickly, Nearhis, and Wentaway are not
noun phrases.
So w hat can be a noun phrase?
In sentences 1-6, the noun phrases all have som ething in com m on: each consists of at
least a noun. (See Unit 1to refre sh your m em ory about nouns.)
Here are the noun phrases again, w ith th e nou n s un d erlin ed :
audiences
younger audiences
the girl
the little girl
the cute little girl
John
In sentence 1, Audiences laughed, and in sentence 6, John laughed, the noun p h rase con­
sists of ju st a n o u n : audiences in sentence 1and John in sentence 6.

12
 UNI T 9 : NOUN PHRASES

Quick tip 28.2

A noun phrase can consist of a determiner, one or more adjectives, and a noun. The
determiner and adjective(s) are optional.

Test yourselt 28.2

U nderline the noun phrases in each of the sentences below. In th is exercise, the n o u n p h rase w ill
always consist of a d eterm in e r + noun; the d eterm in e r w ill always be an article, th a t is, the, a, or
an. Some sentences m ay have m ore th a n one noun phrase.
Sample: A m an stole the car.

G etting s ta r te d (answ ers on p. 119) M ore p ra c tic e (answ ers o n th e website)

1. T h ew in n e rw a so v erjo y ed . 6. A M ercedes costs m ore th a n a Chevy.
2. The crow d dispersed peacefully. 7. The A n d erso n sb o u g h ta h o u se.
3. A m inute can se e m lik e a n e te rn ity . 8. T h e c h ild re n a re sle e p in g .
4. The d en tist gave the p atien t a toothbrush. 9. The lake is n e a r the village.
5. The couple forgot to tip the w aiter. 10. The professor paid the student a com pliment.

13
ACTIVITYI
í. Labei thefollowing phrases below according to their heads:

a) My mother
b) Chocolate
c) Like chocolate
d) Play with their toys
e) My sister and my mother
f) Hot chocolate
g) The small dogs
h) Has/have
i) In the garden
j) Serve/serves
k) In the morning

2. Use the phrases from 1 above to form as many meaningful sentences as possible.
Present the functions of each phrase.

ACTIVIVITY 2

Use the piece below to bring examples o fa ll leveis ofanalysis studied in the classroom.

My best friend has three important qualities. First of all, Freddie is always
ready to have fun. Sometimes we play Frisbee in the park. Sometimes we just
sit around in my room, listening to music and talking.

14
An In tro d u ctio n to E n g lish G r a m m a r

THE P R EP O SIT I O N AL PHRASE

4.25 T h e stru c tu re o f th e p rep o sitio n a l p h rase

The prepositional phrase is a structure with two parts:

preposition complement

The prepositional complement is typically a noun phrase, but it may also be a

nominal relative clause (cf. 6.9) or an -ing clause (cf. 6.8). Both the nominal relative
clause and the -ing clause have a range of functions similar to that of a noun
phrase.

1. complement as noun phrase

through the window

15
 T h e S tru c tu re s o f P h rase s

2. complement as nominal rela ti ve clause

from what I heard (‘from that which I heard’)
3. complement as -ing clause
after speaking to you
As its name suggests, the preposition (‘preceding position’) normally comes before
the prepositional complement. There are several exceptions, however, where the
complement is moved and the preposition is left stranded by itself. The stranding
is obligatory when the complement is transformed into the subject of the sentence:

Your case will soon be attended to.

This bali is for you to play ipith.
The picture is worth looking at.

In questions and relative clauses the prepositional complement may be a pronoun

or adverb that is fronted. In that case, the preposition is normally stranded:

Who are you waiting for}

Where are you coming from}
I am the person (that) you are waiting for. [In relative clauses the pronoun
may be omitted.]

In formal style the preposition is fronted with its complement:

For whom are you waiting?

From where are you coming?
I am the person for whom you are waiting.

4.26 F u n c tio n s o f p rep o sitio n a l p h rases

Prepositional phrases have three main functions:

1. post-m odifier o f a noun

I took several courses in history.
The local council is subsidizing the installation o f energy-saving devices.

2. post-m odifier o f an adjective

We were not aware ofhis drinking problem.
I was happv with my marks last term.

3. adverbial
After the storm, the sky brightened.
In my opinion, people behave differendy in crowds.

16
An In tro d u ctio n to E n g lish G r a m m a r

Two or more prepositional phrases may appear independently side by side.

Here is a sentence with three prepositional phrases, each functioning as a separate
adverbial:

I read stories to the children (A) at home (A) in the evening (A).

One prepositional phrase may also be embedded within another, as in this prepo­
sitional phrase that post-modifies the noun variations:

There were variations in the degree o f hitterness o f taste.

The embedding can be shown in this way:

prepositional phrase in the degree of bitterness of taste

noun phrase the degree of bitterness of taste
prepositional phrase of bitterness of taste
noun phrase bitterness of taste
prepositional phrase of taste

17
 Constituents

2.4.4 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Phrases consisting of a preposition (in, about, under, to, with, etc.)
followed by an NP or an S are called prepositional phrases (PPs). We shall
assume that the preposition (P) is the Head of the PP, and that what

18
 Constituents

follows the Head is its Complement (Prepositional Complement, or

Prepc). For example (the P is italicised):
(94) in the comer
(95) to the tramp
(96) with red hair
(97) about this topic
The preposition may be preceded by an element which specifies it. For
example:
(98) right on the spot
(99) slap in the middle
(100) straight through the wall
(101) three inches above the door
The Specifiers in the PPs are italicised. The Specifiers in (98)-(100) are
adverb phrases, and that in (101) is an NP.
Occasionally the P of a PP is followed by another PP, e.g. since after the
war and from behind the green door. The Prepc is also deletable at times,
e.g. John is inside (the room).
Notice that PPs may occur within VPs, NPs, etc. Consider, in particular,
the following sentences from our text, and decide whether the PPs occur
inside a VP or an NP:
(102) He leaned towards the German girl.
(103) The noise in the room continued.
In:
(104) I [ypinet her at the entrance of the cinema]
the PP at the entrance of the cinema occurs inside a VP, and the PP of the
cinema inside the NP the entrance of the cinema, which is the Prepc of at.
The structure of this PP is as follows:
(105) [ PPat [ NPthe entrance [PPof [NPthe cinem a]]]]
The normal order of elements in the PP is: P-NP. However, English also
has a number of postpositions, which typically follow their Complements,
as in: three weeks ago and all joking aside; ago and aside are like prepo-
sitions in that they serve as the Head of a PP.
2.4.4.1 Summing up the PP
rThe structure of the PP may be summed up as in (106):

19
 Constituents

Category AdvP/NP P NP/S/PP

Function Specifíer H Complement

with red hair

right on the spot
two minutes before her arrival
about this topic
regarding whether he might come

2.4.5 ADJECTIVE PHRASES

Our text 2.4.1 contains phrases such as:
(107) verysoft
(108) German
(109) young
These are adjective phrases (ÁdjPs). The Head of an AdjP is an adjective
(soft, German, young), just as the head of an NP is an N or the Head of a
VP a V, etc. The AdjPs (108) and (109) consist of a Head adjective (Adj)
only, whereas in (107) the Head Adj is preceded by an adverb phrase
( very) which specifies it.
The Head Adj may also be followed by a PP or an S which serves as a
Complement of the Head Adj. For example (the Complements are
italicised):
(110) worried about the future
(111) afraid that she might die
(112) fond of the sea
Decide whether the italicised AdjPs occur inside a VP or inside an NP in

20
 Constituents

thesentence below (the NP itself may be inside a VP or a PP):

(113) Her voice was very soft.
(114) He leaned towards the German girl.
Bracketing of (113) should yield the following constítuent structure:

( 115) [s [NpHer voice] [ Vpwas [^^very soft] ] ]

The AdjP very soft functions as a Verb Complement in the VP. Bracketing
of (114) gives:

(116) [s [NPHe] [vpleaned [PPtowards [NPthe [AdjPGerman] girl] ] ] ]

The AdjP German functions as a Premodifier in the NP the German girL

NPs may contain more than one AdjP functioning as Premodifier. For
example:
(117) the young German girl
(118) the little old lady
(119) that nice young French student
Words like only, as in an only child, and utter, as in an utter fool, are also
AdjPs. However, they are limited in their distribution: unlike the vast
majority of AdjPs, they cannot occur after the Copula be in a sentence:
*the child is only or *the fool is utter. These AdjPs, it appears, can only be
used attributively, not predicatively. Other ADJPs, such as awake or alone,
can only be used predicatively, not attributively, e.g.: *the awake child,
*the alone boy.
2.4.5.1 Summing up the AdjP
The structure of the AdjP may be summed up as in (120):

Category AdvP Adj PP/S

Function Spec H Complement

young
extremely handsome
very worried about the future
afraid that she might die
rather fond of the sea

Compare this diagram with diagrams (37), (93) and (106) above.

21
 Constituents

2.4.5.2 Exercis.es
AdjPs usually describe some sort of quaiity that is attached to a person or thing, e.g.
She is nice attaches 'niceness' to 'she'. Identify the AdjPs in the foílowing sentences. What
the NP each AdjP is related with?

(1) His decision was very unwise.

(2) The young girl was left in absolute misery.
(3) She looks very attractive.
(4) This important decision was reached after painful negotiations.
(5) The old Vicar considered thpjr behaviour sinful.
(6) The idea seems to me to be rather provocative.
(7) They painted the door darkred.
(8) She married the Duke young.

Complete the sentences below by adding a Complement PP with the appropriate

preposition. Bracket the AdjP and then the VP.

(1) She was not aware . . .

(2) She is angry . . .
(3) She was very envious . . .
(4) You ore guilty . . .
(5) Children are often afraid .. .

22
STUDY

14a. Form and p o sitio n o f a d jectiv es

Note the following three features of adjectives.
1. N o p lu r a l form . English differs from some other languages in th a t
adjectives do not agree w ith nouns; so adjectives do not add plural endings:
a d a rk rock
som e d a rk rocks
N ot *some d a rk s rocks
2. Occasional -ly ending. Although -ly is usually an adverb ending, a few
adjectives end in -ly:
frien d ly
lovely
lively
3. P osition before nouns or after lin k in g verbs. Some adjectives can occur
either before a noun or after a verb, usually a linking verb such as be, seem,
look, or feel:
H er h a p p y face . . .
S he is h a p p y.
H e feels h a p p y.
A few adjectives, however, are lim ited to one or the other position and function.
The m ost frequently used ones are these:

ONLY BEFORE A NO UN ONLY AFTER A VERB

h e r m a in am bition She is aw ake.
a m edicai doctor She fell asleep.
He is alone.

23
14b. N ou n s u se d to m od ify n o u n s
Nouns can be used to modify other nouns, functioning like adjectives, and
like adjectives, they add no plural endings. In the reading passage a t the
beginning of this chapter, the following occurred:
a June afternoon
fence posts (posts used for fences)

OTHER EXAMPLES

coffee shop kitchen floor

college students evening gown
course requirements file cabinet
hair spray

Even when the sense of the noun modifier is plural (a cabinet for files: posts
used in fences; requirem ents for the college courses), the noun modifier
rem ains singular: file cabinet, fence posts, course requirem ents. B ut when a
noun occurs only in the plural form, it retain s th a t plural form when it is used
as a modifier, as in clothes closet.

24
EXERCISE 5 (oral)
Convert each of the following expressions into a noun phrase w ith a
noun as modifier. It is not appropriate to use a possessive form (with an
apostrophe) for the nam e of a building, an object, or a piece of furniture
(see also C hapter 29, “P unctuation”).

EXAMPLE

the handle of the door

the door handle
Not *the door’s handle

1. the top of the table

2. the wipers for the windshield
3. the locks on the doors
4. a cart for shopping
5. a box for jewelry
6. a ja r for cookies
7. a case for pencils
8. a purse for change
9. a bed of flowers
10. a book on economics
11. the peel of oranges
12. a tra y for desserts

14c. C om pound a d jec tiv e s

In the readings in this book, the following forms occur:
a two-drawer file cabinet
hand-held computers
The hyphen is necessary to connect the adjective p arts into one unit of
description. Note the use of singular forms in the transform ations:
She gave me five dollars.
She gave me a five-dollar bill.
Her son is six years old.
She has a six-year-old son.
She is reading a novel written in the nineteenth century.
She is reading a nineteenth-century novel.

25
 Constituents

Adapted from: WEKKER, H.; HAEGEMAN, L. A modern course in English syntax.

London; NY: Routledge, 1985.

2.4.3.2 Verb Complements

Consider the following sentences:
(46) The tramp laughed.
(47) The story was interesting.
(48) The tramp read the diary.
(49) He told the girl an interesting story.
(50) He called her a clever girl.
(51) The tramp leaned towards the German girl.
(52) The tramp put the chocolate on the table.
Identify the VPs in these sentences by bracketing.
We find that laugh in (46) takes no Complement: the VP consists of the

26
 Constituents

verb only. In (47) the verb requires interesting (an adjective phrase) as its
Complement. In (48) the verb takes as its Complement the NP the diary. In
(49) the verb is followed by two Complements, the NPs the girl and an
interesting story. In (50) the verb call takes as its Complements the NP her
and the NP a clever girl In (51) the verb requires a PP ( towards the
German girl). And in (52) the verb put is seen to take as its Complements
the NP the chocolate and the PP on the table.
Verb Complements are elements which obligatoriíy follow the verb in
the VP (see 3.1). The verb (laugh, be, read, etc.) is the Head of the VP,
and the Complements (NP, AdjP, PP, etc.) may have functions like Direct
Object, Indirect Object, Predicative Complement, etc. We shall return to
these functions in Chapter 3.
Consider also the following sentences:
(53) He told the girl that she was clever.
(54) He told an interesting story to the girl.
In (53) we find that the verb phrase contains a f/mr-clause as one of the
Complements of the verb. The VP here is: told the girl that she was clever.
Pseudo-clefting and substitution by do ( 50) indicate that the //wí-clause is
part of the VP:
(55) What he did was tell the girl that she was clever.
(56) He told the girl that she was clever and I did (so) too.
The structure of (53) is (57):
(57) [ sHe [ vptold [ NPthe girlj [jthat she was cleverj ] ]
Sentence (54) above is an altemative version of (49). The sequence told—
N P -N P can be rearranged as: totá-N P -P P (with to), without a change in
meaning. The two altematives ((49) and (54) above) may be bracketed as
follows:
(58) [He [ Vptold [ NPthe girl] [ NPan interesting story] ] ]
(59) [He [ VPtold [ NPan interesting story] [ ppto the girl] ] ]
Note that tell in (49) above and call in (50) both take two NPs as Comple­
ments. Compare the two sentences, here repeated as (60) and (61):
(60) He told the girl an interesting story.
(61) He called her a clever girl.
We shall see later that (60) and (61) have quite different pattems of
behaviour, and that the two NPs have quite different grammatical functions
(see 3.4.3 and 3.4.6).
The examples given above illustrate the most important sentence types

27
 Constituents

of English, in terms of the complementation that the Head of the VP

requires. In 3.1 ff. we shall provide a more exhaustive survey of English
sentence pattems. For the moment, it is important to note that in the
pattern underlying (47) above the adjective phrase (AdjP) may be replaced
by an NP or a PP (as in: The story was a greai success and The room was in
a mess). Similarly, the V in the pattern underlying (48) may take an IT
instead of an NP (as in: He knew that the snake had killed the rat), etc.
We shall say that a verb subcategorises for a certain type of Comple-
ment. In other words, a verb occurs inside a certain frame, and is obli-
gatorily followed by certain classes of categories. Such frames are called
subcategorisation frames. (62a)-(62g) are simplified examples of such
frames:
Subcategorisation frames for verbs Verb types
(62a) [ 1
j
Intransitive
(AdjP)
(62b) t- Copula
Í pp r

(62c) [-- m Monotransitive

i
j N P-N P)
(62d) [- Ditransitive
\N P -P P J J

(62e) [- Complex transitive

Np- { np P} ]
(62f) [ — PP] Intransitive
(62g) [ — NP-PP] Transitive
This list of subcategorisation frames is still provisional, and so are some of
the labeis given to the different categories of verb (‘verb types’). Each
frame means that in the position indicated by the d a s h ------- one may
insert any verb which takes as its Complement(s) the constituent(s) speci-
fied there. As usual, the curly brackets { } indicate a choice: copulas,
for example, may take an AdjP, an NP, or a PP, and monotransitive verbs
may take an NP or an S, etc. The square brackets in (62a-g) mark off the
boundaries of the VP. It is only the obligatory elements within the VP that
are Complements. The Subject NP, which falis outside the VP, is not a
Complement to the verb. See also 3.1.
So far we have only referred to (obligatory) Complements, i.e. those ele­
ments whose presence is syntacticaüy required. But we shall see that it is
also possible for indefíniteiy many optional constituents to occur in a sen­
tence. For example:

28
 Constituents

(63) He unfolded his magazine.

(64) He unfolded his magazine (for the girl) (quite unexpectedly) ...
What is the VP in the above sentences? In (64) we find additional elements
(italicised and between brackets) which are optional. We shall say that
these elements belong to the VP, but that they are not Complements; they
are not needed to complete the VP; they merely add further information:
they realise the grammatical function of Adjunct (see 3.4.8). The structure
of (64) may be represented as follows:
(65) He [ Vpunfolded [his magazine] [(for the girl)] [(quite

A verb does not subcategorise for Adjuncts. The brackets around for the
girl and quite unexpectedly indicate that these constituents are optional.
The dotted line at the end of the sentence is meant to suggest that the num-
ber of optional constituents can, in principie, be extended indefinitely. In
Chapter 4 we shall see that (optional) Adjuncts may be moved to other
positions in the sentence.

29
 EXERCÍ SE ON ENGLISH SYNTAX

In the passage below, quantify all the NPs and present theír head.

T h e A m e ric a n c o m p o se r, G eo rg e G ersh w ín , w as b o r n in 1898 in E ro o k ly n , th e s o n o f

im m ig ra n ts . H e b e g a n h ís m u s ic a l e d u c a tio n a t a g e 11, w h e n h is fa m ily b o u g h t a
s e c o n d -h a n d p ia n o .

As we studíed in class, present the buíldíng blocks ofthe foUowing clames:

1. T he s u n w as in te n s e ly b r ig h t in th e m o u n ta in s .
2. A h a rd -w o rk in g s e c re ta ry w ro te a b r illia n t 1 0-page r e p o r t.
3. S a n d ra q u ie t r e lu c ta n tly ta lk e d o n th e p h o n e to h e r p a r e n ts .
4. E nglísh s y n ta x is a to o lo n g su b ject.
5. A le ft-h a n d e d te n n is p la y e r w o n th e w o rld te n n is c h a m p io n sh ip .

30
 3
FUNCTIONS

3.1 INTRODUCTION: THE VERB AND ITS COMPLEMENTS

Let us return once more to text 2.4.1, repeated here as text 3.1.

I Text 3.1 (= 2.4.1)

The tramp read the diary. He laughed. He tumed a page, he read it and
he laughed again. He leaned towards the German girl and said a few
words to her.
The Egyptian was clowning; the noise in the room continued. Soon
the young German girl was offering chocolate for the second time. Her
voice was very soft.
The tramp was unfolding his magazine slowly. He stopped suddenly,
he looked at the chocolate. But she had given him no chocolate. He
1 unfolded his magazine. Then he destroyed it. -
V.S. Naipaul, In a Free State.

Identify NPs, VPs and PPs in the text by bracketing and labelling. If you
look carefully at the structure of each clause, you will fmd there is always a
combination of one NP and one VP per clause. To illustrate this point, let
us analyse all the clauses of the first paragraph of text 3.1:

< Ü J he tramp] ív?ead [Níhe díary] ] ]

(2> [ S[NPHeHv!.aU8hed] ]

<3> [v;urnedb pa«e]]]

(4> [sUeHvfeadü']]]
(5> [s[w
heHvS.au8hedLd.?«ain]]]
<6) L L H [v leaned [ ptowards the German S * ] ] ]

( 7)

31
 Functions

The fírst NP in (7) is ellipted, as the parentheses indicate, but it is clear

from the context that the NP must be he.
Each clause contains a VP preceded by an NP, as is reflected by one of
the phrase structure rules of English:
(8) S -----►NP-VP
The effect of this rewrite rale may also be represented by the following tree
diagram (see also 1.2.3):
s
(9)

The NP immediately dominated by S is the Subject NP (3.3.1), and the VP

is the Predicate of S (3.3.2). On the use of the ‘triangles’ in (9), see 1.2.3.
Bracket the remaining clauses of text 3.1 and identify the Subject NP
and the Predicate of each clause. There are four Ss (i.e. clauses) in the
second paragraph, and six in the third.
As we have seen (Chapter 2), lexical verbs can be classified according to
the type of complementation they take (that is, in terms of the subcate-
gorisation frames in which they can occur). We repeat here the classifi-
cation of verbs given in 2.4.3.2, with one example sentence for each verb
type.
Verb types Frames Examples

(a) Intransitive, e.g. laugh He laughed

He seemed [ AdjPvery
(b) Copula, e.g. seem
H ?|i cheerful]

(c) Monotransitive,
e.g. kill
[»- í r » He killed [NPthe mouse

32
 Functions

(d) Ditransitive, [vp He gave [ NPthe girl]

e.g. give
N P-N P \ ] [ NPa book]
N P-PP / J
(e) Complex transitive, [vp He called [NPhim]
e.g. call
[ NPa fool]
X- { í f }]
(f) Intransitive + PP, [ vp PP] He leaned [ PPtowards
e.g. lean
the girl]

(g) Transitive + PP [ vp---- N P -PP ] He put [ NPhis head]

e.g. put
[ PPon her

shoulder]

In the following sections we shall look at the behaviour of Complements in

more detail, refining and completing the above schema as we go along.
Moreover, we shall also deal with Adjuncts in VPs, which are not included
in this survey of basic patterns, since Adjuncts are not obligatory constitu-
ents.
It is important to point out that the verb itself may contain more than
one word, e.g.:
(10) He wentout.
(11) He gave up alcohol.
Go out is a multi-word verb which takes no Complement, whereas give up
is a multi-word verb which needs an NP Complement.

(12) goout: [VP------ ]

(13) give up: [ VP------ NP]

Go out is intransitive, and give up is monotransitive. Both are phrasal verbs

(cf. Chapter 6).
It is clear that subcategorisation frames are not based on syntactic infor-
mation only; the meaning of the lexical verb (the Head of the VP) also
plays an important part in the setting up of such frames. As a rule, verbs

33
 Functions

express activities of some kind (but the term ‘activity’ is to be interpreted

here in a fairly wide sense, to include such events, happenings, States of
affairs and situations as are expressed by verbs like die, dream, fali, hate,
possess, resemble). Activities usually involve one or more participants. The
activity ‘kilF, for example, expressed by the verb kill, involves two partici-
‘ pants: the Agent and the Patient. In order to refer to the activity of ‘kill-
ing’, we must therefore also refer to these two essential participants. In the
sentence John killed the tramp, the Agent is expressed by John, the Patient
by the tramp. The constituents John and the tramp are respectively the
Subject of S and the Complement of V. Thus, a subcategorisation frame
can be seen as a grammatical specification of a verb, which also reflects the.
semantic content (that is, the meaning) of the verb.

34
 Funcíions

(8) The diary was shown to the tramp by the girl.

(9) The tramp was shown the diary by the girl.
Again we assume that in the change from (1) to (9) the preposition to is
deleted. We conclude that, depending on their structural position, the NPs
and PPs in (1) and (2) have different syntactic properties.
Constituents are said to have different grammatical functions (GFs). In
(1), for example, the girl is Subject (Su); the diary is Direct Object (Od), to
the tramp is Indirect Object (Oi). We shall say that in (1) the Subject is
realised by an NP, the Od is reaiised by an NP, and the Oi by a PP. For
(1), we may provisionally abbreviate this information as follows: NP/Su,
N P/O d, and PP/O i. Conversely, we might want to say, for example, that
the NP the girl in (1) realises the G F of Su: NP/Su, or NP functions as Su.
The slash convention introduced here provides a quick way of indicating
the GFs and their realisations in a given sentence.
In the sections which follow we shall look at all the important GFs in
English. We begin with the functions in S (3.3), and then proceed to the
functions in VP (3.4).

3.3 GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS IN S

3.3.1 SUBJECT
The Subject of a sentence has been defined as the NP which combines with
the VP to form an S. In other words, the Su is the NP which is immediately
dominated by S in a tree diagram representation. Consider:

(1) The tramp was laughing.

In (1) the Subject NP is the tramp. Here are two altemative representa-
tions:

(2)

35
 Functions

Identify the Subject in (4) and in (5) below, using both labelled bracketing,
as in (2), and a tree diagram representation, as in (3):
(4) The Egyptian was clowning.
(5) The German giri was offering us some chocolate.
Let us consider some of the syntactic characteristics of Subject NPs such as
the tramp, the Egyptian and the German girl in (1), (4) and (5) above. We
have already noted (2.4.3.4) that NPs functioning as Su invert with the first
auxiliary element ( was in our examples) in the formation of questions. For
example:
(f>) Was the tramp laughing?
The switch of the Subject NP and the first auxiliary element is called
Subject-Auxiliary Inversion (SAI). The mechanics of this process will be
dealt with in section 4.2.1.
Another characteristic of Subject NPs in finite clauses is that they nor-
mally agree in number with the first element in the VP. If, for example, we
put the NP the tramp in the plural, we get sentence (7) instead of (1):
(7) The tramps were laughing.
The change from singular to plural here does not only affect the Subject
NP but also the VP: was also has to be replaced by a plural form. Agree-
ment is overtly marked in finite clauses on the first auxiliary element, or, if
there is no auxiliary element, on the lexical verb itself. Note that other ele-
ments in the VP may also be affected by this. Compare, for example:
(8a) The tramp never enjoys himself.
(8b) The tramps never enjoy themselves.
A third way of recognising Subject NPs is that pronouns repiacing them
will normally have the subjective form (he, she, they, etc.), not the objec-
tive form (him, her, them, etc.). For example:
(9a) He was laughing.
(9b) *Him was laughing.

36
 Functions

The three characteristics of Subject NPs mentiond here (SAI, agreement

and substltution by pronouns) can be used to identify the Subject of a finite
clause. Using these three tests, identify the Subject NPs in (10)-(14)
below:
(10) The patient has been examined by Dr MacDonald.
(11) The tramp was shaving himself.
(12) The exam is at the end of next term.
(13) That painting Sue does not like.
(14) After breakfast the boys wandered out into the playground.
Discuss any problems that you are faced with in applying all three tests to
the above sentences.

3.3.2 PREDICATE
We have seen that the Subject NP and the VP together make up a
sentence:
S —►NP-VP
The VP ‘predicates something’ of the Subject; its function is ‘predicative’.
Since the function of VP is that of predicating, we shall call it the Predicate
(Pred) of the sentence. We shall see below that constituents inside the VP
may also have some kind of predicative function.

3.3.3 SENTENCE ADJUNCTS

Apart from Su and Pred, the sentence may also contain elements which are
peripheral in the structure of the sentence: they fali outside the major con­
stituents NP and VP. These peripheral sentence elements are of two types:
(a) items which serve to specify the speaker’s attitude towards the rest of
the sentence; examples are: unfortunately, certainly, in m y view, in
fact. For example:
(15) Unfortunately, the match was cancelled because of bad weathei;.
(b) items which serve to connect sentences in a text; examples are: more-
over, however, nevertheless, yet. For example:
(16) John had planned to swim across the Channel last year. However,
when the time carne he did not have the courage.
The items under (a) and (b) are collectively referred to as Sentence
Adjuncts (Sas). We shall retum to them in section 3.4.9.

37
 Functions

3.4 GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS IN VP

Having looked at the two major grammatical functions in the sentence:

Subject (Su) and Predicate (Pred), we shall now consider the functions
realised by constituents within the VP. In section 3.5 we shall discuss the
grammatical functions in NPs, AdjPs, AdvPs and PPs.
The VP, as we have seen, may contain elements of various types which
either precede or follow the Head of the VP (a lexical verb). We have
distinguished between Complements in the VP and Adjuncts in the VP.
Complements are obligatory constituents, which are needed to complete
the VP. They are ‘selected’ by the lexical verb (cf. 3.1 above). In addition
to Complements of V, the VP may also contain optional Adjuncts, gener-
ally denoting place, time, manner, condition and the like.
The functions in the VP that will be dealt with are: Predicative Comple-
ment (3.4.1), Direct Object (3.4.2), Indirect Object (3.4.3), Adverbial
Complement with intransitive verbs (3.4.4), Adverbial Complement with
transitive verbs (3.4.5), and a complex grammatical function which is a
combination of Predicative Complement and Adverbial Complement
(3.4.6).

3.4.1 PREDICATIVE COMPLEMENTS

The function of a Predicative Complement (Pc) is that of ascribing some
property to the Subject of the sentence. This function is normally realised
by NPs, AdjPs or PPs, and the verbs that select such a Complement belong
to the class of copulas (be, look, seem, etc.). Examples:
(1) Jane seemed a good student.

(2) John looked foolish in that tracksuit.

(3) She is an actress.
(4) Bill was in a filthy mood.
The Head of the VP in (1) is the copula seem. It is followed by an NP. In
(2) the VP-Head is followed by an AdjP, in (3) by an NP again, and in (4)
by a PP. It is these obligatory constituents following the V which have the
GF of Pc (Predicative Complement). They have been italicised.
We have noted that the VP as a whole also has a predicative function: it
predicates something of an NP. Characteristically, elements in a predicative
relation (NP/Su and VP, for example) will show agreeement:
(5a) John is working in France at the moment.
(5b) John and Jane are working in France at the moment.

38
 Functions

Similarly in (6) the Predicative Complement (to the Subject) agrees in

number with the Subject NP:
(6a) She is an actress.
(6b) They are actresses.
In many languages (French, for example) AdjPs also show agreement with
the elements they have a predicative relation with. Copulas characteristically
serve to ‘link’ the Subject NP and the property expressed by the Pc. ‘Being a
good student’, for example, is seen as a property of the person referred to as
Jane in (1) above, while in (2) ‘foolishness’ is ascribed to John.

3.4.2 DIRECT OBJECT

Bracket the major constituents in (7) below. Draw a tree diagram and
identify the Subject.
(7) The tramp was unfolding the magazine for the second time.
As you can see, the VP contains two constituents in addition to the VP-
Head and its Specifiers: an NP and a PP:

(8) [ vwas unfolding [ N*he magazine] [pfor the second time] ]

Which of these is an Adjunct? That is, which of them can be left out easily?
The NP the magazine must be regarded as obligatory in this context. It is
a Complement of V: unfold subcategorises for (or selects) an NP:

unfold: [ VP--------NP]

The NP the magazine cannot be omitted.

(9) *The tramp was unfolding for the second time.

39
 Functions

\i we passivise sentence (7), we fmd that the NP-Complement becomes the

Subject of the passive sentence:
(10) The magazine was being unfolded by the tramp for the second
time.
An NP-Complement of V which becomes the Subject of a passive sentence
is said to have the fimction of Object. More specifically, the magazine is the
Direct Object (Od) of unfold. Verbs such as unfold which subcategorise for
a constituent functioning as Od are said to be monotransitive.

3.4.3 INDIRECT OBJECT

Consider the following exampie:
(11) She had given the tramp no chocolate.
The VP contains two NPs:

(12) [ sShê [ Vphad given [ NPthe tramp] [ NPno chocolate] ] ]

Both NPs are Complements to the lexical verb give, which is ditransitive.
Both NPs are, in fact, Objects since both can become the Subject of a
passive sentence:
(13) No chocolate had been given to the tramp.
(14) The tramp had been given no chocolate.
But the two NPs (italicised) do not behave in quite identical ways. In (13)
we have to add the P to to the NP the tramp, but in (14) we cannot insert to
before no chocolate. This is related to the fact that there is an altemative
version of (11), in which the NP the tramp can be replaced by a PP with to;
the NP no chocolate cannot be replaced by a PP with to.
(15) She had given no chocolate to the tramp.
(16) *She had given the tramp to no chocolate.
Both NPs in (11) are Objects: no chocolate is the Direct Object (Od), and
the tramp is the Indirect Object (Oi). It is characteristic of the Oi that it can
oftèn be replaced by a PP with either to or for. An exampie of the latter:

40
 Functions

(17) S hepouredthe tramp a drink.

(18) She poured a drink for the tramp.
However, occasionally there is only one possibility of realising the Oi, e.g.
(19) She struck him a blow.
(20) *She struck a blow to him.
Ditransitive verbs like give, offer and powrnormally have one of the follow-
ing subcategorisation frames:
(21) ( [ -------NP-NP] ) \ {-------NP-NP] \
) [ - ----- N P-PPto]í UK [--------N P-PPfor]

3.4.4 ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENTS WITH INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Consider the following sentences:
(22) The newspaper remained with Mr EUis for three hours.
Bracket the VP. What kinds of constituents does the VP contain?

(23) The newspaper [ vremained [ pwith Mr EUis] [ pfor three hours] ]

There are two PPs in the VP, of which the second seems to be optional and
the first obUgatory:
(24) The newspaper remained with Mr ElUs.
(25) *The newspaper remained for three hours.
For three hours is an optional VP-Adjunct. With Mr EUis is a Verb Com-
plement. Remain in this case requires a PP: [VP------ PP].
Remain is an intransitive verb: it does not take an Od. But at the same

41
 Functions

time remain subcategorises for a PP. The subcategorised PP specifies .the

place where the newspaper remained. Constituents which give us more
information conceming the place, manner, time, duration, etc. of an
activity are said to ha ve. an adverbial function, and if such an element (like
the PP with Mr Ellis) is obligatory, we call it an Adverbial Complement
(Ac).
Note that remain does not just subcategorise for a PP introduced by
with; other prepositions are also possible:
(26) The newspaper remained at the vicarage.
(27) The sun remained behind the clouds all day.
(28) The paper remained on the shelf.
(29) The books remained in the library.
Altematively, the Adverbial Complement of remain may be realised by an
AdvP:
(30) He remained there.
(31) The women remained upstairs.
Tie AdvP again is a Complement: it is non-omissible. Furthermore, it
specifies the location of the activity: it has an adverbial function.
The following examples illustrate other uses of verbs which take an Ac
(the Ac is italicised):
(32) He leaned against the sideboard
(33) He is in London.
(34) He is at his club.
(35) His birthday is next Saturday.
(36) The performance lasted (for) two hours.
(37) The enterprise cost thousands ofpounds.
(38) This parcel weighs two kiíós.
In these examples be is not a copula: the Complements (in London, at his
club, etc.) do not assign a property to the Subject NP, but rather specify the
place of ‘being’ ((33), (34)), or the time of ‘being’ in (35). The verbs in the
remaining sentences are also intransitive, but they require an Ac to
describe the activity or State. An Ac may be realised by various syntactic
categories. For example, the verb last in (36) takes an Ac realised by either
a PP or an NP.
Identify the Ac in each of the following sentences and labei the category
which realises the function Ac:

42
 Functions

(39) John belongs to several social clubs.

Ç °) She specialises in biochemistry.
p i) Your new car drives very smoothly.
(42) The fire lasted three days.
(43) John lives in Paris.
(44) She stayed at the Hilton.
(45) John condescended to help us.
(46) His father lived to be 90.
It is not always easy to decide with certainty whether a constituent follow-
ing the lexical verb is obligatory or optional. There are many cases which
are less cleàr-cut than those above: the criterion for deciding on the non-
omissibility of a constituent in the VP is whether the remaining part of the
sentence is still grammatical or whether the meaning of the lexical verb
changes drastically as a result of omitting that particular constituent. Let us
see what happens to the sentences above if we leave out the PPs, AdvPs, or
Ss that follow the lexical verb (the * indicates ungrammaticality and the ! a
drastic change in meaning):
(47) *John belongs.
(48) *She specialises.
(49) *Your new car drives.
(50) *The fire lasted.
(51) !John lives.
(52) ! She stayed.
(53) *John condescended.
(54) ! His father lived.
NPs such as several social clubs, biochemistry and his attempt in the
examples above cannot become the Subject of corresponding passive sen­
tences. These NPs are not Objects of the lexical verbs, but form part of the
PPs which function as Ac here. Hence, there is a difference between the
following sentences:
(39) John belongs to several social clubs.
(55) Somebody has slept in my bed.
Sentence (55) can be passivised as follows:
(56) My bed has been slept in.

43
 Functions

This suggests that m y bed in (55) is an Od (cf. Chapter 6). However, since
(39) cannot be passivised in the same way, several social clubs in (39) is
not to be regarded as an Od: to several social clubs is a PP functioning as
Ac.

3.4.5 ADVERBIAL COMPLEMENTS WITH TRANSITIVE VERBS

In section 3.4.4 we have seen that verbs like remain, belong, last require an
Ac to complete the VP. The verbs were also seen to be intransitive: they
have no Od. In this section, we shall see that transitive verbs may also
select an Ac. Consider, for example:
(57) John put the money in a box.
(58) He worded the letter very carefully.
(59) The children always remind me of their grandfather.
The verbs put, word and remind are transitive: they take an N P/O d, which
can regularly become the Subject of a passive:
(60) The money was put in a box.
(61) The letter was worded very carefully.
(62) I am always reminded of their grandfather.
The VP of sentence (57), for example, has the following structure:

(63) [ NPput [ NPthe money] [ PPin a box] ]

It contains an NP and a PP. The PP in a box is a Complement of the V and

expresses the location of ‘putting’. Where did he put the money?: In a box.
This constituent is thus an Ac. Bracket sentences (58) and (59) above in
the same way.
The Ac for put can also be realised by an AdvP:
(64) John put the money there/upstairs.

44
 Functions

The verb put has the following subcategorisation frame:

(65) ■ [„ ------- N P - { P Pdvp} ]

The verb word in (58) above is also a transitive verb, which seiects both an
Od and an Ac. Ac is realised by an AdvP ( very carefully). While the Ac in
(57) expresses location, that in (58) expresses manner. In (58) the AdvP
could be replaced by a PP (in a careful way). In (59) we find another verb
taking an Object NP and a PP as Complement. Though we can see that the
PP is obligatory, it would be difficult to say what semantic contribution the
PP makes. It is clear, however, that tjie PP is non-omissible:
(66) *The children always remind m e ------ .
Note that in sentence (59) me is the Direct Object; the NP their grand-
father is not an Object, but the Prepc of o/(cf. 2.4.4).

45
 Functions

3.5 GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS IN PHRASES: A BRIEF

SURVEY

In section 2.4 we have looked in some detail at the internai structure of

phrases in English. Noun phrases are constituents headed by an N, verb
phrases by a V, etc. In this section we shall provide a brief survey of the
internai structure of each phrasal type. Diagrams ( l)- (5 ) provide information
about (a) the type of constituent found inside the phrase, (b) the order of
the constituents, (c) the function of the constituent inside the phrase:

(1) Noun phrases:

the five French students from Paris

Category Art (Num) (AdjP) Noun (PP)

Function Specifier Premod. Head Postmod.

(2) Verb phrases:

win show the girl his paintings after
dinner

Category Pres (M) Verb NP NP (PP)

Function Specifier Head Complements Adjunct

(3) Adjective phrases:

very fond of her

Category (Adv) Adj PP

Function Specifier Head Complement

46
 Functions

(4) Adverb phrases:

quite unexpectedly

Category (Adv) Adverb

Function Specifier Head

(5) Prepositional phrases:

right on the spot

Category (Adv) P NP

Function Specifier Head Complement

If we look at the structures abo ve more closely, we see that there is a

degree of parallelism between all the phrase structures:
(a) each phrase type has a Head;
(b) the Head may be preceded by Specifiers;
(c; the Head may be followed by Complements and by optional
constituents (Modifiers in NP and Adjuncts in VP).
It is thus possible to give a more abstract schema of phrase structure which
gives us a general representation for all phrasal categories:

X-phrase: Specifier-Head-Complement- ( Mod)

X \A j

where X stands for N, V, etc.

However, this abstract schema has to be adjusted for the individual
phrase types. In NPs, for example, Modifiers (AdjPs) may also precede the
Head. VPs, AdjPs and PPs have Complements, but not NPs and AdvPs.
Furthermore, the Specifier is realised in quite distinct ways depending on
the category: in NPs, for example, Spec is realised by Det, whereas in VPs
Spec is realised by tense, modal, etc. (cf. also Chapter 7).

47
 EXERCISES ON BASIC STRUCTURES (NPS AND VPS)
Analyze the sentences, the elements that fo rm them and present their structures and
functions:

1. Summer was a very special time for our friend.

2. I turned a corner in the house o f my bank manager.
3. Two students saw a dirty spoon in the middle o f the kitchen canteen.
4. During the night, Melina heard a very strange noise.
5. The sleeping cat has a new toy in his mouth.
6. The red-hair girl wrote a very big and wonderful book on this new subject.
7. The last audience is tired o f all those boring jokes.
8. Juliene and her boring sister arrived very soon for my cousin’s party.
9. I travelled to Rio de Janeiro to visit The Corcovado and Copacabana beach.
10. Some smart students like to review the exercises before their exams.

48
Adapted from: HOGUE, A. First steps in academic writing - levei 2. 2. ed. NY: Longman, 2008.

First Steps in Academic Writing

PART 3 I Sentence Structure

Now let’s begin to study the different kinds of sentences in English.

There are four kinds of sentences in English: (1) simple, (2) compound,
(3) complex, and (4) compound-complex. In this chapter, you will leam about
simple sentences.

Simple A simple sentence is a sentence that has one subject-verb pair.

Sentences

The word simple in “simple sentence” doesn’t mean “easy.” It means “one
subject-verb pair.”

The subject in a simple sentence may be compound:1

My brother and I are compietely different.

The verb in a simple sentence may be compound:

They laughed and cried at the same time.

However, each sentence is a simple sentence because it has only one subject-
verb pair.

Analyze the simple sentences ín the left column and their “formulas” in the
right column. There are many variations, but each sentence has only one SV pair.

S im p le S e n t e n c e s “F o r m u la s ”

s V
1. Mv vounaer sister sDeaks Enalish well. SV

S S V
2. Mv mother and father SDeak Enalish well. ssv
S S V V
3. Mv mother and father speak and write Enalish well. s s vv
S V
4. Mv Darents will retire soon. SV

S V V
5. Then thev will move into a smaller aoartment or live with s vv
my older brother and his family.

'compound: in grammar. c o m p o u n d means “more than one.”

49
 Chapter I I Introducing People

The following sentence is not a simple sentence because ít has two subject-
verb pairs. The formula looks like this: SV SV. You will leam more about this
kind of sentence in Chapter 2.
s v s v
Mv brother líves in New York, and mv sister |jy§§ in Paris.

W r it e r ’s Tip

When you Iook for verbs, count only verbs that change tense.
My grandmother wants to learn to drive.
{Count only wants. Do not count to learn or to drive b ecau se they
do not change tense. Verbs with to in front o f them are infínitives.
Infinitives never change.)

My sister will teach in exchange for cooking lessons.

{Count will teach as one verb, not tw o)

A duck is swimming in the hotel swimming pool.

(Counf only the first is swimming. The se co n d swimming is not
a verb; it is a special kind ofadjective calied a participle.)

Swimming is my favorite way to exercise.

(Counf only is. In this senfence, swimming is a special kind ofn oun
calied a gerund.)

PRACTICE 8 A. Identify the formula in the following simple sentences.

S im p le Step 1 Underline the subjects with one line.
Senfence
Step 2 Underline the verbs with two lines.
Patterns
Step 3 Write S above each underlined subject and V above each underiined verb.
Step 4 Finally, write the formula for each sentence in the numbered spaces.

M y G randfather
S V
1Mv grandfather {§ old in years but young in spirit. aEvery day, he
swims a mile and works in his garden. 3He and my grandmother have
four chiidren and ten grandchüdren. 4My grandfather loves parties and
invites our entire famiiy to his house for a big dinner on his birthday.

(continued on next page)

50
First Steps in Academic Writing

5AII twenty of us eat and tell storíes half the night. ®He never gets tired
and is always the last to go to bed. 7On his tast birthday, my brothers

and I gave him a present. ®We put our money together and bought him
a vídeo game system. 9Now he invites us to his house every weekend to
play video games with him. 10My grandfather will always seem young

to me.

1 .3 V 3 .____ 5 .____ 7 .____ 9 .____

2 .____ 4 .____ 6 ._____ 8 ._____ 10._____

B. Work first by yourself, and then with a partner.

Step 1 Write six simple sentences about your family or family members.
Use each of these pattems twice: SV, SSV, SVV.
Step 2 Show your sentences to your partner. Ask your partner to identify
the pattem in each sentence.

S V V 1. My youngest brother goes to school__________________

and Works part-tíme.________________________

____ 2. ___________________________________________

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

51
 P A R T I I I • E N G L I S H G R AM M A R

MULTIPLE SENTENCES T h e a d v e r b ia l id e n tity

o f t h e su b o r d in a t e
c la u se c a n b e te ste d
Up to this point in Part III, most of the sentences illus- u sin g th e te c h n iq u e o f

sentence s u b s titu tio n . T h e cla u se

trated contam only one clause (p. 220): they are s im p le when Mike dropped
sentences. But many sentences can be immediately the piates can be
analysed into more than one clause: they are m u ltip le r e p la c e d b y a n a d v e rb
o f t im e , su ch as then: I
sentences. In fact, multiple sentences form the major- heard the noise then.
ity o f the sentences in formal writing, and are T h is e x a m p le sh o w s
common in everyday conversation too. The kind o f t h e im p o rta n c e o f
c la u se e le m e n t s in
monologue reported on p.214, although presenting c a rry in g o u t t h e
several problems o f analysis, makes it plain that much a n a ly s is o f c o m p ie x
of the spontaneous character o f conversational speech s e n te n c e s . If o n e is
u n a b le t o d istin g u ish
is due to the way it uses multiple sentence construc- b e t w e e n su b je cts,
tions. These constructions are often classified into two v e rb s, o b je cts,
broad types, both recognized in traditional grammar c o m p le m e n ts , a n d
a d v e rb ia is in s in g le
(p. 192): c o m p o u n d sentences and c o m p le x sentences. c la u se s (se e p . 2 2 1 ), th e
p ro sp e cts o f c a rry i ng
Com pound sentences o u t a su c c e ssfu l a n a lysis
o f a m u ltip le se n t e n c e
In compound sentences, the clauses are linked by
a r e s lim .
c o o rd in a tio n - usually, by the c o o rd in a tin g c o n ju n c -
tio n s (p. 213) a n d , or, or b u t. Each clause can in prin­
cipie stand as a sentence on its own - in other words,
act as an in d e p e n d e m clause, or m a in clause. Tree dia-
gram A (above right) shows the ‘balance’ between two
clauses linked in this way. The same analysis would B sentence
be made even if one o f the clauses had elements omit-
ted due to ellipsis (p. 228). In 1 cycled as f a r as O x fo r d
a n d M a r y a s f a r a s R e a d in g M a r y as f a r as R e a d in g can main clause
- once the ellipsis has been ‘filled out’ —stand as a
main clause: M a r y cycled as f a r as R ea d in g . ‘Main, in
this context, has a purely grammatical sense, and does S V O A
not have its everyday general meaning o f ‘most
important’.

Complex sentences
In complex sentences, the clauses are linked by su b o r-
d in a tio n , using such s u b o r d in a tin g c o n ju n c tio n s as
because, w h e n , and sin ce (p.213). Here, one clause
(called the su b o r d in a te clause) is made dependent upon
another (the main clause). This can be seen in tree dia- I heard the noise when Mike dropped the plates.
gram B (below right). The subordinate clause cannot
stand as a sentence on its own. W h e n M i k e d ro p p e d th e
p la te s needs some other clause before it can be used.

ELEMENTS AS CLAUSES
S u b o r d in a t e c la u s e s c a n r e p la c e t h e C la u s e a s s u b je c t C la u s e a s o b je c t C l a u s e a s c o m p le m e n t
w h o le o f a n y c la u se e le m e n t e x c e p t
t h e v e r b . T h e ir g ra m m a tic a l fu n c tio n S V c S V o S V c
c a n a lw a y s b e t e ste d b y re p la c in g th e
c la u se w it h a sim p le r u n it w h o s e
id e n t ity is k n o w n , su c h a s a p r o n o u n ,
a d je c t iv e , a d v e rb , o r n o u n p h ra s e . A
c la u s e a s a d v e r b ia l h a s a lre a d y b e e n
Illu s tra te d a b o v e . H e re a re e x a m p le s T h a th e a rg u e d w as a sh am e . I sa id t h a t it w a s t im e . T h e re su lt w a s w h a t I w a n t e d .
o f c la u s e s as su b je ct, o b je ct, a n d ( i. e ./ íw a s a s h a m e .) (i.e. I said 5omething.) (i.e . T h e r e su lt w a s good.)
c o m p le m e n t.

52
50
 Chapter I I Introducing People

Connecting Often you need to connect words or groups of words in a sentence. One way to
Words: do this is to use a connecting word. Connecting words are called conjunctions.
m nd, o r There are many conjunctions in English. Two of the most common ones are and
and or. They have different meanings.

And joins two or more similar thíngs in positive sentences.

I like Chinese and Italian food.
We have class on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays.

Or connects two or more similar things in negative sentences.

I don’t like warm milk or cold coffee.
We don’t have class on Tuesdays or Thursdays.

Or also connects two or more choices or altematives.

I would like to go to London, Rome, or Paris on my next vacatíon.
(/ cannot go to all three places. I will ch o o se one.)

My father or my mother will meet me at the airport.

{This sentence means that only one person will com e to the airport.
Compare: My father and my mother will meet mé at the airport.
This sentence means that two people will com e to the airport.)

Use this chart to help you remember the meanings of and and o r ín a simple
sentence.

.+ + Use and to join two or more items in a positive sentence.

I love tacos, pizza, and egg rofls.

- - Use or to join two or more items in a negative sentence.

I don*t like hot dogs or hamburgers.

T? F? Also, use or to connect choices.

Is thís sentence true or false?
Do you want to stay home or go out tonight?

53
 First Steps in Academic Writing

PRACTKE 9 Combine the two sentences in each pair to make one sentence. Use and or or
according to the meaning. Try not to repeat any words.
Vsing and, or
1 .1 like chocolate ice cream, I like coffee ice cream.
I like chocolate and coffee ice cream.______________________________________

2. I can speak English. I can understand English.

3 .1 can’t speak Tagalog. I can’t speak Vietnamese.

4. Blue is my favorite color. Yellow is my favorite color. (Be sure to make

the verb and the word color plural.)

5. Would you like soup? Would you like salad? (You can have only one.)

6. You can eat your pizza here. You can take it home.

7. Helen Keller, a famous American woman, was blind. Helen Keller,

a famous American woman, was deaf.

8. She could not see. She could not hear.

9. With the help of her teacher, Helen leamed to speak. Helen became
a famous spokesperson for handicapped people all over the world.

Helen Keller

54
 Chapter 2 i Lísting-Order Paragraphs

PART 2 I Sentence Structure

Compound In Chapter I, you learned about simple sentences. Another kind of sentence is a
Sentences compound sentence.

A compound sentence is two simple sentences connected by a

comma and a coordinating conjunction.

This is the basic formula for a compound sentence:

Simple sentence , COORDINATING simple sentence.

CONJUNCTION

These are compound sentences:

Coordinating
Simple Sentence Conjunction Simple Sentence
My family goes camping every summer, and we usually have fun.
Last year we went camping at Blue Lake, but we had a terrible time.
Next year we will go to the beach, or perhaps we will stay at home.
We want to buy a house soon, SO we need to save money.

Command sentences can also be compound. Remember that the subject “you” is
not expressed in commands.
(¥ea) Come visit us again soon, and yett bring your family with you.
(¥eu) Have a good time, but yeu don’t stay out too late.

Here are three important points to know about compound sentences:

1. A comma and a coordinating conjunction connect the two halves of a

compound sentence.
2. There are seven coordinating conjunctions in English: fo r , and, nor, but,
o r,y e t, and so. Remember them by the phrase “fan boys.” In this book,
you will practice four of them: and, but, or, and so.
3. Don’t confuse a compound sentence with a simple sentence that has
a compound verb. The first sentence in each of the following pairs
of sentences is simple and doesn’t need a comma. The second one
is compound and requires a comma.

55
 First Steps in Academic Writing

“Formulas”
Simple sentence with Mv familv aoes camDina everv SVV
compound verb summer and usually lias fun.

Compound sentence Mv famiiv aoes camoina everv S V, and S V

summer, and we usually have fun.

Simple sentence with Last vear we went camDina but SVV

compound verb had a terrible time.

Compound sentence Last vear we went camDina. but evervone S V, but S V

had a terrible time.

Simple sentence with Next vear we will ao to the beach or SVV

compound verb perhaps stay at home.

Compound sentence Next vear we will ao to the beach. or S V, or S V

perhaps we will stav at home.

PRACT1CE 8 A. Identify simple and compound sentences.

S im p le v e r s u s Step 1 Analyze each sentence in the following paragraphs. Underline the
Com pound subjects with one line and the verbs with two Lines.
S e n te n ce s
Step 2 Circle coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so) that separate two
simple sentences.
Step 3 Write simple or compound in the space to the left of each sentence, and
write the formula for each: SV, a n d SV, SVV, o r SSV, and so on.
Step 4 Add a comma to compound sentences.

simple SV 1. The summers were hot and humid in my

childhood hometown.
compound • SV. so SSV 2. Every evening it was too hot to sleep, so mv
sisters and I plaved outside until dark.
3. Our parents sat in chairs on the grass and
watched us play our children’s games.
4. We played games such as hide-and-seek and
tag or we just sat on the grass and told
stories.
5. We also caught firefües.'
6. We put the fireflies into a glass jar and our father
punched air holes in the metal lid.

‘fireflies: insects with tails that shine in the dark

56
 16 • T H E S T R U C T U R E O F S E N T E N C E S

• Severai instances o f subordination may occur ‘at the COORDINATION AT

MULTIPLE STRUCTURES same levei’. The sentence W h a t I say is iv h a t I t h i n k OTHER LEVELS
may seem complex at first sight, but in fact it has a A c o o rd in a ti ng c o n ju n ctio n
Both compound and complex sentences can contain simple three-part structure, just like T h a t is th a t , as c a n jo in a n y tw o s y n t a c t ic
units, as lo n g a s t h e y h a v e th e
Severai instances o f coordination or subordination. shown in tree diagram E. sam e sta tu s in t h e se n te n ce . In
a d d it io n t o lin k in g c ia u s e s, it
• Wich m u ltip le c o o rd in a tio n , che analysis is simple, as can lin k n o u n ph rases, adjec-
tives, p ro n o u n s, an d severai
seen in tree diagram C. The continuai use o f a n d to o th e rfo rm s.
buiid up a long sentence is by no means unusual, as
1b o u g h t a paper a n d a book.
the real-life example on p. 214 suggests. W e w e r e hot a n d dirty.
It's them o r us.
sentence
T h e re is th e o re tica lly n o lim it
subordinate clause subordinate clause
t o t h e n u m b e r o f u nits w h ich
/rs
S V
/ IN
S V
c a n b e c o n n e c te d in th is w a y .
C oo rd i n a tio n seem s a
sim p le g ra m m a tic a l m atter,
b u t it has so m e h id d e n sub-
tle ties. To b e g in w ith , th e d if-
W h a t I say is w h a t I t h in k . fe re n t co n ju n ctio n s exp re ss a
I lik e f is h a n d I lik e e g g s a n d I lik e h a m .
ra n g e o f m e a n in g s. Fo re x a m -
• With m u ltip le s u b o r d in a tio n , we must take special • Coordination and subordination may ofcourse occur pte, and c a n co n v e y m o re th a n
sim ple a d d it io m in / r a n h a r d
: eare to Iceep the different ‘leveis’ o f subordination in the same sentence, to produce a c o m p o u n d -c o m p le x and (therefore) caughtthe
apart. In tree diagram D, the main clause is H e s a id sentence. This possibility is shown in tree diagram F. bus, it exp resses 'result'; in
[so m eth in g j. The first subordinate clause tells us what These are among the most complicated sentence struc- I woke up and (then) got
dressed, it exp resses 'tim e
'■the speaker said (‘We will eat when the cafe opens’), tures to draw, but the sentences these diagrams repre- se q u e n ce '. W h e n th e m ean in g
and is therefore the object o f the verb said. The second sent are by no means unusual. A chiíd o f 9 could have is o n e o f a d d itio n , w e m ay
subordinate clause tells us when they would eat (‘when said the sentence analysed in the diagram, which only reverse t h e o r d e r o f clauses:
I take the bus andshe takes the
the cafe opens’), and is an adverbial modifying eat. goes to show how muchgrammatical ability we have all train can b e c o m e She takes the
unconsciously assimilated without realizing it. train andI take the bus. W h e n
o t h e r m e a n in g s a re involved,
p sentence
D sentence
w e m a y n o t: *1caughtthe bus
and (therefore) I ran hard,
I *1gotdressed and (then)
main dause main clause Iwokeup.
M oreover, w h e n t w o
S V O ph rases a r e lin k e d by an d , th e y
m ay o r m a y n ot re ta in th e ir
subordinate clause
se p a ra te g ra m m a tica l roles.
C o m p a re th e fo llo w in g tw o
A sen te n ce s:
I
subordinate clause M a tth e w a n d Ben a re stro ng .
M a tth e w a n d Ben a re alike.
S V T h e t w o se n te n ce s lo o k th e
sam e , b u t fu rth e r analysis

r 1 r i i i sh o w s th e y a r e d iffe re n t. In
th e f irst case, w e can say
H e s a id t h a t w e w o u l d e a t w h e n t h e c a f e o p e n e d . I w e n t w h e n t h e r a in s t o p p e d a n d a f t e r I f o u n d m y s h o e s .
Matthew is strong and Ben is
strong. Each p h ra se c a n be
MORE AND MORE USES OF AND e x p a n d e d in to its o w n clause.
B u t in th e s e c o n d case, this
T h e r e a r e se v e ra i id io m a tic u se s o f a n d w h ic h a r e e sp e c ialty c an n o t h a p p e n : w e ca n n o t say
c o m m o n in in fo rm a l s p e e c h a n d o fte n critic iz e d in w ritin g . *Matthew is alike and *Ben is
• In s u c h co n stru c tio n s a s/7/ tryandsee him, and is n o t alike. T h e re is so m e th in g
fu n c tio n in g as a c o o rd in a to r, b u t as a n in fo rm a l e q u iv a le n t a b o u t alike w h ic h fo rces th e

o f t h e in f in it iv e p a r t ic le t o { p .2 0 4 ) : Tlltrytoseehim. tw o n o u n sto w o rk to g e th e r.
• L lk e w is e , in su ch c o n stru c tio n s a s The room was nice and Sím ilarly, ArthurandJoanna
warm, nice and is b e in g u se d a s a n ín te n s ify in g it e m (sim ilar haveseparated c a n n o t be
tovery), a n d n o t a s a c o o rd in a to r. He nas welland truly *Arthurhas
e x p a n d e d in to
drunk is a n o t h e r e x a m p le . separatedandJoanna hassep-
• B y c o o r d in a tin g a w o r d w it h itse lf, sp e c ia l m e a n in g s a re arated. C ases o f th is kin d add
e x p re sse d . In The car wentslonerandslower, t h e se n se is co m p lex ity a n d in te re s tto
Theytalkedand talked, it is
o n e o f in te n s ific a tio n . In w h a t in itially seem s a straight-
c o n tin u o u s a c t io n . A p a r tic u la r ly in te re s tin g u s a g e is f o u n d fo rw a rd a re a o f Eng lish
: in There are roses and roses, m e a n in g 'E v e r y o n e k n o w s t h a t syntax.
so m e ro se s a r e b e t t e r / w o r s e t h a n o th e rs'. ...a n d t h e n t h e r e a re ro se sl

57
51
 Chapter 2 I Listing-Order Paragraphs

7. My sisters were afraid of most bugs but they

loved fireflies.
8. We usually went to bed at nine o’clock but
we stayed up until ten on really warm evenings.
9. Around ten o’clock our mother and father told
us to come inside.
10. “Come inside now but leave the fireflies
outside, please,” our mother always said.

B. Identify simple and compound sentences in a paragraph.

Step 1 Analyze each sentence in the following paragraph. Underline the
subjects with one line and the verbs with two lines.
Step 2 Write simple or compound in the numbered spaces.
Step 3 Then write the formula for each sentence.
Step 4 Add commas wherever they are needed. (You should add seven
commas.)
Teenagers
1Teenaaers find many ways to drive their parents crazy. 2First, they dye
their hair purple, or they shave their heads bald.3 3They aiso tattoo their skin
and wear rings in their noses. 4ln addition they spend hours at the shopping
maii and on the phone. 5They have time to watch TV but they don’t have time
(continued on next page)

2bald: no hair at all

58
First Steps in Academic Writing

to do their homework. BAlso they’re always too busy to clean up' their rooms
but they’re never too busy to clean out2the refrigerator by eating everything
in it. 7Finally they are old enough to drive but too young to pay for gas. 8They
are usually broke3 so they always return the family car with an empty gas
tank. 9lt’s hard to be a teenager but it’s even harder to be the parent of one.
1. simple SV 6.
2. compound SV. or SV 7.
3. 8.
4. 9.
5.

C o o r d in a tin g C o n ju n c tio n s: a n d , b u t, o r, so

In compound sentences, and, but, or, and so have these meanings:

And connects two sentences with similar ideas. The sentences can be positive or
negative.
My roommate is an art student, and her boyfriend plays in a rock band.
She doesn’t like rock music, and he doesn’t like art.

W rite r’s T ip

Remember to use or, not and, in a negative simple sentence. To refresh your
memory, tum back to Chapter 1, page 23.
He doesn’t like art or classical music.

But connects two sentences with contrasting or opposite ideas.

She likes classical music, but she doesn’t like rock.
She likes country music, but he hates it.

Or connects two sentences that express alternatives or choices.

Every Friday night, they go to a classical concert, or they visit an art
gallery.
Every Saturday night, he practices with his band, or they go to hear
a rock concert.

'clean up: make clean and neat by removing things that make it look messy
‘clean out: make clean and neat by removing things; the slang expression c le a n o u t can mean rem o ve
e v e r y th in g as in T h e ra b b e r s c le a n e d o u t th e c a sh d ra w e r. '
■'broke: having no money

59
 Chapter 2 | Listing-Order Paragraphs 59

B. Make compound sentences by adding a second simple sentence to each item.

1. My brother and I look like twins, but our personalities are verv di-fferent.
2. We are both médium tall, and_________________ :_______ .________

3. He is an extrovert,2 but_______________________________________

4. I am younger, s o ____________________________________________

5. Our mother used to tell us, “Stop fighting, or______________________

6. We fought a lot as children, but now______ :______________________

7. We married two sisters, s o ________ ____________________________

Two Sentence Two sentence errors that writers sometimes make are run-ons and comma splices.
Errors: These mistakes happen most often when the two .sentences are related in meaning.
Run-ons • a run-on is two simple sentences incorrectly joined with no
and Comma coordinating conjunction and no comma.
Splices wrong : My roommate wants to win the Tour de France someday
he spends hours riding his bicycle.
wrong : Write your signature on the line print your name below it.
• A comma splice is two simple sentences incorrectly joined with a
comma alone.
wrong : My roommate wants to win the Tour de France someday,
he spends hours riding his bicycie.
wrong : Write your signature on the line, print your name below it.

There are two ways to fix these errors.

1. Separate the sentences with a period.
right : My roommate wants to win the Tour de France someday.
He spends hours riding his bicycle.
right : Write your signature on the line. Print your name below it.

2extrovert: someone who is active and confident and who enjoys being with other people

60
First Steps in Academic Writing

QR

2. Add (or keep) the comma and add a coordinating conjunction.

right: My roommate wants to win the Tour de France someday,
so he spends hotirs riding his btcycle.

right: Write your signature on the line, and print your name below it.

Step 1 Put amX in the space next, to the sentences that are comma splices or
run-ons.
Step 2 Correct the sentences that you marked. Use either method I or 2
(from pages 59-60) to correct them.

X 1. Some people Kke caís, others prefer dogs.

Some people iike cats. Others prefer dogs. __________
OR Some oeopíe ÜKe cata, and others prefer dogs. _________
OR Some people like cats. but others prefer doqs.__________

----- 2, Kittens are cute, they Kke to play.

3. Dogs are good companions, and they can also protect you.

61
 Cliapter 2 | Listing-Order Paragraphs

4. It’s acceptable for dogs to bark at strangers they shouldn’t bite

them, however.

5. Lions are also good protectors, but they eat too much.

6. Penguins' always wear tuxedos,2they are good pets for people

who like to go to fancy parties.

7. A pet elephant can fan you with his ears and spray you with
his truhk,3you won’t need air-conditioning or a shower.

8. Goats eat lots of grass, so you wiil never have to cut your lawn.4

9. A giraffe can reach things on high shelves, it can see over the
heads of people at parades.

10. Keep a boa constrictor3 as a pet if you enjoy being alone then
no one will ever visit you.

'penguins: birds that live in Antarctica. They stand upright and have black and white feathers.
2tuxedos: men’s fancy black suits, wom on very formal occasions such as weddings
3trunk: elephant’s Iong nose
4lawn: grass in a garden
5boa constrictor: very large snake

62
 First Steps in Academic Writing

PRACT1CE 4 Write an outline from the list you made at the beginning of this chapter on
how to clean up after a party.
Simple
Outlining Step 1 Edit the list by Crossing out repeated ideas or ideas that don’t fit.
Step 2 Decide whether to use time order or listing order.
Step 3 Put the steps in order.
Step 4 Add a title, a topic sentence, and a concluding sentence.

Try It Out! Write a paragraph about how to clean up a house after a party. You have already
completed Step 1 (Prewriting). Now continue with the writing process.
Step 2 Write the first draft.
• Write ROUGH DRAFT at the top of your paper.
• Follow your outline.
• Use transition signals to introduce some steps.
• If you wish, add other sentences to explain each step in more detail.
Step 3 Edit the first draft.
• Edit your paragraph with a partner as you have done in previous
chapters. Use the Reader’s Response 3A and Writer’s Self-Check 3A
on pages 198 and 199.
Step 4 Write the final copy.
• Write a neat final copy of your paragraph to hand in to your teacher.
Your teacher may also ask you to hand in your prewriting, your
outline, and your other drafts.

PART 2 I Sentence Structure

In Chapters 1 and 2, you learned about simple and compound sentences. A third
kind of sentence is a complex sentence. Before we study these, let’s leam about
clauses.

Independent A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. There are two
and kinds of clauses in English: independent clauses and dependent clauses.
Dependent
Clauses Independent Clause Dependent Clause
s v s v
It rained. . . . because it rained . ..

63
 Chapter 3 | Giving Instructions

1. An independent clause has one SV pair and expresses a complete thought.

Independent clause is just another name for a simple sentence.

s v
Paris has excelient art museums.
s v
We finished our homework.

2. A dependent clause is an independent clause with a subordinating

word, such as because, after, and when, added to the beginning of it.
S ubordinating
WORD S V
. . . because Paris has excelient art museums . . .
S ubordinating
word S V
. . . after we finished our homework . . .

A dependent clause does not express a complete thought, so it is not a

sentence by itself. It is only half of a sentence. It MUST be joined to an
independent clause. Together, the two clauses express a complete thought.
I--------- Independent c la u se ----------1j---------------- Dependent c la u se -----------------1
Art students should visit Paris because it has excelient art museums.
I------------ Dependent c la u se ------------ u---------Independent c la u se — —
After we finished our homework, we watched TV for a while.

Adverb Subordinators

There are many subordinating words that can make a dependent clause. In
this chapter, we will study adverb subordinators. We call them adverb
subordinators because they introduce dependent clauses that act like adverbs.
That is, they answer the questions when?, why?, where?, and so on.

64
First Steps in Academic Writing

Certain adverb subordinators introduce time clauses. Here are some common
time subordinators.

Time Subordinators
afte r 1will go straight to bed afte r 1finish writing this paragraph.
a s so o n a s She felt better a s so o n a s she took the medicine.
b efo re Wait for a green light b efo re you cross a Street.
s in c e It has been a year s in c e 1left home.
until We can’t leave the room until everyone finishes the test.
w h en Where were you w h en 1called?
w h e n eve r W h en ever 1don’t sleep well, 1feel sick the next day.
w h ile My neighbors were having a party w h ile 1was trying
to sleep.

Caution!

A few time subordinators are also prepositions. Prepositions are followed by

nouns. Subordinators are followed by subject-verb combinations
after my accident (preposition)
after I had an accident (su b o rd in a to r )
before class (p rep o sitio n )

before class begins (subordinator)

until ten o’clock (preposition)
until the bell rings (subordinator)

W rite r’s T ip

In addition to time-order transition signals, such as first, next, after that, m ã

so on, you can use time clauses to show time order.
Before you start writing, look over the test
After you have answered the easy questions, go back and work
on the hard ones.

65
 Chapter 3 I Giving lnstructions

PRACT1CE 5 Identify independent and dependent clauses.

Independent Step 1 Write I C (independent clause) or D C (dependent clause) in the space to
and Dependent the left of each group of words.
Clauses
Step 2 If it is an IC, add a period. If it is a DC, circle the time subordinator.

IC 1. I take a walk around the block.

DC 2.(Before)l go to work
____ 3. The exercise wakes up my body and clears my mind
____ 4. It’s hard to do this in the winter
____ 5. When I go to work
____ 6. It is still dark
____ 7. After I get home from work
____ 8. It is dark again
____ 9. I can always take a walk on weekends, even in the winter
____10. When it is raining, of course
____11. I never go out
------12. On rainy days, as soon as the alarm clock rings
------13. I tum over and go back to sleep

Complex Now that you know about dependent and independent clauses, let’s learn about
Sentences complex sentences.

A complex sentence has one independent clause and one (or

more) dependent clauses.
• When the dependent clause begins with an adverb subordinator,
the clauses can usually be in any order.
We ran for shelter as soon as it started to rain.
As soon as it started to rain, we ran for shelter.
• If the independent clause is first, don’t use a comma.
• If the dependent clause is first, put a comma after it.

66
 First Steps in Academic Writing

PRACT1CE 6 A. Analyze these complex sentences.

Complex Step 1 Underline the independent clauses with a solid line and the dependent
Sentences clauses with a brojken Une.
with Time
Subordinators
Step 2 Draw a circle around the time subordinator.
Step 3 Add a comma if one is needed.

l-(After)we wpnjheJotteQfJasJ.jear, mv wife and I decided to

take a trip.
2. We were very excited when we won.
3. After we got our first payment we started planning a trip to Italy.
4. Before we left on our trip we wrote to our cousins in Rome and
told them our plans.
5. As soon as they received our letter they called and invited us to
stay with them.
6. They were waiting at the airport when we arrived.
7. They waited outside while the Italian officials checked our
passports and luggage.
8. Finally, after we got our suitcases they drove us to their home.
9. As soon as we arrived at their apartment they wanted to feed us.
10. We ate one delicious home-cooked dish after another until
we were stuffed.1
11. We fell asleep as soon as our heads hit the pillows.
12. Almost twenty-four hours had passed since we left home.

B . Write complex sentences.

Step 1 Match a clause from column B with a clause from column A to make
a complex sentence.
Step 2 Write the story on the lines provided. The clauses in column A are in
the correct order. Be sure to punctuate the sentences correctly.
A B
1. The trip began badly a. before we could put on our rain
jackets
2. It was almost noon b. when we had a flat tire on the
way to the lake
3. As soon as I threw out c. until I go fishing with my
my fishing line brothers again

‘stuffed: very full

67
 Chapter 3 I Giving lnstructions

Summary: Let’s summarize what you have Iearned about the three types of sentences. Good
Three Types writers add interest and variety to their writing by using all three types.
of Sentences
A simple sentence has one independent clause.
It was a sunny day.
Raise your hand to ask a question.

A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses joined

by a comma and a coordinating conjunction.
It was a sunny day, so we went to the beach.
Talk quietly, or don’t talk at all.

A complex sentence has one independent and one or more dependent

clauses. A comma is needed when a dependent clause comes before
an independent clause.
While the meat is cooking, prepare the sauce.
Prepare the sauce while the meat is cooking.

PRACT1CE 8 A. Identify the different types of sentences.

S im p le , Step 1 Underline all independent clauses with a solid line and all dependent
Com pound, clauses with a brokenJine.
a nd C o m p le x
S e n te n c e s
Step 2 In the space at the left, write the words simple, compound, or complex
to identify each sentence type.

Unusual Vacations
complex 1. Some people like to relax and do nothing when thev
take a.vaçation.
2. Other people like to travei, and still others like to
have an adventure.
3. Unusual vacations are becoming popular.
4. For example, people go hiking in Nepal or river
rafting in Ecuador.
5. Some people spend their vacations learning, and
some spend their vacations helping others.
6. A friend of mine likes to help people, so he spent
his summer helping to build a school in Bangladesh.
(continued on next page)

68
 Chapter 3 I Giving Instructions

4 . 1 spent most of the aftemoon d. I immediately took a hot shower

untangling2my line
e. while my brothers were catching
5. After we had been fishing fish after fish
for a couple of hours
f. it got caught in some underwater
6. We were totally wet weeds
7. When we got back home g. before we started fishing
8. It will be a long, long time h. it started to rain

A M iserable Fishing Trip

The trio feegan badlv when we had a -Fiat tire on the wav to the lake.

2untangling: removing knots, making straight

69
 Activity 1
1. ldentify the clauses in the following text and use CAPITAL LETTERS to mark their
beginning. (Remember that a clause is a construction formed by an NP + VPj.
2. Analyze ifit is possible to connect to other clauses.

1 NpNancy board and Erden Edue of Seattle vphave always loved the outdoors so NpAlaska
2 vpwas a natural choice for their wedding Nancy flewtherefor the June 7 ceremonybut Erden
3 started in February and rode his bike then he climbed Mount Denali he ran into some bad
4 weather so the wedding was a week late Nancy understood she has been an adventure
5 athlete for years
6 The wedding was a Native American ceremony on the beach of Lake Wonder the couple
7 told a repórter: "we wanted a combination of meeting new people meeting new culture and
8 experiencing history and nature
9 Erden took engineering and earned degrees from universities in Turkey and the United
10 States he has been climbing since he was 11 and for years he has been dreaming about an
11 around-the-world climbing trip in 2003 he lefthis job to begin the adventure Mount Denali
12 was the first of six climbs continents. Erden has been living in Seattle since 1999
13 Nancy is a psychotherapist and has been president of her own business in Seattle since
14 2003 in the last few years she has been using her outdoor experience to teach leadership
15 skills.
(Adapted from: FUCHS, M.; MARJORIE, L. Focus on gram m ar 4.)

70
 First Steps in Academic Writing

Sentence In Chapter 2, you learned about the sentence errors called run-ons and comma
Errors: splices. Another kind of sentence error is called a fragment. The word frcigment
Fragments means a part of something. A sentence fragment is only part of a sentence or half
of a sentence. It is not a complete sentence. These are fragments:
fragm ent : Before the test began.
fragm ent : A s soon as you get home.

Why are they fragments? They are fragments because they are dependent
clauses. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence by itself.

To fix this kind of fragment, add an independent clause to it.

com plete senten ce : The teacher passed out pencils and paper
before the test began.

co m plete sen ten ce : Call me as soon as you get home.

PRACT1CE 7 Identify and correct fragments.

Fragments Step 1 Read each sentence. Decide if it is a fragment or a sentence. Write
F for fragment and S for sentence.
Step 2 Then correct each fragment by adding an independent clause.
Write your new sentences on the lines provided.

F 1. Before I learned to speak English well.

____2. Every night, after I finish my homework.
____ 3. As soon as we heard the crash.
____4. The bicycle racers stopped to rest before they started up the
mountain.
____5. Wait until you hear the bell.
____ 6. Whenever my children have a school holiday.
____7. I work at night while my husband stays home with the
children.
I. Before I learned to speak Engíish well. I was a-fraid to use the
telephone.

71
First Steps in Academic Writing

_____________ 7. After he retumed home, he wanted to go back to

help build a medicai clinic.
_____________ 8. People may find the local scenery a little boring
after they have climbed volcanoes in Guatemala
or ridden camels in Egypt.

B. The following “how to” paragraph uses a combination of simple,

compound, and complex sentences. Find five compound sentences and
three complex sentences. Then answer the questions that follow.
How to Succeed in a U.S. College1
1Succeeding in a U.S. college may require new strategies2for students
from other cultures. 2Here are a few tips from a U.S. college professor. 3First,
attend every class. 4Professors talk about the most important material in
class. sWhen you aren’t there, you miss important Information. 6Second, take
good notes. 'Then review or recopy your notes as soon as you can. ®Third,
don’t be afraid to ask questions whenever you don’t understand something.
9Professors want their students to succeed, so they want them to ask
questions. 10Fourth, get to know your professors personally. 11Go to their
Office duríng Office hours, and introduce yourself. 12Don’t waste professors’
time, but make sure they know your name and face. 13Finally, get invoived
in a campus activity, òr get a job in the bookstore. 14Go to football and
basketball games. 15Join a club. 16Be friendly, and talk to everyone— other
students, professors, secretaries, cafeteria workers, and janitors. 17Active,
invoived students are successful students.

1. Which sentences are compound? Sentence numbers____ ______ , ____ ,

____ , and____ .
2. Which sentences are complex? Sentence numbers____ , . and____ .

'Adapted from Clark Ford, “How To Succeed in College Wíthout falling into the usual traps” [sic],
http:www.public.iastate.edu/~cffordl01howtosucceed.htm (accessed December 24, 2006).
2strategies: tactics, approaches

72
Adjectival Clauses 24
READ
Read the excerpt from the reading selection “The Effects of O ur
E nvironm ent.” The full selection, w ith vocabulary glosses, appears on p. 351.

Architects have learned th a t the way housing projects are designed

Controls to a great extent the contact neighbors have w ith each other.
People who live in apartm ents near stairw ays and mailboxes have m any
more neighbor contacts th a n do those living in less heavily traveled parts
5 of the building, and ten an ts generally have more contacts w ith imm ediate
neighbors th an w ith people even a few doors away. Architects now use
th is inform ation to design buildings th a t either encourage communica-
tion or increase privacy, and house hu n ters can use the same knowledge
to choose a home th a t gives them the neighborhood relationships they
ío w ant. . . .
O ther studies . . . found th a t students who sit opposite the teacher
talk more, and those next to the teacher avoid talking a t all. Also, the
middle of the first row contains the students who interact most, and as we
move back and to the sides of the classroom, interaction decreases
15 markedly.
W ith an overwhelming lack of im agination we perpetuate a seating
arrangem ent rem iniscent of a m ilitary cemetery. This type of environ­
m ent comm unicates to students th a t the teacher, who can move about
freely while they can’t, is the one who is im portant in the room, is the only
20 one to whom anyone should speak, and is the person who has all the
information. The most advanced curriculum has little chance of surviving
w ithout a physical environm ent th a t supports it.

ANALYZE
1. In the passage, underline all occurrences of the words who, w hom ,
whose, and w hich.

73
ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES

2. Then look a t the uses of that. If you could replace th a t w ith who, w hom ,
or w hich, underline that.
3. In the first sentence, the phrase the contact neighbors have w ith each
other could be rew ritten as the contact th a t neighbors have w ith each other.
Find any other sentences in which a sim ilar p a tte rn occurs. In sert a caret A at
any place where w hom , w hich, or th a t could be inserted.
4. Look a t the clauses th a t the words you have underlined or inserted
introduce. W hat sim ilar p attern s emerge? Find a way to put these clauses into
groups.

STU D Y

24a. A d jectival clau ses: form a n d fu n c tio n

Adjectival clauses (also called relative clauses) give us inform ation about
a noun phrase. They always follow the noun phrase and are introduced by
relative pronouns:

who th a t
whom L ] (omitted form of w hom , w hich, or th a t)
whose where (= a t which, in which)
which when

EXAMPLES

The candidate who performs best will get the job.

The candidate that performs best will get the job.
The candidate whom I liked best got the job.
The candidate that I liked best got the job.
The candidate I liked best got the job.
The candidate whose résumé showed the most experience got the job.
The position for which the candidate applied was a managerial one.
The position [that] the candidate applied for was a managerial one.
The firm where they had worked had gone bankrupt.
The eighties was a decade when money was the sign of success.
Note th a t who refers to people and w hich to things or concepts. T h a t can refer
to either and is often used in preference to who and w hich, particularly in
conversation.
Relative pronouns can serve different functions w ithin the clause:
subject, direct object, possessive, or object of a preposition. The box presents a
summ ary.

74
 ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES: FORM AND FUNCTION

FUNCTIONS OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Function in Clause R ela tive Pronoun
P er s o n T h in g o r C o n c e p t

Subject who which

that that
Object who, whom+ which
that that
[ J [ J (omitted pronoun)
Possessive whose whose
of which
Object of preposition whom which
[ J [ ] (omitted pronoun,
preposition at end of clause)
tFormal grammar recommends whom in the object position. However, in informal language you
will come across who in the object position, as in “They hired the architect who(m) their neighbors
recommended.”

EXERCISE 1
The following are sentence subjects. For each, m ake up a sentence
using a relative clause to lim it and define the subject.

EXAMPLE

The student
The student I was talking to in the hall is sitting in the corner of the
room.

1. The experim ent 6 . The advice

2. The policy 7. The instructor
3. The news 8 . The m eai
4. The inform ation 9. The person
5. The suggestion 10. The lost book

EXERCISE 2
Look a t the picture The L uncheon o f the B oating P arty on p. 111.
W rite eight sentences to identify eight different people or objects, using
adjectival clauses.

75
ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES

EXAMPLE

T he m an w ho is lea n in g a g a in st th e ra ilin g h a s a d a rk b eard.

24b. R e la tiv e p ro n o u n as su b ject o f cla u se

There are four im portant things to rem em ber about the relative pronoun
as the subject of its own clause.

1. W hen the relative pronoun is the subject of its own clause, it cannot
be omitted.

EXAMPLES

People w ho liv e in a p a rtm e n ts n e a r sta irw a y s h av e m any

n eig h b o r contacts.
H ouse h u n te rs can choose a hom e th a t g iv e s th em good
neighborhood re la tio n sh ip s.
2. Even w hen a clause com es b etw een th e subject an d its verb (people
. . . have), we do n o t in s e rt an a d d itio n a l p ro n o u n subject:
N ot * P e o p le w h o liv e in a p a r t m e n t s n e a r s ta ir w a y s
th e y h a v e
m an y n e ig h b o r c o n ta c ts .
3. U sually, th a t is p refe ra b le to w h ic h , w ho, an d w horn in speech
and w ritin g . However, th a t should n o t be u sed directly a fte r a
p rep o sitio n (see section 24e) or to in tro d u c e a n o n re stric tiv e clause
(see section 24g).
4. The relative pronouns who, w hich, and th a t can refer to a singular
or plural noun phrase. To determ ine w hether a present tense verb
of the clause should be singular or plural in form, we have to
examine the preceding noun phrase (the referent).
People w ho live . . . have m an y n eig h b o r contacts.
A p erso n w ho lives . . . h a s m an y n eig h b o r contacts.

EXERCISE 3 (oral)
Combine each pair of sentences into one sentence by m aking the
second sentence into a relative clause.

EXAMPLE

T he s tu d e n t w as ask ed to m ak e a speech.
T he s tu d e n t got th e h ig h e st grades.
T he s tu d e n t w ho got th e h ig h e st g rad e s w as a sk ed to m ak e a
speech.

76
 RELATIVE PRONOUN AS O BJECT OF CLAUSE

1. The girl asks a lot of questions.

The girl is sitting in the front row.

2 . I’m really annoyed w ith the girl.

The girl asks a lot of questions.

3. P ass me the books.

The books are lying on the table.

4. I paid the boy.

The boy delivered the groceries.

5. I wrote a review of the book.

The book im pressed me so much.

6 . The results teach a lesson.

The lesson isn’t surprising.

7. The jou rn alist works for a newsm agazine.

The jou rn alist w ants to interview you a t noon tomorrow.

8 . She applied for the job.

The job was advertised in the daily newspaper.

24c. R e la tiv e p ro n o u n a s ob ject o f cla u se

There are two im portant things to know about the relative pronoun as the
object of its own clause:

1. It precedes the verb.

2. It can be om itted— and, indeed, frequently is.

The box shows word order in an adjectival clause.

In depen den t Clause A d jectiva l C lause

O b je c t S lJB JE C T V erb

D e s ig n Controls th e co n tact n e ig h b o rs have.

D e s ig n Controls th e co n tact th a t n e ig h b o rs have.

D e s ig n Controls th e co n tact w h ic h + n e ig h b o rs have.

+In current American usage, that is preferable to which.

77
ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES

Note how two sentences are combined by using an adjectival clause. The object
of one clause is transform ed into the object form of the relative pronoun:

H e p ra ise d th e room .

H e h a d ju s t seen th e room . = He h a d ju s t seen it.

_______________________________________ y
H e p ra ise d th e room [ * ] he h a d ju s t seen.
Or H e p ra ise d th e room th a t h e h a d ju s t seen.
B u t not *He p raise d th e room [ ] he h a d ju s t seen it.
*He p ra ise d th e room th a t he h a d ju s t seen it.

78
ACTIVITY
The two sentences below can be transformed into a more sophisticated one by using
relative/adjectival clauses. Based on the explanations found in the extra activity (MURPHY,
R. English Grammar in use) and in the one of our booklet, transform the two clauses
below (l-lO) into only one sentence.

1. The student was asked to make a speech. He got the highest grades.
2. The girl asks a lot of questions. The girl is sitting in the front row.
3. I want the TV. I saw it in the store window yesterday.
4. Pass me the books. The books are lying on the table.
5. I paid the boy. The boy delivered the groceries.
6. I wrote a review of the book. The book impressed me so much.
7. She applied for the job. Thejob was advertised in the daily newspaper.
8. Design Controls the contact. Neighbors have contacts.
9. I bought the suit. My mother liked it.
10. The environment can communicate discomfort, The architects have created (WHAT?)
the environment.

79
 Read the following interview, underline the advcrb cia use, circle the subordinator and
classify them.

WORLD REVIEW
Source: (MAURER, J. Focus on grammar 4)

1 WR: Dr. Scope, just what does make a happy family?

2 SCOPE: There is a clichê that all happy families have some things in common. While this
3 may be trite, it is also true.
4 WR: Really? W hat are these things?
5 SCOPE: Well, in happy families, although family members may argue, they have a basic
6 concern for each other. This factor is very im portant because every person needs
7 to know that somebody cares for and about him or her.
8 WR: Is this caring enough to keep young people from turning to criminal acts and
9 violence?
10 SCOPE: No. O f course it’s not that simple, but if a person feels connected to another, he
11 or she is more likely to act in socially acceptable ways.
12 WR: So, is being connected the principal factor?
13 SCOPE: It is very important.
14 WR: Tell us what else is important.
15 SCOPE: When family members have goals and support each other’s goals, the family feels
16 united.
17 WR: Give us an example.
18 SCOPE: Well, if a parent is hoping to be promoted at work, everybody is supportive and
19 shows interest. If a youngster is trying to make the basketball team, the other
20 family members show encouragement and warmth.
21 WR: W hat happens in time o f trouble?
22 SCOPE: When one family member is having trouble, the others should exhibit concern
23 and try to help. Suppose, for example, that someone is fired from a job. Even
24 though this person doesn’t have a job, he or she should still feel valued by the rest
25 o f the family. In fact, precisely because this person doesn’t have a job, he or she
26 needs to feel valued.
27 WR: So, is that the key word, valued?
28 SCOPE: I think it is. People need to feel valued, appreciated. They also need to feel so
29 secure that they know their families will always be there for them.
30 WR: Does the economic status o f the family matter?
31 SCOPE: O f course, economic stability is favorable. But happy families exist
32 wherever you look, in all economic strata. And unhappy families as well.
33 WR: Well, thank you very much doctor. We certainly feel a little more enlightened
34 than we did before.

80
 ACTIVITY REVIEW

ACTIVITY 1
Connect the clauses below whenever possible to form a coherent texts. Use either coordinating
conjunctions (FAN BOYS) or adverb subordinators so that you can form compound or complex
sentences. As you connect them, don't forget the correct use of cornmas.

Lily's Terrible Day

1. Líly had a terrible d a y today.

2. She woke up late. She had to hurry.
3. She w as hungry. She didn't have time to eat any breakfast.
4. She got dressed. She g rab b e d her books. She ran all the w ay to the bus stop.
5. The bus w as just leaving. She yelled. The bus driver didn't hear her.
6. She could take a taxi to school. She could walk.
7. She decided to walk.
8. O ne hour later, she arrived at school.
9. She had missed her first class. She w as late to her second one.
10. She hadn't studied for her calculus test. O f course, she didn't do well on it.
1 1. Her biology teacher told her she had to repeat three labs. She would fail the course.
1 2. After school, she w alked to the bus stop.
1 3. She hadn't brought her umbrella. She got very wet.
14. The bus finally came. She got on.
15. She reached into her pocket for bus fare. Her pocket w as empty.
16. Her money w as gone!
17. She couldn't p a y the bus fa re . She had to w alk home in the rain.
(Source: OSHIMA, A.; HOGUE, A. First steps in academic writing)

ACTIVITY 2
Read the passage below and identify the clauses and the sentences in it.

CULTURAL EXCHANGE
Mark Salzman

1 After dinner, I carried my cello to Teacher Wu's building. It w as the first time I
2 had entered a Chinese person's home. She lived in a tiny apartm ent that she shared with
3 "Auntie Tan," an old woman from the countryside who helped with the shopping, cooking
4 and cleaning. The apartm ent had cement walls, b are except for a calen dar and a few
5 photographs, a b are cement floor, a b are light bulb in each room, and sparse of
6 furnishings, with one exception: against one wall stood an upright piano.
7 I asked her how she had m anaged to get a piano, and she said that she grew up
8 playing and had continued to study when she w as in America. She bought the piano
9 there, and brought it back to China when she returned with her husband. "I haven't had
10 much time to practice it since then, but now adays I try to p lay whenever I have free
11 time." She went over, opened it up, and began to play.
12 The piano w as b ad ly dam ag ed . (...) She invited me to p lay a duet with her, but
13 we had to give up. After a pause she sighed and said quietly, "One night the Red
14 G u ard s came. They took everything in the house out and burned it. They wanted to take
15 the piano, too, but (...) it w as too heavy for them to throw out the window! So they just
16 hit it for a while and left. I haven't been a b le to find anyone to fix it since then." I said I
17 wished that I could help her, but though my mother p layed the piano, I had never
18 learned to tune or rep air one.
(source: RAYMES, A. How English works.)

81
ACTIVITY 3
Analyze the following sentences and provide how they are structured. Count the Noun Phrases, number
them and present the functions they play in each part. Besides, classify the clauses and the sentences.

1. My younger sister is a person who resembles the blossoming of different flowers in spring
season.
2. Áfter the world, extroverted people a p p e a r to have many nice friends.
3. The new company that is delivering p izza in town has its origin in México.
4. I really adm ire my colleagues that spend the whole night in parties.
5. Some important American politicians do not consider the M exican wall construction a good
thing.

82