Galileo Galilei, 1564-1642, was an Italian astronomer who made a notable contribution to mathematics.

He helped introduce the scientific method, which emphasizes the importance of both experiment and theory.

Seeing isn t believing Enrico, how would you like to help me tomorrow with an important experiment? asked the professor. You know I m always ready to help you, Professor Galilei. What do you have in mind? Do you remember in class when we were discussing Aristotle s theory of falling objects? Yes, of course, the student answered. Enrico, I am now prepared to demonstrate to my students and my colleagues here at Pisa that Aristotle was wrong. The young student tried to swallow his surprise. He said, That will be no easy task. All the other professors here are sure that Aristotle was correct. How can you possibly change their minds? Meet me tomorrow morning at the Tower Pisa, Galileo replied. The fact that it leans will be perfect four our needs. See if you can get Roberto to come and help us. I am posing notices on the doors-I hope a big crowd will come and watch. Truth will finally have its day! The next day the professor and his two students met at the base of the leaning tower. Galileo was exuberant, practically breathless at the thought of what he was about to do. Quickly, he explained the plan to Enrico and Roberto. You see that I have two iron balls. One of them is light, but the other weighs ten times as much. According to Aristotle, the speed of an object s fall is

proportional to its weight-heavier objects fall faster. So everyone will expect that the larger ball will fall ten times as fast as the smaller one. The two students nodded. Galileo continued excitedly, I m going to climb to the top of the tower. You stay here and watch. When you see me wave from the balcony, adjust your timepieces. You must be prepared to show the crowd how long it took for each of the balls to hit the ground. Enrico, you time the small one. Roberto, watch the larger. Any questions? You know we respect you, sir, but what if- Enrico broke off in the middle of his sentence. He wanted to ask his professor what he would do if the experiment failed- but as he looked at Galileo s excited face, he lost his courage. Students and teachers were gathering around the tower courtyard. The students joked and laughed with each other, glad for a break from their studies. The professors also joked, but more quietly. They were embarrassed for Galileo. I can t believe Galileo is such a fool. Why must he flaunt his ignorance before the whole city? Another asked, Do you think he will ever grow up? He is twenty-five years old already, much too old for this nonsense. Aristotle must be turning over in his grave, said a third. Imagine the arrogance of questioning Aristotle! Finally, just before the stroke of noon, Galileo was ready. Enrico and Roberto craned their necks to see him at the top of the tower. The crowd became quiet. Then Galileo signalled his young assistants and dropped both of the iron balls at the same instant. In just a few moments both balls hit the ground. Enrico and Roberto believed and trusted Galileo, but they were as surprised as everyone else. The two weights landed at exactly the same moment.

The heavier one had not traveled ten times as fast as the lighter one. On this matter, Aristotle had made a mistake. Galileo was joyful as he scurried down the tower stairs. But his joy diminished when he reached the courtyard. Only a few students remained to congratulate him. His colleagues had gone back to their work, muttering on their way about magic and illusion. Even though they had seen the experiment with their own eyes, they refused to believe what they had seen. Galileo was in trouble. It wasn t the first time. Years earlier, Galileo s father, Vincenzio, had scolded his son and warned him that he would turn out worthless. The boy didn t seem interested in working hard or making money. The problem was not lack of talent. In fact, Galileo was clearly a gifted child. He was especially good in music and art, and his father hoped that he would use these talents to make money. But Vincenzio knew it was difficult to get rich by singing or painting. He himself was an accomplished musician, but he had to support the family by selling cloth. Eventually his family decided that Galileo should become a doctor. He was sent to the University of Pisa to study medicine. But Galileo wasn t interested. The lectures were boring, the professors ideas were oldfashioned, and the students were never allowed to experiment on patients or cadavers. One day as young Galileo walked through the halls, he notices a classroom door propped open. Inside, the students sat up in their seats, alert and interested. They were obviously fascinated by the subject being discussedgeometry. Galileo loitered outside the door, eavesdropping. It was a new subject for the young medical student, and he found it very exciting. Soon he began skipping his medical classes to attend mathematics lectures.

Galileo didn t know what to do. He knew he was supposed to follow his father s plan for him, but his heart just wasn t in it. One day he went to the university cathedral to pray, hoping for an answer that would give him peace. But what happened in the cathedral stirred him up so much that he didn t sleep for days. It was late afternoon when Galileo entered the cathedral. While he prayed and meditated, a worker came in to light the lamps. Huge brass lamps hung on chains from the ceiling. To light them, a worker stood on a balcony and hooked each chain with a long pole. He pulled the chain and the lamp hanging from it towards his flame. When each lamp was lit, he released it and it swung back and forth like a pendulum until it finally came to rest. Galileo had seen this process before, but this time he noticed something new. He observed that whether it swung in a wide or narrow arc, each swing of the lamp took the same time. To make sure he wasn t just imagining this, he checked the time of the swings with his own heart s pulse. Back in his room, Galileo began experimenting with all sorts of hanging objects. He borrowed chains and scraps of iron from a nearby metal worker. He discovered that neither the size of the arc nor the weight of the hanging objects affected the time of the swing. Only the length of the chain did that. Galileo had discovered the law of the pendulum. At first Galileo was interested in using his discovery to disprove Aristotle s theories on falling objects. If Aristotle were correct, a heavy weight on a swinging chain would swing to the bottom faster than a light weight-but the two weights reached the bottom at the same time. This is when he got the idea of climbing the Tower of Pisa. However, he did make a practical invention based on his findings. This was the pulse counter, widely used by doctors to check their patients heart rates. Eventually Galileo s discovery about swinging objects led to the invention of the pendulum clock. All these late-night experiments didn t help Galileo s grades.

Before long his father paid a visit to see what was going on. What s wrong with you, my son? he scowled. Don t you know mathematicians can t make a living? We need your help at home. If you can t get a decent job as a doctor and send us money, you many as well come home and work in the store. Galileo though about his parents and his six younger brothers and sisters. Part of him felt guilty for not doing what his father wanted-yet he couldn t tolerate studying subjects that didn t interest him. I m sorry, father. I will try to make you proud of me. Remember how I used to make toys for us children? Perhaps I can invent some little things to sell. I will send you money as soon as I can, but please don t make me give up studying mathematics. Exasperated, his father Vincenzio waved goodbye and left Galileo to his own foolishness, as he considered it. Galileo never overcame his sense of family responsibility. Often he went with out things he needed so he could send his younger brothers and sisters money. Perhaps of Vincenzio had seen the other professors hiss Galileo at the Tower of Pisa that day in 1590, he would have regretted allowing his son to give up medicine. His colleagues scorn disturbed Galileo, but he was never sorry he had chosen mathematics. Soon he left Pisa for the University of Padua, where he taught for 18 years. At Padua, the university was more open-mind, and Galileo was allowed to continue his controversial experiments and writing. One day he heard some amazing news. A Dutch spectacle maker named Hans Lippershey had accidentally discovered that combining glass lenses in a certain way made objects viewed through them appear up to three times larger than life. Lippershey and his apprentice had sold several of these telescopes as toys. Galileo sot to work and made his own telescopes, but his were definitely not toys. Rather, they opened the skies for human study.

Every night Galileo looked heavenward. He was amazed to see craters on the moon. He tracked the path of Venus and noted the rings of Saturn. Most importantly, he discovered in 1610 that Jupiter had satellites or moons in orbit around it. This observation confirmed what the astronomer Copernicus had taught-that smaller bodies revolve around larger ones. This had led Copernicus to claim that the earth was not the center of the universe, as everyone believed, but one of many planets orbiting the sun. Galileo was in trouble again. The authorities and the church believed that Copernicus was a radical, opposed to everything they taught. In fact, they made it illegal to read, study, or teach Copernicus s ideas. Galileo tried to obey that law, but he found it very difficult. Hundreds of people came to look through Galileo s telescopes. Most of them found it entertaining and amusing; few recognized the telescope s scientific importance. Military authorities welcomed Galileo s invention; now they could see them. But seeing wasn t believing: like the professors at the leaning tower, many people refused to accept the truth. Some even refused to look through the glass. They didn t want to change their familiar ideas and admit that Galileo might be right about the universe. During the last eight years of his life, the church authorities watched Galileo very closely. He was not free to speak or write about his beliefs or observations. The authorities threatened to torture him if he would not recant-take back-his scientific findings. Finally he gave in-so instead of being tortured; he was sentenced to live in seclusion the rest of his life. In 1638 Galileo became totally blind. Professor Galileo? Yes. Who is it? It s Roberto. Roberto Lozano. I don t suppose you remember me. I was your student at Pisa.

At Pisa? Surely not the Roberto who helped with experiment at the tower? Yes, yes, professor. That s me. Oh my, my. What brings you here now? I m not doing crazy experiments anymore. But they weren t crazy, Roberto cried. That s why I ve come. I wanted to thank you for inspiring me. I believe in you and in what you stand for. I always have, and always will. Thank you, son. I hope there will be others to carry on the search for truth. I can t do much now that I m blind, even if I were allowed to work. Your eyes may be blind, professor, but you are the only one who has really seen the truth, said Roberto. Someday the world will realize that you were right. Someday they ll be sorry they treated you this way. Well, maybe so. The old professor shook his head in doubt. He d have to see it to believe it.