Grammar

Glossary
Grammar
Glossary

FOURTH EDITION
Fourth Edition, January 2022
Copyright © 2022 Institute for Excellence in Writing
Contents
Parts of Speech Homophones and Usage G-35
Noun G-5
Pronoun G-6 Stylistic Techniques
Preposition G-8 Dress-Ups G-37
Verb G-9 -ly Adverb
Conjunction G-12 Strong Verb
Adjective G-14 Quality Adjective
Adverb G-15 Who/Which Clause
Interjection G-15 www.asia.b Clause
Advanced Dress-Ups
The Sentence Sentence Openers G-42
Sentence G-17 #1 Subject Opener
Phrase G-18 #2 Prepositional Opener
Clause G-20 #3 -ly Adverb Opener
#4 -ing Opener
Punctuation #5 Clausal Opener
End Marks G-23 #6 Vss Opener
Commas G-24 Advanced Sentence Openers
Quotation Marks G-27 Decorations G-47
Apostrophes G-28 Alliteration
Ellipsis Points G-28 Question
Semicolons G-29 Conversation/Quotation
Colons G-29 3sss
Hyphens G-30 Simile/Metaphor
Em Dashes and Parentheses G-30 Dramatic Open-Close
Triple Extensions G-49
Additional Concepts
Indentation  G-31
Capitalization G-32
Numbers G-33
Parts of Speech
Every word belongs to a word group—a part of speech. There are eight parts of speech.
Many words can be used as different parts of speech. However, a word will only perform
one part of speech at a time. (Light is a verb in The fireworks light the sky. Light is a noun
in We need more light. Light is an adjective in It is a light load.)
One must look at how words are used in a sentence to determine their parts of speech.
To see how these parts of speech are used as IEW dress-ups and sentence openers, see the
Stylistic Techniques section beginning on page G-37.

Noun
A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea.

To determine if a word is a noun, ask if an article adjective (a, an, the) Noun Tests:
comes before it or if it is countable.
the
A common noun names a general person, place, or thing. It is not capitalized. two
A proper noun names a specific person, place, or thing. It is capitalized.
The king is a common noun, but King James is a proper noun.
A beagle is a common noun, but the name of my pet beagle Benji is a proper noun.
A compound noun is two or more words combined to form a single noun. They can be
written three different ways. To spell compound words correctly, consult a dictionary.
separate words fairy tale; Robin Hood; ice cream
hyphenated words merry-go-round; son-in-law; seventy-two
one word grandmother; railroad; moonlight

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Parts of Speech

Pronoun
A pronoun replaces a noun in order to avoid repetition. The noun the pronoun replaces is
called an antecedent.

A personal pronoun refers back to an antecedent recently mentioned and takes the place
of that noun. The pronoun should agree with its antecedent in number, person, and case.
3 cases Subjective Objective Possessive
function as function as function as
Number means one
subject object of a adjective pronoun (singular) or more
subject preposition than one (plural).
complement direct object
2 numbers 3 persons indirect object Person means who is
speaking (1st), spoken
1st I me my mine
to (2nd), or spoken
singular 2nd you you your yours about (3rd).
3rd he, she, it him, her, it his, her, its his, hers, its
1st we us our ours Case refers to the way
a pronoun functions in
plural 2nd you you your yours
a sentence.
3rd they them their theirs

Both a reflexive pronoun (used in the objective case) and an intensive pronoun (used as an
appositive) end in -self or -selves and refer back to a noun or pronoun in the same sentence.
Dorinda fancied herself quite stylish. Dorinda herself played as others worked.
A relative pronoun (who, which, that) begins a dependent clause. Use who for people and Forms of who include
which or that for things. See page G-21. whom and whose.
who subjective case
Robin lived in Sherwood Forest, which belonged to the king.
whom objective case
Robin knew the other men who lived in the forest. whose possessive case
Robin battled with Little John, whom he had met on the log.
Robin knew the families whose lands had been stolen.
Not all question words
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask a question. The most common include what, are pronouns. Words
whatever, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whose. like why and how are
Who owns that house? Whatever do you mean? Whose coat is this? adverbs.

A demonstrative pronoun (this, that, these, those) points to a particular person or thing.
When a word on
This is my mother and that is our house. These are mine. Those are yours. the demonstrative
or indefinite list
An indefinite pronoun is not definite. It does not refer to any particular person or thing.
is placed before a
Everyone will attend. All of the cookies are gone. Most of the cake is gone. noun, it functions as
an adjective, not a
Singular Plural Singular pronoun.
and Plural Both cookies are gone.
all both each much one
I live in that house.
any few another either neither other
more many anybody everybody nobody somebody
most others anyone everyone no one someone
none own anything everything nothing something
some several anywhere everywhere nowhere somewhere

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 Parts of Speech

Noun and Pronoun Functions

Both nouns and pronouns perform many jobs or functions in a sentence.
A subject performs a verb action. It tells who or what the clause is about.
Function is different
The soldier marched in formation.
from part of speech.
Who marched? soldier (subject)
A noun or pronoun
A subject complement follows a linking verb and renames the subject (also called a can perform only
predicate noun) or describes the subject (also called a predicate adjective). one function in a
The soldier is a woman. The king is he. The castle is theirs. sentence.

The object of a preposition is the last word in a prepositional phrase. See page G-18.
When the sentence
A direct object follows an action verb and answers the question what or whom. is a command,
the subject, you,
The soldier built a fire. is implied. See
Built what? a fire (direct object) imperative mood,
The soldier treated him kindly. page G-11.
Treated whom? him (direct object)
An indirect object appears only when there is a direct object. Indirect objects come
between the verb and direct object and tell who or what received the direct object.
The dwarf gave the soldier a purse.
Gave what? purse (direct object). Who received it? soldier (indirect object)
The woman knitted him a scarf.
Knitted what? scarf (direct object). Who received it? him (indirect object)
To tell the difference between an indirect object and a direct object,
revise the sentence and insert to or for in front of the indirect object.
The dwarf gave a purse to the soldier.
The woman knitted a scarf for him.
A possessive case pronoun that functions as an adjective comes before a noun, whereas a
possessive case pronoun that functions as a pronoun is used alone.
That is my house.
That is mine.
A noun of direct address (NDA) is a noun used to refer to someone directly. It appears
in dialogue and names the person spoken to.
“Timmy, after dinner we can read books,” Johnny said.
An appositive is a noun that renames the noun that comes before it.
The appositive is an
Place commas around an appositive if it is nonessential to the meaning invisible who/which
of the sentence. clause. See page G-39.
Robin Hood, the archer, led his men through the forest.
(nonessential, commas)
Do not place commas around an appositive if it is essential to the meaning
of the sentence. See page G-26.
The archer Robin Hood led his men through the forest.
(essential, no commas) The appositive is essential because it defines
which archer led his men.

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Parts of Speech

Preposition pattern
A preposition starts a phrase that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and preposition + noun
another word in the sentence. (no verb)

A preposition usually shows a relationship dealing with space or time. If it is something a

squirrel can do with
The squirrel sat on the branch (space) in the morning (time). a tree, it is probably a
A word functions as a preposition when it is part of a prepositional phrase. See page G-18. prepositional phrase.

A prepositional phrase always begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun. A squirrel
The phrase may have adjectives in between, but never a verb. climbs up the tree,
sits in the tree,
The noun or pronoun that ends the prepositional phrase is called the object of the runs around the tree.
preposition. When the object of the preposition is a pronoun, it will be one of the
objective case pronouns: me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them.
Some words on the preposition list may function as another part of speech.
When a word that looks like a preposition follows a verb but does not have a noun
afterward, it is not functioning as a preposition but as an adverb.
The mouse fell down. (fell where? down)
Down is not followed by a noun.
This is an adverb, not a prepositional phrase.
Timmy wore his vest inside (wore vest where? inside)
Inside is not followed by a noun.
This is an adverb, not a prepositional phrase.
When a word that looks like a preposition is followed by a subject and a verb, it is a not
functioning as a preposition but as a subordinating conjunction (www word).
As Johnny gave orders, the mice listened
As Johnny gave orders contains a subject (Johnny) and a verb (gave).
This is a clause, not a prepositional phrase.
The mice hid after the cat arrived.
After the cat arrived contains a subject (cat) and a verb (arrived).
This is a clause, not a prepositional phrase.

This is not an exhaustive list. When in doubt, consult a dictionary.

Prepositions List

aboard around between in opposite toward

about as beyond inside out under
above at by instead of outside underneath
according to because of concerning into over unlike
across before despite like past until
after behind down minus regarding unto
against below during near since up, upon
along beneath except of through with
amid beside for off throughout within
among besides from on, onto to without

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 Parts of Speech

Verb
A verb shows action, links the subject to another word, or helps another verb.

To determine if a word is a verb, use the verb test. Verb Test:

An action verb shows action or ownership. I .
It .
She chopped vegetables.
The chef prepared lunch.
Dorinda has a beauty mark. Some verbs function
as either action or
They own a lovely palace.
linking verbs.
A linking verb links the subject to a noun or an adjective. When the subject complement
He smells (action) gas.
is a noun, the noun after the linking verb renames the subject. When the subject
complement is an adjective, the adjective after the linking verb describes the subject. The gas smells
(linking) bad.
Robin Hood was (linking verb) an outlaw (subject complement, noun).
Outlaw is another name for Robin Hood. If you can substitute
is for the verb, it is
The soup smelled (linking verb) delicious (subject complement, adjective). probably functioning
Delicious describes soup. as a linking verb.
The soup is (linking verb) salty (subject complement, adjective).
Salty describes soup.
A helping verb helps an action verb or a linking verb. It is paired with the main verb
(action or linking) to indicate tense, voice, and mood.
The chef would prepare supper.
Would helps prepare.
The soup had tasted strange.
Had helps tasted.

Linking Verbs List

am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been (be verbs) Be verbs dominate
our language and
seem, become, appear, grow, remain
perform important
taste, sound, smell, feel, look (verbs dealing with the senses) functions as both
linking and helping
verbs.
Students should
Helping Verbs List memorize the be
am, is, are, was, were, be, being, been (be verbs) verbs: am, is, are, was,
were, be, being, been.
have, has, had, do, does, did, may, might, must
can, will, shall, could, would, should

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Parts of Speech

Verbal
A verbal is a word formed from a verb that is usually not functioning as a verb.
A verbal often functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb. To + verb and verbs
ending in -ing should
An infinitive is formed by placing to in front of the simple present form of a verb.
not be marked as
An infinitive functions as an adjective, adverb, or noun, but never as a verb. strong verbs.
Dorinda has some things to learn.
Frederick is eager to hear a story.
A participle is formed by adding the suffix -ing or -ed to the simple present form of a verb. For clarity in
meaning, avoid
splash + ing = splashing; splash + ed = splashed splitting infinitives
A participle functions as a verb if it has a helping verb. when possible.
To split an
He was splashing, which frightened the fish.
infinitive is to
For years, she had longed to visit the city. insert one or more
adverbs between
If a participle does not have a helping verb, it functions as an adjective. A participle- to and the verb, as
adjective may appear directly before a noun or after a linking verb. in to foolishly insert.
Robin Hood was known for his hunting skills.
It was a botched case. The case was botched.
A participle may also form a participial phrase that describes a noun in the sentence. Some words do
Springing to his feet, Robin Hood confronted the challenger. not form the past
Springing to his feet describes Robin Hood, the subject after the comma. participle by adding
-ed. There are many
Robin Hood whistled merrily, thinking of Maid Marian. irregular verb forms.
Thinking of Maid Marian describes Robin Hood, the subject of the sentence.
eat/eaten
A gerund is formed by adding the suffix -ing to the simple present form of a verb. not eated
splash + ing = splashing creep/crept
not creeped
A gerund functions as a noun, never as a verb.
draw/drew
His splashing frightened the fish. not drawed
Splashing is the subject of the sentence and therefore a noun.
If in doubt, consult
The fish were frightened by his splashing. a dictionary.
Splashing is the object of the preposition by and therefore a noun.

Tense
Verb tense indicates when an action occurs. There are six tenses in English: simple past,
simple present, simple future, past perfect, present perfect, and future perfect.
Simple past is
The simple tense is simply formed by using different forms of the verb. commonly called
past; simple present,
I biked. I bike. I will bike. present; and simple
He ran. He runs. He will run. future, future.

The perfect tense is formed by adding a form of have to the past participle verb form. Forms of have include
have, has, and had.
I had biked. I have biked. I will have biked.
Use had + the past
He had run. He has run. He will have run. participle of a verb to
form the past perfect.
Most writing occurs in the past tense, either simple or perfect. When telling about two
events that occurred in the past, the more recent event is written in the simple past tense,
and the earlier event is written in the past perfect tense.
The soldiers cried (past tense) because they had lost (past perfect) their gifts.

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 Parts of Speech

Voice
Verb voice indicates if the subject is doing or receiving the action. There are two voices
in English: active and passive. Action verbs, not
linking verbs, can
In active voice, the subject of the sentence is doing the verb action. The active voice be passive or active.
creates a strong image and feeling because it highlights the doer of the action. Most
sentences should be written in active voice.
Will climbed the tree. To create a strong
The subject (Will) is doing the verb (climbed). image and feeling,
write sentences where
In passive voice, the subject receives the action of the verb. The subject is not doing any the subject actively
action. The verb is always in the form of a verb phrase (two or more words) that contains does the verb action.
a be verb and a past participle. Because the passive voice is often wordy and dull, avoid
overusing the passive voice. Sam kicked the ball
is better than
The tree was climbed by Will. The tree was climbed. The ball was kicked
In both sentences the subject (the tree) is not doing the verb action (was climbed). by Sam.
Someone or something else is doing the verb action. In the first sentence who is
doing the verb is specified (Will). In the second sentence it is implied.

✨ Advanced
pattern subject (person/thing being acted on) + be verb + past participle + by someone or something
(either in the sentence or implied). The passive sentence must have all four elements.
The tree (thing being acted on) was (be verb) climbed (past participle) by Will (by someone).
The castle (the thing being acted on) would be (be verb) demolished (past participle) by the soldiers
(by someone).
Understanding passive voice helps distinguish if an -ed word is operating as a verb or an adjective.
The sandwich (the thing being acted on) was (be verb) devoured (past participle).
Someone must have devoured the sandwich, so the “by someone” is implied.
Since this sentence follows the passive voice pattern, devoured is a verb.
Molly (subject) was (be verb) famished (-ed word).
Since famished is a state of being, not something being done to Molly, there is no implied “by someone”
phrase. Thus, famished is an adjective that follows a linking verb (was), describing Molly.

Mood
Verb mood indicates how an action is expressed, telling if it is a fact, opinion, command, or
suggestion. There are three moods in English: indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.
The indicative mood makes statements or asks questions.
I will swim. Will you swim with me?
The imperative mood gives a command or makes a request. The subject of an imperative
sentence is always you.
Swim. Swim to the other side of the pond.
The subjunctive mood expresses contrary-to-fact conditions with wish or if statements
in the third person. It is used infrequently.
If Sam were concerned, he would take swimming lessons.
Sam is not concerned, so the subjunctive Sam were is correct.
Sam’s mother wishes that he were a stronger swimmer.
Sam is not a stronger swimmer, so the subjunctive he were is correct.

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Parts of Speech

Conjunction
A conjunction connects words, phrases, or clauses.

A coordinating conjunction connects the same type of words, phrases, or clauses. Memorize the cc’s
The items the coordinating conjunction connects must be grammatically the same: two or using the acronym
more nouns, two or more present participles, two or more dependent clauses, two or more FANBOYS:
main clauses, and so forth. for, and, nor, but,
or, yet, so.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction when it connects
three or more items in a series.
pattern a, b, and c
He ran to the window, opened it, and jumped out.
Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction when it connects
two main clauses (a compound sentence).
pattern MC, cc MC
The cook yelled, and the mouse ran.
Do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction when it
connects two items in a series unless they are main clauses.
pattern a and b
The cook saw the vegetables (no comma) but not the mouse.
Do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction when it
connects two verbs (a compound verb) with the same subject.
pattern MC cc 2nd verb
The cook yelled (no comma) and ran.
Starting sentences with a coordinating conjunction is discouraged in formal writing In academic papers
on the basis that a coordinating conjunction connects things of equal grammatical students should avoid
construction within a sentence. beginning a sentence
with a cc.
Faulty parallelism occurs when a coordinating conjunction does not connect things of
equal grammatical construction. This means that the items in a series are not parallel. In fictional papers
dialogue can mimic
He ran to the window, opened it, and jumping out. real speech patterns.
Ran, opened, and jumping are not the same verb form. To correct, change jumping Thoughts often begin
to jumped: He ran, opened, and jumped. with and or but.

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 Parts of Speech

A subordinating conjunction (also called a www word) usually connects an adverb clause pattern
to a main clause. The adverb clause is a dependent clause, which cannot stand alone as a www word +
sentence. It begins with a www word and contains a subject and a verb. subject + verb
There are many subordinating conjunctions. The most common are taught using
the acronym www.asia.b: when, while, where, as, since, if, although, because.
Other words function as subordinating conjunctions: after, before, until, unless, Memorize the most
whenever, whereas, than. common www words
using the acronym
Use a comma after an adverb clause that comes before a main clause. www.asia.b: when,
pattern AC, MC while, where, as,
When it rained, Timmy stayed indoors. since, if, although,
because.
Do not use a comma before an adverb clause.
pattern MC AC
Timmy stayed indoors (no comma) when it rained.
A word functions as a subordinating conjunction only when it is followed by a subject
and verb. This is why recognizing the pattern www word + subject + verb is important.
If a verb is not present, the group of words is likely a prepositional phrase and not a
clause. See pages G-18 and G-21.
A conjunctive adverb connects ideas or provides a transition.
Common conjunctive adverbs are however, therefore, then, moreover, consequently,
otherwise, nevertheless, thus, furthermore, instead, otherwise.
Place commas around a conjunctive adverb if it interrupts the flow of the
sentence. The exception is one-syllable conjunctive adverbs like then.
Moreover, Robin Hood had many followers.
Robin Hood was a talented archer and, moreover, a good leader.
Then (no comma) he took an arrow from his quiver.
If a conjunctive adverb is used to connect two main clauses that When you add a
express similar ideas, place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb conjunctive adverb
and a comma after. to a main clause, it
pattern MC; ca, MC. is still a main clause,
which is not the case
The outlaws lived in the forest; however, the forest belonged to the king.
with subordinating
conjunctions or
relative pronouns.

Fix It! Grammar Glossary G-13

Parts of Speech

Adjective Adjective Test:

An adjective describes a noun or pronoun. An adjective tells which one, what kind, how
many, or whose. the _______ pen

Which pen?
the first pen
An adjective comes before the noun it describes or follows a linking verb and describes that pen
the subject. See page G-9.
What kind of pen?
The scared mice jumped from the first basket and ran under the cook’s feet. a shiny pen
What kind of mice? scared Which basket? first Whose feet? cook’s the green pen
The mice appeared scared. How many pens?
Scared follows appeared (linking verb) and describes mice (subject). twenty pens
few pens
An article adjective signals a noun is coming. The article adjectives are a, an, the.
Sometimes adjectives come between the article and its noun. Whose pen?
the teacher’s pen
The tall stranger entered the room. my pen
The boy appeared to be a reluctant, timid soldier.
A comparative adjective is formed by adding the adverb more or the ending -er to an
adjective. A comparative adjective compares two nouns.
The rose was more beautiful than the daisy. Some words
form irregular
The boy stood taller than his mother.
comparatives and
A superlative adjective is formed by adding the adverb most or the ending -est to an superlatives. The
adjective. A superlative adjective compares three or more nouns. most common of
these are good, better,
This is the most interesting book I have read.
best and bad, worse,
The Little Mermaid was the youngest in her family. worst.
Most one-syllable adjectives form the comparative and superlative by adding the
suffix -er or -est. Three or more syllable adjectives form the comparative with more
and the superlative with most. Two-syllable adjectives are formed both ways. If in
doubt, consult a dictionary.
Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. Adjectives are
coordinate if each adjective independently describes the noun that
follows. The order is not important.
Only coordinate
The woman had a thin face with a pointed, protruding nose. adjectives need to
It sounds right to say both protruding, pointed nose and be separated with a
pointed and protruding nose. The adjectives are coordinate comma.
and the comma is necessary.
Adjectives are
Do not use a comma to separate cumulative adjectives. Adjectives are coordinate if you
cumulative if the first adjective describes the second adjective and the can reverse their
noun that follows. Cumulative adjectives follow this specific order: quantity, order or add and
opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin, material, purpose. between them.
Robin saw fifteen foresters seated beneath a huge oak tree. Adjectives are
It does not sound right to say oak huge tree or huge and oak tree. cumulative if they
The adjectives are cumulative and should not have a comma. must be arranged in
a specific order.
A possessive adjective is a noun functioning as an adjective in order to show ownership.
See page G-28.
The vest belonged to Timmy (noun).
Timmy’s (possessive adjective) vest had several pockets.

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 Parts of Speech

Adverb
An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. An adverb tells how, when,
where, why, or to what extent.

I dropped the pen there beside the book.

Dropped where? there
He seemed genuinely happy when he indicated that he would visit us later.
How happy? genuinely Visit when? later
An -ly adverb is an adverb that ends in -ly. Not all words that end in -ly are adverbs.
Impostor -ly adverbs are adjectives like chilly, ghastly, ugly, and friendly. If the word ending
in -ly describes a noun, it is an adjective and not an adverb.
Inadvertently Frederick touched Dorinda’s omelet with his hind leg.
Touched how? inadvertently Inadvertently is an adverb.
Dorinda accidentally hurled him across the room.
Hurled how? accidentally Accidentally is an adverb.
Frederick uttered a ghastly sound when his leg broke.
What kind of sound? ghastly Ghastly is not an -ly adverb. It is an adjective because it
describes the noun sound.
An interrogative adverb is an adverb used to begin a question. The interrogative adverbs
are how, when, where, and why.
Why do bees sting, Baloo?
How will you collect the honey? Do not place more or
A comparative or superlative adverb is usually formed by adding the adverbs more or most most before the word
in front of the adverb. If the adverb is short, the suffix -er or -est is used, as in faster or with -er or -est after.
fastest. If in doubt, consult a dictionary. Not more faster but
faster.

Interjection
An interjection expresses an emotion.

When an interjection expresses a strong emotion, use an exclamation mark. The next
word begins with a capital letter.
Help! My golden ball has vanished.
When an interjection does not express a strong emotion, use a comma.
Oh, I see it now.

Fix It! Grammar Glossary G-15

G-16 Institute for Excellence in Writing
 The Sentence

The Sentence
Sentences are essential to writing. As the building blocks of sentences, clauses and phrases are
the most important structural units of language. For the reader, the ability to recognize clauses
and phrases results in greater comprehension. For the writer, the ability to organize clauses
and phrases results in clearer communication. The writer must know enough about each to
punctuate properly. This section defines these terms and explains the related commas rules.

Sentence
A sentence contains a subject and a verb and expresses one complete thought.
Every sentence must
have a main clause.
A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with an end mark. It contains at least
one subject-verb pair, which is called a main clause. A subject is the noun or pronoun
that tells who or what the clause is about. A verb tells what the subject is doing.
Additional words, phrases, and clauses may be added.
A run-on occurs when a sentence has two main clauses that are not connected properly.
There are two types of run-ons, which are always wrong.
A fused sentence is two main clauses placed in one sentence without any punctuation
between them. MC MC.
Quinn glanced up the door slammed shut.
A comma splice is two main clauses placed in one sentence with only a comma between
them. MC, MC.
Quinn glanced up, the door slammed shut. A period is usually the
easiest solution for
There are four main ways to fix a run-on. run-ons.
1. Period: Quinn glanced up. The door slammed shut. pattern MC. MC. A semicolon is only
used when both
2. Comma + cc: Quinn glanced up, and the door slammed shut. pattern MC, cc MC.
main clauses are
3. Adverb clause: Start one of the clauses with one of the www words. closely related and
usually parallel in
As Quinn glanced up, the door slammed shut. pattern AC, MC. construction.
Quinn glanced up as the door slammed shut. pattern MC AC.
4. Semicolon: Quinn glanced up; the door slammed shut. pattern MC; MC.
Of these options for this example, the adverb clause is the best solution because as
explains how the two clauses are related.
A fragment occurs when a sentence does not contain a main clause. The group of words
may contain a phrase and/or a dependent clause, but it is only part of a sentence.
Fragments that do not leave the reader hanging and that fit the flow of the paragraph
are dramatic and effective. Fix It! stories permit such fragments, especially in dialogue.
Timmy saw his dear friend. (sentence)
Greeting him kindly. (unacceptable fragment)
“Hello, Johnny!” (acceptable fragment)
Fix It! Grammar Glossary G-17
The Sentence

Phrase
A phrase is a group of related words that contains either a noun or a verb, never both.

A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun. There might pattern
be other words between the preposition and the noun, but there is never a verb in a preposition + noun
prepositional phrase. (no verb)
To identify a prepositional phrase, find a word that appears to be a preposition and
ask what? Answer with a noun, never a verb. See page G-8.
Through the glimmering twilight beamed the evening star in all its beauty.
Find a preposition. through through what? through the glimmering twilight
Find a preposition. in in what? in all its beauty
If a prepositional opener has five words or more, follow it with a comma.
Under the table (no comma) the tiny mouse hid.
Under the heavy wooden table, the tiny mouse hid.
If two or more prepositional phrases open a sentence, follow the last
phrase with a comma.
Under the heavy wooden table in the kitchen, the tiny mouse hid.
If a prepositional opener functions as a transition, follow it with a comma. Prepositional phrases
that function as
Of course, the cook was afraid of mice. transitions require
If a prepositional opener is followed by a main clause that has the verb before commas.
the subject, do not use a comma. in fact
Under the heavy wooden table hid a tiny mouse. in addition
by the way
Do not put a comma in front of a prepositional phrase unless the phrase by contrast
is a transition. for example
The mouse hid (no comma) under a table in the kitchen. for instance
of course
The cook was, of course, afraid of mice. on the other hand
Recognizing the basic clause and phrase structure of a sentence will allow students to
punctuate their sentences properly. Removing prepositional phrases helps reveal the
underlying structure of the sentence.
When a prepositional phrase is misplaced, the meaning is distorted, often humorously.
Revise the sentence by moving the prepositional phrase.
The mouse hid under a table with the long gray tail.
The mouse, not the table, has the long gray tail.
The mouse with the long gray tail hid under a table.

✨ Advanced
When a preposition ends a sentence, it is not wrong. This is a carryover from Latin and not a true rule in
English. Andrew Pudewa quips that Winston Churchill gave the definitive answer to this problem when he
remarked, “That is a rule up with which I will not put!” If the sentence is more awkward to revise with the
preposition placed earlier, it is better to have it at the end.
I have only a staff to meet you with.
The alternative is this stilted construction: I have only a staff with which to meet you.

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 The Sentence

A verb phrase is one main verb (action or linking) and one or more helping verbs. Every clause must
The helping verb indicates the tense, mood, and voice. Sometimes the helping verb(s) have an action or a
and the main verb are separated by other words. See page G-9. linking verb, not a
helping verb.
The Little Mermaid could (helping verb) not forget (action verb) the charming prince.
The verb phrase could forget functions as the verb.
A participial phrase begins with a participle (verb + -ing or -ed) and includes its modifiers
and complements. A participial phrase functions as an adjective that describes a noun in A #4 -ing opener is
the sentence. a participial opener.
Springing to his feet, Robin Hood confronted the challenger. See page G-44.
Springing to his feet describes Robin Hood, the subject of the main clause.
Robin Hood whistled merrily, thinking of Maid Marian.
Thinking of Maid Marian describes Robin Hood, the subject of the main clause.
Affronted by their mockery, Robin challenged the foresters.
Affronted by their mockery describes Robin, the subject of the main clause.
The path brought them to a broad stream, spanned by a narrow bridge.
Spanned by a narrow bridge describes stream, the object of the prepositional phrase.
Use a comma after a participial opener (-ing), even if it is short.
pattern -ing word/phrase, main clause
Gathering their three gifts, the soldiers visited the king.
The thing after the comma is the thing doing the inging.
Place commas around a mid-sentence participial phrase if it is
nonessential to the meaning of the sentence.
Robin Hood rose, needing a change. (nonessential, comma)
Do not place commas around a mid-sentence participial phrase if it is
essential to the meaning of the sentence. See page G-26.
She noticed the prince searching for her.
(essential, no comma) The phrase is essential because it defines what
she noticed the prince doing.

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The Sentence

Clause
A clause is a group of related words that contains both a subject and a verb.

A main clause [MC] has a subject and a verb. A main clause, sometimes called an
independent clause, can stand alone as a sentence because it expresses a complete thought.
The second solider took the road to the right. [main clause]
MC
Main Clause
A dependent clause also has a subject and a verb. However, it cannot stand alone as a
sentence because it does not express a complete thought. As a result, a dependent clause, Contains:
sometimes called a subordinate clause, must be added to a main clause to make sense. subject + verb
Dependent clauses begin with a word that causes them to be an incomplete thought.
Although the second soldier took the road to the right. (dependent clause) stands alone

One of the keys to punctuating sentences properly is being able

to identify dependent clauses accurately. Every dependent clause

DC
functions as either an adjective, an adverb, or a noun.
ependent
Identify the clause by 1) focusing on the word that begins the dependent clause and
2) checking the placement of the clause in the sentence. Once the clause function has lause
been determined, properly punctuating the sentence is easy.

Contains:
subject + verb
Main Clause [MC]
subject + verb
stands alone
[The frog rescued her ball.] cannot stand alone

Dependent Clause
subject + verb
cannot stand alone Adjective Dependent Clause
[The frog, (who was actually a prince,) rescued her ball.]
who/which clause (w/w)
functions as an adjective
begins with who, which, that
use commas unless essential

Adverb Dependent Clause

(When her ball fell into the well,) [the frog rescued it.]
[The frog rescued her ball] (when it fell into the well.)
www.asia.b clause (AC)
functions as an adverb
begins with www word
use comma after but not before

Noun Dependent Clause

[Dorinda did not realize] (that the frog was a prince.)
that clause (that)
functions as a noun
often begins with that
no commas

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 The Sentence

An adjective clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adjective. The who/which clause
is an adjective clause
Because the adjective clause is a dependent clause, it must be added to a main clause. that begins with who
Most of the time it directly follows the noun or pronoun that it describes. or which. See page
An adjective clause begins with a relative pronoun (who, which, that) or a relative adverb G-39.
(where, when, why) and contains both a subject and a verb. The subject of the adjective
clause is often the word it begins with (such as who, which, where). See page G-6.
Robin, who lived among them, led the outlaws.
Robin led the outlaws is the main clause. An adjective clause
(Robin is the subject; led is the verb.) that begins with that
is always essential.
Who lived among them is the adjective clause. Thus, that clauses do
(Who is the subject; lived is the verb.) not take commas.
Place commas around an adjective clause
if it is nonessential to the meaning of the sentence.
Robin, who was happy and carefree, traveled through the forest.
(nonessential, commas)
Do not place commas around an adjective clause
if it is essential to the meaning of the sentence. See page G-26.
The men who followed Robin Hood could be trusted. (essential, no
commas) The clause is essential because it defines which men could
be trusted.

✨ Advanced
A relative pronoun introduces the adjective clause and connects it to the main clause.
It functions as a pronoun because it replaces the noun or pronoun that precedes it.
which
The woman served brown bread, bread tasted delicious.

An adverb clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb.

Because the adverb clause is a dependent clause, it must be added to a main clause.
An adverb clause may appear anywhere in a sentence.
pattern
An adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction (www word) and contains
www word +
both a subject and a verb. See page G-13.
subject + verb
Eden admired Quinn while she sang her solo.
Eden admired Quinn is the main clause.
(Eden is the subject; admired is the verb.)
While she sang her solo is the adverb clause.
(She is the subject; sang is the verb.)
Use a comma after an adverb clause that comes before a main clause. A comma is placed
pattern AC, MC before although,
When it rained, Timmy stayed indoors. while, or whereas
when a strong
Do not use a comma before an adverb clause. contrast exists.
pattern MC AC See page G-26.
Timmy stayed indoors (no comma) when it rained.

An adverb clause follows the pattern www word + subject + verb. If a verb is not
present, the group of words is likely a prepositional phrase. See page G-18.

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The Sentence

A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions as a noun.

A noun clause can do any function that a noun can do: subject, object of the preposition,
direct object, indirect object, subject complement. See page G-7.
Like the other dependent clauses, the noun clause contains both a subject and a verb. The advanced
Many noun clauses begin with that, but they can also begin with other words, including dress-up noun clause
how, what, when, where, whether, which, who, why. is a noun clause that
begins with that.
What Dorinda said disappointed her father. See page G-41.
What Dorinda said is the subject of the main clause.
Dorinda did not realize when her actions were unacceptable.
When her actions were unacceptable is the direct object of the verb realize.
Dorinda’s primary problem was that she was self-centered.
That she was self-centered is the subject complement. Both noun clauses
and adjective clauses
An invisible noun clause occurs when the word that is implied, not stated directly.
can begin with the
Dorinda never seemed to understand [that] she was responsible. word that.
She was responsible is the direct object of the verbal to understand. That is implied. If which can be
Frederick could tell [that] he would enjoy his stay. substituted for that,
He would enjoy his stay is the direct object of the verb could tell. That is implied. the that clause is an
adjective clause.
Noun clauses do not take commas.
People felt (no comma) that Robin Hood was like them.
Robin Hood was pleased (no comma) that he had escaped.

✨ Advanced
The first word of a dependent clause does not always indicate the type of clause. The word that can begin
both adjective clauses and noun clauses. The words where, when, and why can begin adjective, adverb, and
noun clauses. Accurate identification requires one to consider the way the entire clause is functioning in
the sentence.
The Little Mermaid determined to look where the prince now lived with his bride.
The dependent clause begins with where and tells the location of where the Little Mermaid looked.
This is an adverb clause, so a comma is not needed.
The Little Mermaid noticed the sky, where the rosy dawn glimmered more and more brightly.
The dependent clauses begins with where and directly follows the noun sky.
This is a nonessential adjective clause, so a comma is needed.

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 Punctuation

Punctuation
End Marks . ? ! Use only one
end mark.
Period
“You’re sure?”
Use a period at the end of a statement.
“Hah!” he said.
He bowed and walked away. (correct)
Use a period with some abbreviations. “You’re sure?!”
“Hah!,” he said.
ea. st. Mrs. (incorrect)

Question Mark
Use a question mark at the end of a question.
Did you ever hear the story of the three poor soldiers?

Exclamation Mark
Use an exclamation mark at the end of a sentence that expresses strong emotion.
No one calls me a coward!
Use an exclamation mark after an interjection that expresses strong emotion.
Yuck! I won’t touch another bite.

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Punctuation

Commas ,
Adjectives before a Noun
Use a comma to separate coordinate adjectives. Adjectives are coordinate if each adjective Only coordinate
independently describes the noun that follows. The order is not important. adjectives need to
be separated with a
The woman had a pointed, protruding nose. comma.
It sounds right to say both protruding, pointed nose and pointed and protruding nose.
Adjectives are
The adjectives are coordinate and the comma is necessary.
coordinate if you
Do not use a comma to separate cumulative adjectives. Adjectives are cumulative if the can reverse their
first adjective describes the second adjective and the noun that follows. Cumulative order or add and
adjectives follow this specific order: quantity, opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin, between them.
material, purpose. Adjectives are
The soldiers reached the tall green gate. cumulative if they
It does not sound right to say green tall gate or tall and green gate. must be arranged in
The adjectives are cumulative and should not have a comma. a specific order.

Noun of Direct Address (NDA)

Place commas around a noun of direct address. See page G-7.
My friends, for fourteen days we have enjoyed no sport.
For fourteen days, my friends, we have enjoyed no sport.
The Oxford Comma
For fourteen days we have enjoyed no sport, my friends. is the comma before
the coordinating
Items in a Series conjunction in three
pattern a, b, and c Use commas to separate three or more items in a series. Place the final or more items in a
comma before the coordinating conjunction. These items must be grammatically the same. series. Although the
Oxford comma is
He ran to the window, opened it, and jumped out. optional if there is no
The cook removed the tomatoes, beans, and cucumbers. danger of misreading,
writers do not always
pattern a and b Do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction when it connects recognize potential
two items in a series unless they are main clauses. confusion. It is wise
to include it since the
The cook removed the tomatoes (no comma) and cucumbers.
addition of the Oxford
The cook yelled (no comma) and ran. Comma is rarely
wrong.
Compound Verb
pattern MC cc 2nd verb Do not use a comma before a coordinating conjunction when it
connects two verbs (a compound verb) with the same subject. There is no subject after the cc.
This is the same as
The cook yelled (no comma) and ran. pattern a and b.
He ran to the window (no comma) and opened it.

Compound Sentence
pattern MC, cc MC Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction when it connects two The comma in the
main clauses (a compound sentence). There is a subject and a verb after the cc. MC, cc MC pattern is
optional when the
The cook yelled, and the mouse ran. clauses are short and
there is no danger of
He ran to the window, and he opened it.
misreading.

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 Punctuation

Prepositional Phrase Opener (#2 Sentence Opener)

If a prepositional opener has five words or more, follow it with a comma. Prepositional
phrases that work
Under the table (no comma) the tiny mouse hid. as transitions and
Under the heavy wooden table, the tiny mouse hid. require commas
include
If two or more prepositional phrases open a sentence, follow the last phrase with a comma.
in fact
Under the heavy wooden table in the kitchen, the tiny mouse hid. in addition
by the way
If a prepositional opener functions as a transition, follow it with a comma.
by contrast
Of course, the cook was afraid of mice. for example
for instance
If a prepositional opener is followed by a main clause that has the verb before the subject,
of course
do not use a comma.
on the other hand
Under the heavy wooden table hid a tiny mouse.

Mid-Sentence Prepositional Phrase

Do not put a comma in front of a prepositional phrase unless the phrase is a transition.
When transitional
The mouse hid (no comma) under a table in the kitchen. words connect two
The cook was, of course, afraid of mice. main clauses, put a
semicolon before
Transition and Interrupter and a comma after.
See page G-29.
Place commas around a transition and an interrupter.
Of course, Dorinda and Maribella lived in the castle.
As grown-up girls, on the other hand, they could leave when they pleased.
They rarely left the palace grounds, however.

-ly Adverb Opener (#3 Sentence Opener)

Use a comma if an -ly adverb opener modifies the sentence. Test:
Foolishly, Timmy bit into a hot pepper. It was that .
Test: It was foolish that Timmy bit ... makes sense. Foolishly modifies the sentence.
Do not use a comma if an -ly adverb opener modifies the verb.
Eagerly Timmy ate a ripe cucumber.
Test: It was eager that Timmy ate ... does not make sense. Eagerly modifies the verb ate.

Participial Phrase Opener (#4 Sentence Opener)

Use a comma after a participial opener (-ing), even if it is short.
Excusing herself from the table, Dorinda hurried away.

Adverb Clause Opener (#5 Sentence Opener)

pattern AC, MC Use a comma after an adverb clause opener.
When the cat prowled at night, the mice hid.

Mid-Sentence Adverb Clause

pattern AC, MC Use a comma after an adverb clause that comes before a main clause.
Early that morning when Timmy saw the cat, he was aghast.
pattern MC AC Do not use a comma before an adverb clause.
Early that morning Timmy was aghast (no comma) when he saw the cat.

Fix It! Grammar Glossary G-25

Punctuation

Quotation
The attribution is
Use a comma to separate an attribution from a direct quote. the narrative that
A throaty voice offered, “I should be honored to find your ball.” includes the person
speaking and the
“I should be honored,” a throaty voice offered, “to find your ball.” speaking verb
“I should be honored to find your ball,” a throaty voice offered. (he said).

Comparing Items
Do not use a comma when making a comparison.
Robin was a better shot (no comma) than the other archers.
Use a comma
Contrasting Items to contrast,
Use a comma to separate contrasting parts of a sentence. not compare.
The ideas in this story are the rooster’s thoughts, not mine.
Use a comma even if the contrasting part begins with www words although, while, or whereas.
This rule applies only when there is an extreme contrast and is an exception to MC AC.
He seemed interested, whereas she did not.
Timmy favored the country, while Johnny preferred the city.

Appositive, Adjective Clause, Mid-Sentence Participial Phrase

A nonessential appositive, adjective clause, or mid-sentence participial phrase adds
information to a sentence.
An appositive is an
Use commas to separate nonessential elements from the rest of the sentence.
invisible who/which
Robin Hood, the archer, led his men through the forest. clause. See page G-39.

Little John, who liked a challenge, readily followed Robin.

The men hiked through the forest, laughing at each other. A who/which clause is
an adjective clause.
An essential appositive, adjective clause, or mid-sentence participial phrase defines
the noun it follows. If the essential information is removed, the overall meaning of the
sentence changes. A participial phrase is
an -ing phrase.
Do not use commas with essential elements.
The archer Robin Hood led his men through the forest.
The men who followed Robin Hood could be trusted.
The man walking across the bridge was a stranger.
To determine if a phrase or clause is essential, remove it from the sentence to see if it
changes the meaning of the sentence.
Nonessential items
Little John, who liked a challenge, readily followed Robin.
need commas.
Remove the who/which clause: Little John readily followed Robin. The does not change
the meaning of the sentence. This who clause is nonessential. Use commas.
The men who followed Robin Hood could be trusted. Essential items
Remove the who/which clause: The men could be trusted. This changes the meaning eliminate commas.
because the reader does not know which men could be trusted. This who clause is
essential. Do not use commas.
In some cases, the commas determine the meaning of the sentence.
Even the footmen, who once obeyed her, snubbed her.
With commas this sentence indicates all footmen snubbed her and all once obeyed her.
Even the footmen who once obeyed her snubbed her.
Without commas this same sentence now indicates that only those footmen who once
obeyed her now snubbed her.
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 Punctuation

Quotation Marks “ ”
Direct Quotation
Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations. There should not
be a space between
“I want to live above the sea,” said the Little Mermaid. the quotation mark
and the word or
Indirect Quotation punctuation it
Do not use quotation marks with indirect speech, which usually begins with that. encloses.
The Little Mermaid said that she wanted to live above the sea.

Thoughts
When typing, place thoughts in italics. When handwriting, use quotation marks.
I do not want a fish’s tail, thought the Little Mermaid.

Punctuating a Quotation
Use a comma to separate an attribution from a direct quote. If a direct quote is an
exclamation or question, follow it with an exclamation or question mark. The attribution is
the narrative that
Attribution, “Quote.” Attribution, “Quote!” Attribution, “Quote?” includes the person
“Quote,” attribution. “Quote! ” attribution. “Quote? ” attribution. speaking and the
speaking verb
Commas and periods always go inside closing quotation marks. (he said).
“I want to live above the sea,” said the Little Mermaid.
Hans Christian Andersen wrote “The Little Mermaid.”
Exclamation marks and question marks go inside closing quotations when they are part of
the quoted material; otherwise, they go outside.
“Can humans live forever? ” the Little Mermaid asked.
Did Grandmother say, “Humans can live forever”?
When a spoken sentence is interrupted, close the first part and begin the second with
quotation marks. Do not capitalize the first letter of the continuation.
“Human beings have a soul,” explained Grandmother, “ that lives eternally.”
In conversation, if someone speaking changes topic, start a new paragraph. Close the
first paragraph without a quotation mark to signal the speaker has not finished speaking.
Open the new paragraph with a quotation mark to indicate that someone is still speaking.
The prince responded, “You remind me of a girl I once met.
“Long ago, my ship wrecked, and the waves cast me ashore. A maiden saved my life.”
Referencing Words
When typing, place words referred to as words in italics or quotation marks.
Insert “the word(s)” or
When handwriting, use quotation marks.
“the name” before the
The king believed sir and madam should be used when addressing one’s elders. word in question to
tell if this rule applies.
Single Quotation Marks
Use single quotation marks for quotations within quotations.
This is the only
The maid said, “Strip the mattresses since, as the queen put it, ‘They might be unclean.’” reason to use single
quotation marks.

Fix It! Grammar Glossary G-27

Punctuation

Apostrophes ’
Contraction
Use an apostrophe to show where a letter or letters have been removed.
I’ll figure out how to trick them.
It’s too bad, but we’d better go our separate ways.

Possessive Adjective
Use an apostrophe to show possession.
To form singular possessives, add an apostrophe + s.
the second soldier’s turn
To form plural possessives, make the noun plural; then add an apostrophe.
the soldiers’ last night at the palace (the last night of all three soldiers)
An exception is irregular plural possessives.
the children’s mittens and the women’s scarves

Plural Noun
Do not use an apostrophe to make a word plural.
The soldiers each took a turn.
The princesses received whatever they requested.

Possessive Pronoun
Do not use an apostrophe with possessive pronouns.
his, hers, its, theirs, ours, yours

Possessive Pronouns Contractions

its it’s (it is)
their they’re (they are)
theirs there’s (there is)
whose who’s (who is)

Ellipsis Points ...

Fictional Writing
Use ellipsis points to signal hesitation or a reflective pause, especially in dialogue.
“Ahem ... ” Lord Ashton cleared his throat conspicuously.
“Um ... certainly ... the mattress test,” the king sighed.

Nonfictional Writing
Use ellipses only when omitting words from a direct quotation.

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 Punctuation

Semicolons ;
Main Clauses
pattern MC; MC Use a semicolon to join main clauses that are closely related and
parallel in construction.
The Little Mermaid pondered golden sunsets; she dreamed of twinkling stars.

Conjunctive Adverb
pattern MC; ca, MC. If a conjunctive adverb is used to connect two main clauses that
express similar ideas, put a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after. Conjunctive adverbs
Years of indulgence had spoiled her beyond recognition; however, Lady Constance are transition words.
recalled a time in Dorinda’s childhood when she had been a lovable child.

Items in a Series
Use semicolons to separate items in a series when the items contain internal commas.
Highborn women lamented when Troy, that noble city celebrated by Homer,
fell through trickery; when Pyrrhus, ancient Greek ruler, seized King Priam by the
beard; and when the Romans, ruthless and crazed, torched Carthage to the ground.

Colons :
List
Colons follow a
pattern MC: list Use a colon after a main clause to introduce a list when a phrase complete thought and
like for example is not included. mean see what follows
Robin Hood had two choices: run away or fight. or an example follows.

Explanation
pattern MC: explanation Use a colon after a main clause to introduce an explanation
when a phrase like for example is not included.
One other thing I ask: please accept this simple souvenir from me.

Quotation Contrast this with

pattern MC: quotation Use a colon when a complete thought sets up a quotation. an attribution. The
The innkeeper answered him straightaway: “Sir, your friend left town at dawn.” innkeeper answered,
“Sir, your friend left
town at dawn.”
Titles with Subtitles
pattern Title: Subtitle Use a colon to separate a title from a subtitle.
Charles Dickens wrote Oliver Twist: The Parish Boy’s Progress and A Christmas Carol:
A Ghost Story of Christmas.

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Punctuation

Hyphens -
Numbers
Use a hyphen with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with fractions.
thirty-seven; one-fourth

Compound Nouns
Use hyphens with some compound nouns.
lady-in-waiting; mother-in-law; self-restraint

Compound Adjectives
Use a hyphen when two or more words come before a noun they describe and act as a
single idea.
The nineteenth-century author enjoyed his fame.
The five-year-old boy cried.
When a compound adjective follows the noun it describes, the adjective may or may not be
hyphenated. If in doubt, consult a dictionary.
The boy was five years old.
Mowgli was self-confident.

Em Dashes and Parentheses — ( )

Emphasis
Use em dashes to emphasize something. Use em dashes in
Your word—of all people’s—must be trustworthy. place of commas
when you want to
Interruption draw attention to
something.
Use em dashes to indicate an interruption in speech or a sudden break in thought.
His younger daughter—now there was another topic that brought red to his face—
embarrassed him in front of the guests. Use parentheses in
place of commas
when you want to
Nonessential Elements
offer an aside.
Use em dashes to set off nonessential elements that have commas inside them.
The poor widow owned a few farm animals—three hefty sows, three cows, and a
sheep dubbed Molly—with which she attempted to eke out a living.

Extra Information
Use parentheses to provide extra information.
“Oh, yes, benevolent frog!” (Notice that in fairy tales, characters don’t have great
curiosity about such oddities as talking frogs.)

G-30 Institute for Excellence in Writing

 Additional Concepts

Additional Concepts
Indentation
In copy work, indent by doing two things: 1) start on the next line, and 2) start writing ½ inch The paragraph mark
from the left margin. (¶) is called a pilcrow.

To mark indentation, add the ¶ symbol or an arrow () in front of each sentence that should
start a new paragraph.
In fiction (stories), there are four reasons to start a new paragraph.

New Speaker
Start a new paragraph when a new character speaks. Include the attribution with the
quotation.
She cried loudly, “Thieves!”
If a narrative sentence sets up the quotation, it should go in the same paragraph as the
quoted sentence.
The stranger came right to the point. “It is cowardly to stand there with a lethal arrow
aimed at my heart.”
If a narrative follows a quotation in a separate sentence but points directly
back to the quotation, it can also go in the same paragraph.
“It is cowardly to stand there with a lethal arrow aimed at my heart.” The stranger did
not mince words.

New Topic
Start a new paragraph when the narrator or a character switches topic or focus.

New Place
Start a new paragraph when the story switches to a new location. If several switches are
made in quick succession, such as a character’s journey to find something, it may be less
choppy to keep in one paragraph.

New Time
Start a new paragraph when the time changes unless there are several time shifts in close
succession that make sense together in a single paragraph.

Fix It! Grammar Glossary G-31

Additional Concepts

Capitalization
Sentence
Capitalize the first word of a sentence and of a quoted sentence, even when it does not
begin the full sentence.
The princess cried, “My nose has grown too long.”
Do not capitalize the first word of an attribution when it follows the quoted sentence.
“My nose has grown too long,” the princess cried.
“You must be content!” urged grandmother

Quotation Continues
When a spoken sentence is interrupted, do not capitalize the first letter of the
continuation.
“My nose,” the princess cried, “has grown too long.”

Proper Nouns and Adjectives

Capitalize proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns.
Sherwood Forest; Robin Hood; English flag

Titles
Capitalize titles that precede a name. Do not capitalize titles that are not used with a name.
In 1952 Queen Elizabeth II became the queen of England.
Capitalize titles that substitute for a name in a noun of direct address. An exception is sir or
madam as a noun of
“Can you clean his wound, Doctor?”
direct address: “Stand
Do not capitalize family members unless used as a substitute for a name or with a name. back, sir,” demanded
Robin.
He succeeded his father as king.
Did Father say that we could play outside?

Calendar Words
Capitalize days of the week and months of the year. Do not capitalize seasons: spring,
summer, fall, winter.
Timmy enjoyed peas on a hot summer Wednesday evening in June.

Directions
Capitalize compass directions when they refer to a region or proper name. Do not capitalize
these words when they indicate direction. Do not capitalize words like northward or northern.
On her journey north Eden encountered few obstacles.
Eden is heading in a northward direction but not traveling to a region known as the North.

Literary Titles and Subtitles

Capitalize the first word and the last word of titles and subtitles. Capitalize all other words
except articles, coordinating conjunctions, and prepositions.
A young girl recited “Mary Had a Little Lamb.”
Read Mozart: The Wonder Boy by next week.

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 Additional Concepts

Numbers
Words
Spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words.
twenty; fifty-three; three hundred
Dorinda had racked up one thousand text messages on her cell phone in one month.
Spell out ordinal numbers.
first, second, third
The next year the second sister was permitted to rise to the surface.

Numerals
Use numerals for numbers that use three or more words.
123; 204
That evening 250 rockets rose in the air.
Never begin a sentence with a numeral.
1492 is a famous year in history. (incorrect)
The year 1492 is a famous year in history. (correct)
Use numerals with dates. Do not include st, nd, rd, or th.
December 25, not December 25th
Meet me at the Green Chapel in one year and one day on January 1, 1400.
Use numerals when numbers are mixed with symbols.
We received $500 in donations last month.
We can expect at least 40% of those invited to attend.

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G-34 Institute for Excellence in Writing
 Homophones and Usage

Homophones and Usage

Homophones
Homophones are words that sound alike but are spelled differently and have different meanings.
there There is an adverb pointing to a place or point: over there (there is the spot). Although less
their Their is a possessive pronoun: their house (the house belongs to them). common, there can
they’re They’re is a contraction: they’re finished (they are finished). function as a noun,
pronoun, or adjective.
your Your is a possessive pronoun: your weapon (the weapon belongs to you).
you’re You’re is a contraction: you’re finished (you are finished).

to To is a preposition or part of an infinitive: to the left (preposition); to rush (infinitive).

two Two is a number: two women (2 women).
too Too is an adverb meaning also or to an excessive degree: I’ll go too; too far.

its Its is a possessive pronoun: its wing (the wing belongs to the bird).
it’s It’s is a contraction: it’s too bad (it is too bad).

then Then is an adverb meaning next or immediately after: wake and then eat.
than Than is a word used to show a comparison: Sam is shorter than Bob.

affect Affect is a verb that means to have an influence or to cause: The definitions given
Dorinda was too self-centered for anyone else to affect her deeply. for affect and effect
effect Effect is a noun that refers to the result of some action: are the most
Years of indulgence had the obvious effect of spoiling Dorinda. commonly used.

Usage
Usage errors occur when a word is used incorrectly.
between Between is a preposition that refers to two items: She stood between the (two) trees.
among Among is a preposition that refers to three or more items: She walked among them.

like Like is a preposition that compares a noun to a noun: Waves rose like mountains.
as As is a subordinating conjunction that compares a noun to an idea (subject + verb).
The waves rose suddenly as the storm swelled.
As is a preposition when it means in the role of: They traveled as adults.

farther Farther refers to measurable distance: I jumped farther than I did yesterday. Use farthest like
further Further refers to a figurative distance: We want to avoid further delays. farther, furthest
Further functions as a verb when it means to promote: He will further the agenda. like further.

lie Lie is a verb that means to recline or remain: The hen rarely lies down.
lay Lay is a verb that means to put something down: Daily, the hen lays an egg.
The past tense of lie is lay, which is the same as the present tense of to lay.
infinitive present past past participle
to lie lie lay lain
to lay lay laid laid
Present: The hens lie down (recline) after they lay eggs (put eggs down).
Past: Yesterday the hens lay down (reclined) after they laid eggs (put eggs down).

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G-36 Institute for Excellence in Writing
 Stylistic Techniques

Stylistic Techniques
Fix It! stories teach the stylistic techniques of the Institute for Excellence in Writing.
Dress-ups are placed within sentences to strengthen vocabulary and add complex sentence
structures. Sentence openers are different ways to begin sentences, encouraging sentence
variety. Decorations are stylistic devices that embellish prose.

Dress-Ups
Dress-ups are descriptive words, phrases, and clauses that are placed within a sentence.

Three of the dress-ups encourage stronger vocabulary: -ly adverb, strong verb, quality
adjective. The other dress-ups encourage more complex sentence structure: who/which
clause and www.asia.b clause.

-ly Adverb Dress-Up

An -ly adverb is an adverb that ends in -ly. Adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, See a list of -ly
or other adverbs. Most often they tell how or when something is done. The -ly adverb dress-up adverbs on page G-43.
is used to enhance the meaning of a word. See page G-15.
Notice how the meaning of this sentence changes when different -ly adverbs are added:
She masqueraded as a poor girl.
She cleverly masqueraded as a poor girl.
She arrogantly masqueraded as a poor girl.
She deceptively masqueraded as a poor girl.
Not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. Impostor -ly adverbs are adjectives. If the word Adjective Test:
ending in -ly describes a noun, it is an adjective and not an adverb. the pen
To find -ly adverbs to use in your writing, use a thesaurus or vocabulary words. Alternatively,
look at -ly adverb word lists on the Portable Walls for Structure and Style Students® or the
IEW Writing Tools App.

Common Impostors
These -ly words are adjectives.

chilly holy lovely queenly

friendly kingly lowly ugly
ghastly knightly orderly worldly
ghostly lonely prickly wrinkly

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Stylistic Techniques

Strong Verb Dress-Up

A strong verb is an action verb that creates a strong image or feeling. It helps a reader picture Verb Test:
what someone or something is doing. See page G-9.
I .
Challenge students to distinguish between strong verbs and vague ones.
It .
The mermaids often went to the castle.
The mermaids often visited the castle and toured its opulent halls.
The horse was in the barn.
The horse buried itself in the hay.
The mermaids’ hands were nibbled on by the fish.
The fish nibbled the mermaids’ hands.

Quality Adjective Dress-Up

A quality adjective is a descriptive word that provides specific details about a noun or pronoun.
Like a strong verb, a quality adjective provides a strong image or feeling. See page G-14. Adjective Test:
Notice how the image of brook changes with the use of different adjectives. In both the pen
examples, the first suggested adjective is weak, whereas the other two provide a
stronger image or feeling.
He hurdled the small brook.
He hurdled the narrow brook.
He hurdled the babbling brook.
The big stranger greeted Robin.
The confident stranger greeted Robin.
The disagreeable stranger greeted Robin.
To find strong verbs and quality adjectives to use in your writing, use a thesaurus or
vocabulary words. Alternatively, look at word lists on the Portable Walls for Structure and Style
Students or the IEW Writing Tools App.

Advanced
Deliberate use of dual -ly adverbs, strong verbs, or quality adjectives, especially when the words add a
different nuance, enriches prose and challenges students to be precise with words chosen. Classic writers
of the past like Charles Dickens and persuasive essayists like Winston Churchill have used duals and triples
to convey their meaning most powerfully.
The ship glided away smoothly and lightly over the tranquil sea.
The wind filled and lifted the ship’s sails.
All who beheld her wondered at her graceful, swaying movements. To punctuate dual
adjectives properly,
see page G-24.

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 Stylistic Techniques

Who/Which Clause Dress-Up

A who/which clause is a dependent clause that provides description or additional information The who/which clause
about the noun it follows. immediately follows
the noun it describes.
Robin Hood cut a staff, which measured six feet in length.
Which measured six feet in length describes the staff.
Frederick hoped to make friends with the princess, who frequently visited the garden.
Who frequently visited the garden describes the princess.
A who/which clause is a dependent clause that begins with the word who or which. Forms of who include
whom and whose.
Use who when referring to people, personified animals, and pets.
See page G-6.
Use which when referring to things, animals, and places.
Because the who/which clause is a dependent clause, it must be added to a sentence that is
already complete. If only the word who or which is added, a fragment is formed.
The noise alerted Sam. (sentence) If the who/which
The noise, which alerted Sam. (fragment) clause is removed,
The noise alerted Sam, who drove to safety. (sentence) a sentence must
The noise, which alerted Sam, alerted him to drive to safety. (sentence) remain.

Place commas around a who/which clause if it is nonessential to the

meaning of the sentence.
William, who had little, shared with his neighbors. (nonessential,
Although the word
commas)
that may begin an
Do not place commas around a who/which clause if it is essential to the adjective clause, a
meaning of the sentence. See page G-26. that clause is not a
who/which clause
The students who finished the test left early. (essential, no commas)
dress-up.
The clause is essential because it defines which students left early.

Advanced
A who clause always describes a single noun.
A which clause can describe a single noun, or it can describe the entire idea that comes before which.
You have killed the king’s deer, which is a capital offense.
It is not the deer (noun before which clause) that is the offense but killing it—
the entire idea expressed in the main clause.
If a who/which clause contains a be verb, the who or which and the be verb can be removed to form an
invisible who/which clause. An invisible who/which clause is called an appositive or appositive phrase, not
a clause because the subject (who or which) and the be verb have been removed from the written sentence.
Follow the same comma rules.
Dorinda frustrated Lady Constance, who was her companion since childhood.
All had come to Sherwood Forest, which was a vast, uncharted wood.

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Stylistic Techniques

www.asia.b Clause Dress-Up

A www.asia.b clause is a dependent clause that usually functions as an adverb. It begins with pattern
a subordinating conjunction (www word) and contains both a subject and a verb.
www word +
Robin Hood and his band guffawed loudly until the stranger showed irritation. subject + verb
Remain on the other side while I make a staff.
There are many subordinating conjunctions. The most common are taught using the
acronym www.asia.b: when, while, where, as, since, if, although, because. Other words Memorize the most
function as subordinating conjunctions: after, before, until, unless, whenever, whereas, than. common www words
See page G-13. using the acronym
www.asia.b: when,
Because the www.asia.b clause is a dependent clause, it must be added to a main clause. while, where, as,
Although an adverb clause may appear anywhere in a sentence, the www.asia.b clause since, if, although,
dress-up should not begin a sentence because only sentence openers begin sentences. because.

Use a comma after an adverb clause that comes before a main clause.
pattern AC, MC
That morning while it rained, Timmy stayed indoors.
Do not use a comma before an adverb clause.
pattern MC AC
Timmy stayed indoors (no comma) when it rained.

An adverb clause follows the pattern www word + subject + verb. If a verb is not present,
the group of words is likely a prepositional phrase and not an adverb clause.
Dorinda prepared the guestroom after supper.
After supper is not a clause because it does not contain a subject and a verb.
After supper is a prepositional phrase.
Dorinda prepared the guestroom after they ate supper.
After they ate supper is a clause because it contains both a subject (they) and a verb (ate).
Two tricks help tell the difference between a phrase and a clause.
Look for a verb. A clause must have a verb. A prepositional phrase will not have a verb.
Drop the first word of the phrase or clause in question and look at what is left.
If it is a sentence, the group of words is an adverb clause; if it is not, the words form
a prepositional phrase.
after supper
This does not have a verb. This does not form a sentence. This is a phrase.
after they ate supper
This has a verb (ate). This forms a sentence. This is a clause.

Advanced
When the www words as, where, when begin a clause that follows and describes a noun, the clause is
probably an adjective clause. Test by inserting which is between the noun and www word. If it sounds
correct, the clause is an adjective clause, not an adverb clause. Punctuate accordingly. See pages G-21
and G-26.
King Arthur decided to climb to the top of the cliff, where he could drink from the pool of water.
King Arthur decided to climb to the top of the cliff, [which is] where he could drink from the pool of water.
This is an adjective clause beginning with the word where. Because it is nonessential, it requires commas.
When the www words although, while, and whereas present an extreme contrast to the main clause in the
sentence, insert a comma. This is an exception to the more common rule MC AC. See page G-26.
Timmy favored the country, while Johnny preferred the city.

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 Stylistic Techniques

Advanced Dress-Ups
Dual -ly Adverbs, Strong Verbs, Quality Adjectives
Deliberate use of dual -ly adverbs, strong verbs, or quality adjectives, especially when the
words add a different nuance, enriches prose and challenges students to be precise with
words chosen. Classic writers of the past like Charles Dickens and persuasive essayists like
Winston Churchill have used duals and triples to convey their meaning most powerfully.
The ship glided away smoothly and lightly over the tranquil sea.
The wind filled the ship’s sails and propelled the ship through the sea.
All who beheld her wondered at her graceful, swaying movements.

Invisible Who/Which Clause

An invisible who/which clause is formed when the word who or which is followed by a be verb. Not all who/which
Removing who or which and the be verb that follows allows for a more elegant construction. clauses can be made
Follow the same comma rules. invisible.

Dorinda frustrated Lady Constance, who was her companion since childhood.
All had come to Sherwood Forest, which was a vast, uncharted wood.

Teeter-Totters dual
The adverb teeter-totter uses a verb as a fulcrum with dual -ly adverbs preceding the -ly adverbs
www.asia.b
verb and a www.asia.b clause following it. Both the -ly adverbs and the www.asia.b clause
modify the same verb. pattern -ly -ly verb www.asia.b
verb
The tortoise slowly yet steadily finished the race as the crowd watched in awe.
The adjective teeter-totter uses a noun as a fulcrum with dual quality adjectives dual
preceding the noun and a who/which clause following it. Both the quality adjectives and adjectives
the who/which clause describe the same noun. pattern adjective adjective noun w/w w/w clause

The Little Mermaid placed the prince on the fine white sand, which the sun had warmed.
noun
Noun Clause
A noun clause dress-up is a dependent clause that functions as a noun and begins with the
word that. It typically follows a verb and answers the question what.
If the that clause is an adjective clause and not a noun clause, the word which can replace that.
The king of the beasts never imagined that a puny rodent could help him.
The king of the beasts never imagined which a puny rodent could help him.
This does not make sense. This is not an adjective clause but a noun clause.
The king of the beasts was freed from a net that a mouse had persistently gnawed.
The king of the beasts was freed from a net which a mouse had persistently gnawed.
This makes sense. This is an adjective clause. See page G-21.
An invisible noun clause occurs when the word that is implied, not stated directly.
Dorinda never seemed to understand [that] she was responsible.
Frederick could tell [that] he would relish his palace stay.
Noun clauses do not take commas.
People felt (no comma) that Robin Hood was like them.
Robin Hood was pleased (no comma) that he had escaped.

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Stylistic Techniques

Sentence Openers
Sentence openers are descriptive words, phrases, and clauses that are added to the
beginning of a sentence.

There are six openers—six ways to open or begin a sentence. Using various sentence
openers forces sentence variety, which will improve writing quality. Learning the
sentence opener patterns and their related comma rules will result in sophisticated
writing skills.

#1 Subject Opener
A subject opener is simply a sentence that begins with its subject. This is the kind of sentence
one most naturally writes. A subject opener begins with the subject of the sentence.
Fish glide among the branches.
There may be an article or adjectives in front of the subject, but that does not change the
sentence structure. It is still a #1 subject opener.
The colorful fish glide among the branches.

#2 Prepositional Opener
A prepositional opener is a prepositional phrase placed at the beginning of a sentence.
See pages G-8 and G-18.
If a prepositional opener has five words or more, follow it with a comma.
Under the table (no comma) the tiny mouse hid. pattern
Under the heavy wooden table, the tiny mouse hid. preposition + noun
If two or more prepositional phrases open a sentence, follow the last phrase (no verb)
with a comma.
Under the heavy wooden table in the kitchen, the tiny mouse hid. Because of begins
prepositional phrases.
If a prepositional opener functions as a transition, follow it with a comma.
Because begins
In fact, the cook was afraid of mice.
clauses.
If a prepositional opener is followed by a main clause that has the verb before
the subject, do not use a comma.
Under the heavy wooden table hid a tiny mouse.

Advanced
An invisible prepositional opener is formed when some kind of time is followed by the main clause.
The preposition on or during is implied.
On Wednesday we will go to the beach.
On The day before yesterday we visited the park.
During That afternoon she visited friends.

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 Stylistic Techniques

#3 -ly Adverb Opener

An -ly adverb opener is an -ly adverb placed at the beginning of a sentence. Beginning the Test:
sentence with an -ly adverb changes the rhythm of the sentence.
It was that .
Use a comma if an -ly adverb opener modifies the sentence.
Foolishly, Timmy bit into a hot pepper.
Test: It was foolish that Timmy bit ... makes sense.
Foolishly modifies the sentence. A comma is required.
Do not use a comma if an -ly adverb opener modifies the verb.
Eagerly Timmy ate a ripe cucumber.
Test: It was eager that Timmy ate a ripe cucumber ... does not make
sense. Eagerly modifies the verb ate. A comma is not needed.

Advanced
In some cases, the comma indicates the meaning of the sentence.
Sorrowfully Timmy acceded to the counsel of Johnny.
He acceded, but he did so sorrowfully, with regret.
Sorrowfully, Timmy acceded to the counsel of Johnny.
This opener indicates that Timmy made a mistake in acceding to Johnny’s advice.
It is sorrowful that Timmy acceded to his Johnny’s counsel.

-ly Adverbs List

angrily critically historically mournfully sleepily unhappily

annoyingly deceptively hopefully oddly slyly usually
boredly disappointingly horribly proudly sneakily viciously
busily discouragingly joyfully rapidly strangely vigorously
commonly excitedly kindly repeatedly suddenly violently
completely finally meanly sadly tragically warmly
constantly greedily miraculously seriously uncomfortably willfully
continuously happily mostly shamefully unexpectedly wisely

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Stylistic Techniques

#4 -ing Opener
An -ing opener is a participial phrase placed at the beginning of a sentence.
A #4 -ing opener is a
Taking up his bow, Robin Hood shot with unparalleled skill. participial opener.
pattern -ing word/phrase, main clause. This is the most sophisticated sentence pattern. It is
easily written when the pattern is followed. The sentence must begin with an action word
that ends in -ing. This is called a participle. The -ing word/phrase and comma are followed The thing after the
by a main clause. The thing (subject of main clause) after the comma must be the thing comma must be
doing the inging. the thing doing the
inging.
Gathering their three gifts, the soldiers visited a neighboring king. The sentence begins
with an action word that ends in -ing: Gathering
The -ing word/phrase and comma are followed by a main clause: the soldiers visited a
neighboring king.
The thing (subejct of main clause) after the comma must be the thing doing the inging:
soldiers (subject) are gathering.
An illegal #4 opener is grammatically incorrect. If the thing after the comma is not the thing
doing the inging, the sentence does not make sense. This is known as a dangling modifier.
Hopping quickly, Dorinda let the frog follow her to the dining hall.
Who was hopping quickly? Dorinda. This is incorrect because the frog was
hopping quickly.
An impostor #4 opener begins with an -ing word but does not follow the pattern.
There are two types.
Living at the splendid castle cheered the soldiers.
This is a #1 subject opener. There is neither a comma nor a subject doing the inging.
Living is the subject.
During the dance she twirled him around.
This is a #2 prepositional opener. She (the subject) is not doing the during.
Prepositions ending in -ing include concerning, according to, regarding, during.

Advanced
An invisible -ing opener is formed when being is implied before the first word of the sentence.
Removing the word being allows for a more elegant construction. Follow the same comma rules.
Being Quick-witted and agile, Robert compensated for his limitation with an eagerness to please.
Being Relaxed and untroubled, the stranger genially waited for him.
Being Encouraged by Samuel’s speech, William stepped onto the stage.

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 Stylistic Techniques

#5 Clausal Opener
A clausal opener is an adverb clause placed at the beginning of a sentence. This opener is
the same as the www.asia.b dress-up. The only difference is placement in the sentence. The
opener begins a sentence.
pattern AC, MC Use a comma after an adverb clause opener. pattern
If possessions were plundered, Robin and his men would recapture the www word +
goods and return them to the poor. subject + verb
As he approached, Robin Hood noticed a tall stranger on the other
side of the stream. Because begins
When Robin attempted to cross the river, the stranger blocked his way. clauses.

An adverb clause follows the pattern www word + subject + verb. If a verb is not present, Because of begins
the group of words is likely a prepositional phrase and not an adverb clause. prepositional phrases.

After supper, Dorinda prepared the guestroom.

After supper is not a clause because it does not contain a subject and a verb.
After supper is a prepositional phrase.
After they ate supper, Dorinda prepared the guestroom.
After they ate supper is a clause because it contains both a subject (they) and a verb (ate).
Two tricks help tell the difference between a phrase and a clause.
Look for a verb. A clause must have a verb. A prepositional phrase will not have a verb.
Drop the first word of the phrase or clause in question and look at what is left. If it
is a sentence, the group of words is an adverb clause; if it is not, the words form a
prepositional phrase.
After supper
This does not have a verb. This does not form a sentence. This is a phrase.
After they ate supper
This has a verb (ate). This forms a sentence. This is a clause.

#6 Vss Opener
A very short sentence (vss) is simply a short sentence. It must be short (two to five words),
and it must be a sentence (subject + verb and be able to stand alone). It is not a fragment.
Remember that variety in sentence structure is important in good writing. Purposefully
adding a very short sentence can help break up the pattern of sentences in a stylish way.
It catches the reader’s attention. As a result, place it in a spot that needs emphasis.
Robin Hood left.
The blow inflamed him.
King Morton esteemed values. As an added
challenge, include
a strong verb so
that the very short
sentence packs a
punch.

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Stylistic Techniques

Advanced Sentence Openers

#F Fragment Opener
A fragment that does not leave the reader hanging and that fits the flow of the paragraph can
be dramatic and effective. This opener is often used in fictional writing.
Timmy saw his dear friend. (sentence)
Greeting him kindly. (unacceptable fragment)
“Hello, Johnny!” (acceptable fragment)

#Q Question Opener
A question is a complete sentence. It must contain a subject and a verb and make sense.
Where could he take a nap?

#T Transitional Opener
The transitional opener may be an interjection or a transitional word or phrase.
Place commas after a transitional expression.
Meanwhile, Robin’s men rested near the river.
Of course, Dorinda and Maribella lived in the castle.
When an interjection expresses a strong emotion, use an exclamation
mark. When an interjection does not express a strong emotion, use a
comma.
Help! My golden ball has vanished.
Oh, I see it now.

List of Common Transitions

however first
therefore next
then also
thus moreover
later hence
now furthermore
otherwise henceforth
indeed likewise

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 Stylistic Techniques

Decorations
Used sparingly, as an artist might add a splash of bright color to a nature painting, these
stylistic techniques daringly or delicately decorate one’s prose.

Alliteration Decoration
Alliteration is using three or more words close together that begin with the same consonant
sound. Our ear likes the repetition of sound. The alliterative words may be separated by
conjunctions, articles, short pronouns, or prepositions.
Samuel was seeking some shady relief from the sweltering sun.
Shady is not part of the alliteration because it does not have the same initial sound as the
other s words. It is not the letter that matters but the sound. Thus, celery and sound are
alliterative, but shady and sound are not.

Question Decoration
The question may be a rhetorical question, which means the answer is understood and
does not need to be given, or it may be a question that the writer answers soon after
asking. If a character in the story asks a question of another character, that is simply
conversation. The question decoration is directed towards the reader, causing the reader
to stop and think.
Someone suddenly appeared on the path. Who was it? It was Johnny!

Conversation/Quotation Decoration
Conversation appears in narrative writing when characters talk.
“You’re finally here, Johnny!” exclaimed Timmy.
A quotation appears when the writer uses the exact words that someone else has used.
A quotation includes a well-known expression, words stated by a famous person, or words
found in another source. When a quotation is used as a decoration, it does not require a
citation, but the source should be included as a lead-in. Punctuate correctly. See page G-27.
As Mark Twain noted, “History may not repeat itself, but it sure does rhyme.”

3sss Decoration
3sss stands for three short staccato sentences. The 3sss is simply three #6 very short
sentences in a row. Using short sentences together, especially among longer sentences,
can be a powerful stylistic technique because the short sentences will draw attention to
themselves.
A 3sss will have the most impact when the number of words in each of the sentences is the
same or decreasing. Increasing patterns have less impact.
4:3:2 Killer bees invaded America. Viciously they attacked. Humans suffered.
3:3:3 Savage bees attacked. Violently they killed. Nobody was spared.
2:2:2 Bees invaded. They marauded. Humans perished.

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Stylistic Techniques

Simile/Metaphor Decoration
Both a simile and a metaphor are figures of speech which compare two items that are very
different from each other. The well-known simile her cheeks are like roses compares cheeks to
roses, two very different things. A simile makes the comparison by using the words like or as.
A metaphor does not use like or as. It simply refers to one thing as if it is another.
The key to recognizing these figures of speech is that they compare unlike things. For
example, to say that a cat is like a tiger is a comparison but not a simile.
The ship dove like a swan between them. (simile)
The waves rose mountains high. (metaphor)

Dramatic Open-Close Decoration

The vss open-close decoration frames a single paragraph. The vss open-close decoration
contains two very short sentences two to five words long. One is placed at the beginning of
the paragraph, and the other is placed at the end.
Hungry flames roared. (vss open) The farm lay in ashes. (vss close)
Peter sighed. (vss open) Peter had an idea. (vss close)
The mystery was solved! (vss open) The truth was told. (vss close)
The anecdotal open-close decoration frames a composition or essay that includes an
introduction and conclusion. An anecdote is a very short story meant to amuse or teach.
To use this decoration, begin the introduction with a story to draw in the reader. Revisit
the story somewhere in the conclusion.
Anecdotal open (beginning of introduction):
With a bushel of cranberries slung over her shoulder, eight-year-old Jennie
Camillo trod through the cranberry bog toward the bushel man who would
collect her load. When the infamous photographer Lewis Hine asked her to stop
so he could take a picture, she stopped for a brief moment to humor the man.
Concernedly Jennie glanced toward her toiling father, who was regarding her stop
with annoyance.
Anecdotal close (in the conclusion):
Working during the harvest season, Jennie missed the first six weeks of school.
Due to her family’s financial struggles, the Camillos were forced to take the whole
family to Theodore Budd’s bog near Philadelphia before returning home to New
Jersey after the harvest.

G-48 Institute for Excellence in Writing

 Stylistic Techniques

Triple Extensions
Classic writers of the past have used duals and triples to convey their meaning most
powerfully. The trick is to remember “thrice, never twice.”
Repeating Words (same word)
Fearing for his sheep, fearing that the villagers would not arrive in time, and ultimately
fearing for his own life, Peter screamed, “Help!” as he bolted down the hill.
Never in the field of conflict was so much owed by so many to so few (Churchill).
Villainy is the matter; baseness is the matter; deception, fraud, conspiracy are the
matter (Dickens).
With a common origin, a common literature, a common religion and common drinks,
what is longer needful to the cementing of the two nations together in a permanent
bond of brotherhood (Mark Twain)?
Repeating Clauses
They lived in a land where the winter was harsh, where food became scarce, and where
provisions had to be stored.
Repeating Prepositional Phrases
We have not journeyed all this way across the centuries, across the oceans, across the
mountains, across the prairies, because we are made of sugar candy (Churchill).
Repeating -ings
Gnawing, jerking, and yanking, the mouse freed the lion from the thick rope.
The Little Mermaid could be seen holding the prince while kissing his brow and
stroking his hair.
Repeating -ly Adverbs
Robin Hood cheerfully, boldly, and fearlessly led his men.
The mouse vigorously gnawed at the tough fibers and tenaciously jerked
at the rope while he continuously assured the lion of escape.
Repeating Adjectives
The patient, persistent, and personable tortoise determined that at least he would
have a chance.
Repeating Nouns
Peter’s deceptive cries for help finally determined the attitude, behavior, and actions
of the village people.
Repeating Verbs
With all his might, the mouse gnawed, jerked, and yanked at the thick rope.

Fix It! Grammar Glossary G-49