🧪 Introduction to Thermochemistry

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🧪 Introduction to Thermochemistry
Objectives of the Lesson
1. Enthalpy changes of reaction, (H):

Explain that most chemical reactions are accompanied by enthalpy changes (exothermic or
endothermic).

Define enthalpy change of reaction, (H), and state the standard conditions.
Define enthalpy change of formation, combustion, hydration, solution, neutralization, atomization, bond
energy, ionization energy, and electron affinity.

Calculate the heat energy change from experimental measurements using the relationship:

(q = mc\Delta T) or (q = mc).

Calculate enthalpy changes from experiments.

🌀 Energy Concepts
Definition of Energy

"Energy is the capacity to do work or supply heat."

Types of Energy
Kinetic Energy:

The energy of motion. The amount of kinetic energy in a moving object with mass (m) and velocity (v) is
given by the equation:
(\frac{1}{2} mv^2).

Potential Energy:

The energy available by virtue of an object's position. Chemical energy is a form of potential energy
because it is associated with the relative positions and arrangement of atoms within a given substance.

🔥 Enthalpy in Chemical Reactions

Standard Condition
For a chemical reaction to be measured under standard conditions:

Temperature: (25.00^\circ C)
Pressure: (1.0 , \text{atm})

Concentration: (1.0 , \text{mol dm}^{-3}) for aqueous solutions.

Enthalpy Change ((H))
Enthalpy ((H)) is defined as: [ H = E + PV ] where (E) is the system's internal energy, (P) is pressure, and (V) is
volume.

Significance of Enthalpy Change

The value of (H) indicates whether a reaction is endothermic or exothermic:

If (H_{\text{products}} > H_{\text{reactants}}): (H) is positive (endothermic).

If (H_{\text{products}} < H_{\text{reactants}}): (H) is negative (exothermic).

Comparison of Processes

Process Definition (H) Value

Endothermic Absorbs heat, resulting in an increase in enthalpy Positive

Exothermic Releases heat, resulting in a decrease in enthalpy Negative

🌡️ Thermodynamics and Thermochemistry

Key Concepts
Thermodynamics: The scientific study of the interconversion of heat and other kinds of energy.

Thermochemistry: The study of heat change in chemical reactions.

First Law of Thermodynamics

"Energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed."

Components
System: Substances involved in chemical and physical changes.

Surrounding: The rest of the universe outside the system.

🧊 Types of Enthalpy Changes

1. Enthalpy Change of Reactions
Measurements are taken under standard conditions:

For gases: (1.0 , \text{atm}) (ideal behavior).

For substances in aqueous solution: (1.0 , \text{mol dm}^{-3}).

For pure substances: Most stable form at (1.0 , \text{atm}) and (25^\circ C) (298 K).

2. Common Enthalpy Changes

(H^\circ_f): Standard enthalpy change of formation.
 (H^\circ_c): Standard enthalpy change of combustion.
(H^\circ_{neut}): Standard enthalpy change of neutralization.

(H^\circ_{atom}): Standard enthalpy change of atomization.

(H_{BE}): Enthalpy change of bond energy.

(H_{IE}): Enthalpy change of ionization energy.

(H_{EA}): Enthalpy change of electron affinity.

(H_{LE}): Enthalpy change of lattice energy.

(H_{hyd}): Enthalpy change of hydration.

(H^\circ_{soln}): Standard enthalpy change of solution.

Standard Enthalpy Change of Formation, (H^\circ_f)

Definition: The heat change when one mole of compound is formed from its elements under standard
conditions.

Examples of Thermochemical Equations

Compound Equation Enthalpy Change

(H^\circ_f = -393 , \text{kJ

Carbon Dioxide (C (s) + O_2 (g) \rightarrow CO_2 (g))
mol}^{-1})

(H^\circ_f = -286 , \text{kJ

Water (H_2 (g) + \frac{1}{2} O_2 (g) \rightarrow H_2O (l))
mol}^{-1})

Nitrogen (\frac{1}{2} N_2 (g) + \frac{1}{2} O_2 (g) \rightarrow NO (H^\circ_f = +46.0 , \text{kJ
Monoxide (g)) mol}^{-1})

Notes
The amount of compound formed in standard conditions must be one mole.
The standard enthalpy of formation of any element in its most stable form is zero. Examples:

(H^\circ_f (O_2) = 0 , \text{kJ mol}^{-1})

(H^\circ_f (C, \text{graphite}) = 0 , \text{kJ mol}^{-1})

Stability of Compounds
Compounds formed via exothermic processes are more stable than those formed via endothermic
processes.
Thus, the more exothermic the enthalpy change of formation, the more stable the compound formed.

🔥 Enthalpy Change of Formation

"The more endothermic the standard enthalpy of formation (Hf∘ ), the more unstable the compound formed."
​

Examples of Enthalpy of Formation

 Reaction Standard Enthalpy of Formation (Hf∘ )
​

Na (s) + ½ F₂ (g) → NaF (s) 573 kJ/mol

Na (s) + ½ Cl₂ (g) → NaCl (s) 414 kJ/mol

Na (s) + ½ Br₂ (l) → NaBr (s) 361 kJ/mol

Na (s) + ½ I₂ (s) → NaI (s) 288 kJ/mol

Stability Trend: The stability of sodium halides increases in the order ( \text{NaI} < \text{NaBr} < \text{NaCl} <
\text{NaF} ).

Reactivity and Exothermic Reactions

Key Concept: A more exothermic reaction indicates more heat is released when reactants react.
Example: The reaction between sodium and fluorine is the most reactive (most vigorous) due to the high
exothermic nature of the reaction.

Atomic Radius Influence: As we move down Group 17, the atomic radius increases, leading to a decrease in
electron affinity and thus decreased reactivity.

🔄 Calculating Enthalpy Change of Reactions

The enthalpy change of a chemical reaction can be calculated using the formula:

Hrxn = Hf∘ (products) − Hf∘ (reactants)

​ ​ ​

General Reaction Format

For a reaction of the form:

wA(aq) + xB(aq) → yC(aq) + zD(aq)

​ ​ ​ ​

The enthalpy change can be expressed as:

Hrxn = [y(Hf∘ C ) + z(Hf∘ D)] − [w(Hf∘ A) + x(Hf∘ B )]

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Important Notes
The magnitude and vector of the enthalpy change can be positive or negative depending on the total
enthalpy change of formation of products minus that of reactants.

The stoichiometric coefficients are directly proportional to the enthalpy change of formation of the species
involved.

🌡️ Example Calculations
Example 1: Enthalpy Change of Reaction
Given the enthalpy changes of formation:
 Nitrogen monoxide (Hf∘ ​ = +46.0 kJ/mol)
Nitrogen dioxide (Hf∘ ​ = +33.0 kJ/mol)

Calculate for the reaction:

1
NO(g) + O2 (g) → N O2 (g)
2
​ ​ ​

Solution:

1 1
Hrxn = Hf∘ [N O2 ] − Hf∘ [NO + O2 ] = [+33.0] − [+46.0 + (0)] = −13.0 kJ/mol
2 2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Example 2: Enthalpy Change for Iron Chlorides

For the reaction:

2F eCl2 (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2F eCl3 (s)

​ ​ ​

Given:

Hf∘ [F eCl2 ] = −341 kJ/mol

​ ​

Hf∘ [F eCl3 ] = −405 kJ/mol

​ ​

Solution:

Hrxn = [2 × (−405)] − [2 × (−341) + 0] = −128 kJ

​

Example 3: Enthalpy Change of Formation of Ammonia

For the reaction:

4N H3 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2 O(l)

​ ​ H = 1090.0 kJ

Given:

Hf∘ [NO] = +46.0 kJ/mol

​

Hf∘ [H2 O] = −286.0 kJ/mol

​ ​

Solution:

Hrxn = Hf∘ [(4 × NO) + (6 × H2 O)] − Hf∘ [(4 × N H3 ) + (5 × O2 )]

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Set up the equation:

1090.0 = [(4 × 46.0) + (6 × −286.0)] − [(4 × Hf∘ N H3 ) + (5 × 0)] ​ ​

Find: Hf∘ N H3
​ ​ = 110.5 kJ/mol

Example 4: Combustion of Pentane

For the combustion reaction:

C5 H12 (g) + 8O2 (g) → 5CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l)

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ H = −x kJ/mol
Given:

Hf∘ [CO2 ] = −393 kJ/mol

​ ​

Hf∘ [H2 O] = −286 kJ/mol

​ ​

Solution:

Hrxn = Hf∘ [(5 × CO2 ) + (6 × H2 O)] − Hf∘ [(C5 H12 ) + (8 × O2 )]

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Set up the equation:

Hrxn = [(5 × −393) + (6 × −286)] − [(−890) + (8 × 0)]

​

Calculate to find x = 2791 kJ/mol.

🔍 Standard Enthalpy Change of Combustion

Definition: The standard enthalpy change of combustion (Hc∘ ) is the heat released when one mole of a
​

substance is burned in excess oxygen under standard conditions.

Examples of Standard Enthalpy of Combustion

Compound Reaction Enthalpy Change (Hc∘ )

​

Carbon C(s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)

​ ​
-393 kJ/mol

Zinc Sulfide ZnS(s) + 32 O2 (g) → ZnO(s) + SO2 (g)

​ ​ ​ -1040 kJ/mol

Lithium Li(s) + 14 O2 (g) → 12 Li2 O(s)

​ ​ ​ ​ -508 kJ/mol

Ethanoic Acid CH3 COOH(l) + 2O2 (g) → 2CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l)
​ ​ ​ ​
-1580 kJ/mol

Key Takeaway: Under standard conditions, the enthalpy change of combustion is always negative, indicating
that heat is released during the combustion process.

🧪 Calorimetry and Heat Changes

Specific Heat Capacity
Definition: The specific heat capacity (c) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of a substance by one degree Celsius.
Units: J g−1 °C−1 .

Heat Capacity
Definition: The heat capacity (C ) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a given quantity
of the substance by one degree Celsius.
Units: J °C−1 .
Relationship

C = c × m (where m is mass)

Heat Change Calculation

In calorimetry, the heat change (q ) is related to temperature change and can be calculated as:

q = CΔT or q = mcΔT

Where:

ΔT = Tf inal − Tinitial
​ ​

Bomb Calorimeter Method

1. Calculate heat produced using: q = m ⋅ c ⋅ ΔT where m is the mass of water (given density = 1 g cm−3 ) and
c is the specific heat capacity of water (4.18 J g−1 K−1 ).
m
2. Calculate the moles of substance burned: n = MR ​
​

q
3. Enthalpy change of combustion (Hc ): Hc ​ ​ = n
​

Example Calculation
Given 400.0 cm3 of distilled water heated from 28.00°C to 83.00°C with a spirit burner containing 3.42 g of
pentan-1-ol, calculate the enthalpy change of combustion.

q = (400.0)(4.18)(83.0 − 28.0) = ...

Complete the calculations as necessary.

🔥 Thermochemistry Concepts
Enthalpy of Combustion (Hc ) ​

Definition: The enthalpy of combustion (Hc ) is the heat released when one mole of a substance is burned in
​

oxygen.

Example Calculations

1. Pentan-1-ol Combustion:

mass 3.42
Moles of pentan-1-ol: mol =
MR
= 5(12)+12(1)+16 = 0.03886 mol
​ ​

q 91960
Enthalpy of combustion: Hc = mol = 0.03886
​ = 2366 kJ mol−1
​ ​

2. Combustion of Benzoic Acid:

Given: Hc for benzoic acid (C6 H5 COOH ) is 3230 kJ/mol.

​ ​ ​

For 0.625 g of benzoic acid:

0.625 g
Calculate moles: mol = 7(12)+6(1)+2(16)
​ = 5.123 × 10−3 mol
 Heat produced: q = Hc × mol = −3230 × 103 × 5.123 × 10−3 = 16.5 kJ
​

For ethane-1,2-diol:

Calculate heat produced:

Given temperature change: ΔT = 1.80 K

Heat capacity (C ): q = C × ΔT = 7.19 kJ K−1 × 1.80 K = 12.95 kJ
1.25 g
Moles of ethane-1,2-diol: mol = 2(12)+6(1)+2(16) =
​ 0.0201 mol
Enthalpy change: Hc ​ = q
mol
​ = 12.95 kJ
0.0201 mol
​ = 642 kJ mol−1

🔄 Standard Enthalpy Change of Neutralization (H0,neut ) ​

Definition: The standard enthalpy change of neutralization is the heat released when one mole of water is
formed from the reaction of an acid and a base under standard conditions.

Neutralization Reaction: H + (aq) + OH − (aq) → H2 O(l) ​

Standard Value: H0,neut ​ = 57.3 kJ mol−1

Factors Affecting H0,neut ​

Weak Acid and Strong Base: H0,neut ​ < 57.3 kJ mol−1

Example: CH3 COOH(aq) + N aOH(aq)

​ → CH3 COON a(aq) + H2 O(l)
​ ​ H0,neut = 52.8 kJ mol−1
​

Polyprotic Acids:

For diprotic acid: H0,neut ​ = 2 × 57.3 kJ mol−1

For triprotic acid: H0,neut ​ = 3 × 57.3 kJ mol−1

⚗️ Calculating Enthalpy Change of Neutralization

Using a Cup Calorimeter:

1. Required Information:

Volume of acid (a cm3 )

Volume of alkali (b cm3 )
Concentration of acid (x mol dm−3 )
Concentration of alkali (y mol dm−3 )
Initial temperature (Tinitial ) ​

Final temperature (Tf inal ) ​

2. Steps:

Calculate heat produced: q = m ⋅ c ⋅ ΔT

Where m = a + b (mass of water), c = 4.18 J g−1 K−1
MV
Calculate moles of acid and alkali: mol = 1000
​

q
Calculate enthalpy change: H0,neut ​ = moles of limiting reagent
​
🔥 Standard Enthalpy Change of Atomization (H0,atom ) ​

Definition: The standard enthalpy change of atomization is the heat absorbed when one mole of gaseous atoms
is formed from its element under standard conditions.

Examples:

For magnesium: M g(s) → M g(g) H0,atom = +166.8 kJ mol−1

​

For chlorine: 12 Cl2 (g)

​ ​ → Cl(g) H0,atom = +121.0 kJ mol−1
​

✨ Bond Energy (HBE ) ​

Definition: Bond energy is the heat absorbed to break a covalent bond in a covalent compound.

Covalent Bond Bond Energy (HBE ) (kJ mol−1 )

​

Cl-Cl 242.0

Br-Br 194.0

H-H 436.0

C-H 410.0

C=C 610.0

C=O 740.0

Application in Reactions:

E.g., for aluminum trichloride (AlCl3 ): HBE ​ ​

= 3 × 494.0 kJ mol−1 = +1482 kJ

🧪 Thermochemistry Concepts
1. Enthalpy of Reaction
The enthalpy change for the reaction involving CH₃CH₂Cl is calculated as follows:

Given that CH₃CH₂Cl contains:

5 CH
1 CC

1 CCl

The formula used for calculating the total enthalpy change (HBE) is:

HBE = (5x + 410.0) + (+350.0) + (+340.0) = +2740 kJ

2. Ionization Energy
2.1 First Ionization Energy (H0 I E )​
 The first ionization energy is defined as the energy absorbed to remove one mole of electrons from a
gaseous atom under standard conditions.

Equation: A(g) → A+ (g) + e− H0 IE = +x kJ mol−1

​

Examples:

For Hydrogen:

H(g) → H + (g) + e− H0 IE = +1310 kJ mol−1

​

For Fluorine:

F (g) → F + (g) + e− H0 I E = +1680 kJ mol−1

​

For Magnesium:

M g(g) → M g + (g) + e− H0 IE = +736 kJ mol−1

​

2.2 Endothermic Nature

The process of removing one mole of electrons is endothermic because energy is required to overcome the
electrostatic attraction between the outermost electron and the nucleus.

2.3 Second Ionization Energy (H2ndIE ) ​

Following the first ionization, the newly formed unipositive ion can undergo further ionization, known as the
second ionization energy.

Equation: A+ (g) → A2+ (g) + e− H2ndIE = +x kJ mol−1

​

Examples:

For Fluorine:

F + (g) → F 2+ (g) + e− H2ndIE = +3370 kJ mol−1

​

For Magnesium:

M g + (g) → M g 2+ (g) + e− H2ndIE = +1450 kJ mol−1

​

2.4 Summation of Ionization Energies

Using magnesium as an example, the overall ionization energy to convert magnesium from a gaseous atom to a
2+
magnesium (II) ion (M g ) is the sum of the first and second ionization energies:

Ionization Stage Reaction Energy Change

First Ionization M g(g) → M g + (g) + e− H0 IE = +736 kJ mol−1

​

Second Ionization M g + (g) → M g 2+ (g) + e− H2ndIE = +1450 kJ mol−1

​

Total M g(g) → M g 2+ (g) + 2e− HIE = +2186 kJ

​

3. Electron Affinity
3.1 First Electron Affinity (HE A)
​

The first electron affinity is defined as the energy released when one mole of electrons is accepted by a
gaseous atom.

Equation: P (g) + e− → P − (g) H0 E A = −x kJ mol−1

​

Examples:

For Hydrogen:

H(g) + e− → H − (g) HE A = −72.6 kJ mol−1

​

For Fluorine:

F (g) + e− → F − (g) HE A = −328.0 kJ mol−1

​

3.2 Exothermic Nature

The process of accepting one mole of electrons is an exothermic reaction because heat is released due to
the electrostatic attraction between the accepted electron and the nucleus.

4. Lattice Energy (HLE ) ​

4.1 Definition

Lattice energy is the energy released when one mole of solid crystal lattice is formed from oppositely
charged gaseous ions.

Example Reactions:

N a+ (g) + Cl− (g) → N aCl(s) HLE = −770.0 kJ mol−1

​

M g 2+ (g) + O2− (g) → M gO(s) HLE = −3940.0 kJ mol−1

​

4.2 Factors Affecting Lattice Energy

The stability of the ionic compound is influenced by:

Factor Description

Charge of the Ions Greater charges lead to stronger electrostatic attractions and higher lattice energy.

Inter-ionic Radii Shorter distances between ions lead to greater lattice energies.

4.3 Example of Lattice Energy Calculation

Z+ Z−
To calculate the lattice energy, consider the relationship: Lattice Energy ∝ ​ ​

r+ +r−
​

Example: Arranging Ionic Compounds by Lattice Energy

Compound Total Charge Total Ionic Radius (nm)

NaF 1 0.231
 Compound Total Charge Total Ionic Radius (nm)

NaBr 1 0.290

Na₂O 2 0.235

MgO 4 0.205

MgBr₂ 2 0.260

Al₂O₃ 6 0.190

5. Hydration Energy (Hhyd ) ​

5.1 Definition

Enthalpy change of hydration (Hhyd ) is the energy released when one mole of gaseous ions is dissolved in
​

excess water to form aqueous ion solutions.

🧪 Enthalpy Change of Hydration

Enthalpy Change Values
The enthalpy change of hydration (Hhyd ) for various ions is given as follows:
​

Ion Hhyd (kJ mol−1 )

​

H+ (g) 570

+
H (aq) 431

+
Na (g) 410

+
Na (aq) 410

−
I (g) 247

−
I (aq) 247

2+
Mg (g) 1903

2+
Mg (aq) 1903

2−
O (g) 1580

2−
O (aq) 1580

Hydration Process

"The process of hydration is an exothermic reaction."

When water interacts with ions, it forms ion-dipole interactions, which are more stable than dipole-dipole
interactions (also known as Van Der Waals forces).
 A gaseous cation interacts with the partial negative oxygen of water, while a gaseous anion interacts with
the partial positive hydrogen of water.

Factors Affecting Enthalpy Change of Hydration

The magnitude of the enthalpy change of hydration is influenced by two major factors:

1. Charge of Ions

Greater the charge, greater the polarity with water, leading to more exothermic hydration.

2. Ionic Radius of Ions

Smaller the ionic radius, greater the polarization of water molecules, leading to more exothermic
hydration.

💧 Standard Enthalpy Change of Solution

Definition
∘
"The standard enthalpy change of solution (Hsoln ) is the energy change when one mole of solute (usually
​

solid) is dissolved in an excess quantity of water to form an infinite dilute solution under standard conditions."

Examples of Thermochemical Equations

Reaction ∘
Hsoln (kJ mol−1 )
​

NaCl (s) → Na+ (aq) + Cl− (aq) +5.0

MgF2 (s) → Mg2+ (aq) + 2 F− (aq)

​ +144.0

AgBr (s) → Ag+ (aq) + Br− (aq) +97.0

C6 H12 O6 (s) → C6 H12 O6 (aq)

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ +64.0

C6 H5 OH (s) → C6 H5 OH (aq)
​ ​ ​ ​ +28.0

C6 H5 CHO (s) → C6 H5 CHO (aq)

​ ​ ​ ​ +115.0

Behavior of Solutes
Endothermic: Solute is sparingly soluble in water (except for salts containing mainly Na+ , K+ , and NH+
4 ). ​

Exothermic: Solute is soluble in water forming aqueous ion solutions.

⚖️ Hess's Law
Statement of Hess's Law

"Hess's Law states that when reactants are converted to products, the enthalpy change of a reaction is the
same whether the reaction occurs in one step or in multiple steps."
Applications of Hess's Law
1. Calculating Enthalpy Changes: Used for reactions that cannot be determined directly.
2. Constructing Energy Level Diagrams: Relates enthalpy to reaction paths and activation energy.
3. Calculating Enthalpy Changes from Energy Cycles: Involves the relationship between enthalpy change of
solution, lattice energy, and hydration.

Examples

Magnitude Proportionality:

For the combustion of methane:

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2 O(l), Hc∘ = 890 kJ mol−1 .
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

If 4 moles of methane are burned:

4CH4 (g) + 8O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 8H2 O(l), Hc∘ = 3560 kJ.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Reversing Equations:

For lattice energy of sodium chloride:

N a+ (g) + Cl− (g) → N aCl(s), HLE = 770.0 kJ mol−1 . ​

When reversed:
N aCl(s) → N a+ (g) + Cl− (g), HLE = +770.0 kJ. ​

Hess Cycle
A Hess cycle visually represents the relationship between various enthalpy changes involved in a series of
chemical reactions.

🔄 Example Application of Hess's Law

Calculation of Enthalpy Change of Formation for CO2 ​

Given:

1. C(s) + 12 O2 (g) → CO(g), Hf∘ = 110 kJ mol−1 .

​ ​ ​

2. CO(g) + 1
O (g)
2 2
​ ​ → CO2 (g), Hf∘ = 283 kJ mol−1 .
​ ​

Combine:

C(s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g), Hf∘ = 393 kJ mol−1 .

​ ​ ​

🔍 Practice Problems
1. Calculate the enthalpy change of combustion for nitrogen monoxide:

For the reaction 2NO(g) + O2 (g) ​ → 2N O2 (g) using given enthalpy changes.
​

2. Calculate the enthalpy change for the reaction:

 2Cl2 (g) + 2H2 O(l) → 4HCl(g) + O2 (g) using given enthalpy changes.
​ ​ ​

3. Finding enthalpy change using atomization/bond energy:

For the reaction CH3 Cl(g) + Cl(g) ​ → CH3 (g) + Cl2 (g) using given enthalpy changes of atomization.
​ ​

🧪 Thermochemistry and Hess's Law

1. Hess's Law Overview

"Hess's Law states that the total enthalpy change during a chemical reaction is the same, regardless of
whether the reaction occurs in one step or multiple steps."

2. Enthalpy Changes in Reactions

Enthalpy Change of Atomisation

Given data:

ΔHatomisation (CH3 C H2 ) = +2046 kJ mol−1 ​ ​ ​

ΔHatomisation (CH3 C H2 B r) = +2398 kJ mol−1​ ​ ​

ΔHatomisation (Br2 ) = +106 kJ mol−1 ​ ​

Reaction of Interest

Reaction: CH3 C H2 (g) + Br2 (g) ​ ​ ​ → CH3 C H2 B r(g) + Br(g)

​ ​

3. Energy Cycle Construction

Energy Cycle for the Reaction

Step Reaction Enthalpy Change (kJ mol−1 )

1 CH3 C H2 (g) → CH3 C H2 B r(g)

​ ​ ​ ​ +2398

2 Br2 (g) → Br(g)

​
+106

3 CH3 C H2 (g) + Br2 (g) → CH3 C H2 B r(g) + Br(g)

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Calculate using Hess's Law

4. Relationship Between Enthalpy Changes

a) Enthalpy Change of Formation vs. Combustion

Combustion of Hexane (C6 H14 ): ​ ​

Given:

ΔHf (C6 H14 ) = 199.0 kJ mol−1

​ ​ ​

ΔHf (CO2 ) = 393.0 kJ mol−1

​ ​

ΔHf (H2 O) = 286.0 kJ mol−1

​ ​

19
Combustion Equation: C6 H14 (l) + 2 ​ ​ ​ O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g) + 7H2 O(l)
​ ​ ​
Calculation Steps:

1. Reverse reaction for formation of hexane.

2. Multiply combustion reactions as needed.

Step Reaction Enthalpy Change (kJ mol−1 )

1 C(s) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g) ​ ​ +393

2 H2 (g) + 12 O2 (g) → H2 O(l)

​ ​ ​ ​
+286

19
3 C6 H14 (l) +
​ ​

2 O2 (g)​ ​ → 6CO2 (g) + 7H2 O(l)

​ ​ Calculate

5. Finding Enthalpy Change of Formation from Combustions

Example: Pentan-1-ol (C5 H11 O H ) ​ ​

Given:

ΔHc (C5 H11 OH) = 3320 kJ mol−1

​ ​ ​

ΔHc (C) = 393 kJ mol−1

​

ΔHc (H2 ) = 286 kJ mol−1

​ ​

Combustion Equation:
15
C5 H11 OH(l) +
​ ​

2 O2 (g)
​ ​
→ 5CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l)​ ​

6. Hess's Cycle for Solution Enthalpy

Lattice Energy and Hydration

Lattice Energy Equation: M + (g) + X − (g) → MX(s) ΔHLE = x kJ mol−1

​

Enthalpy of Hydration: M + (g) + X − (g) → M + (aq) + X − (aq) ΔHhyd = y kJ mol−1

​

Enthalpy Change of Solution: MX(s) → M + (aq) + X − (aq) ΔHsoln = z kJ mol−1

​

Process Condition Enthalpy Change

Endothermic HLE > Hhyd

​ ​ Hsoln = y + x
​

Exothermic Hhyd > HLE ​ ​ Hsoln = y + x

​

7. Example Calculation: Magnesium Chloride

Given:

ΔHhyd (M g 2+ ) = 467 kJ mol−1

​

ΔHhyd (Cl− ) = 182 kJ mol−1

​

ΔHLE (M gCl2 ) = 641 kJ mol−1

​ ​

8. Practice Problems
Practice Problem 1

Calculate the enthalpy change for: CH3 C H ​ = CHCH = CH2 (l) + 2H2 O(l) →
​ ​

CH3 C H2 C H(OH)CH(OH)CH3 (l)

​ ​ ​

Practice Problem 2

Given the enthalpy changes for combustion of various compounds, deduce the solubility of lead (II) bromide
based on hydration and lattice energy calculations.

🧪 Solubility of Group 2 Sulphates

Trends in Solubility
The solubility of Group 2 sulphates decreases as we move down the group.
This trend is attributed to the enthalpy change of solution, which shifts from less negative to more positive
as we go down the group.

Lattice Energy and Hydration Enthalpy

Both lattice energy and enthalpy change of hydration are influenced by the size and charge of the ions.

As we descend Group 2:

Lattice energy decreases.

Enthalpy of hydration decreases more significantly due to the larger size of the Group 2 metal ions.

Comparison of Energies

Energy Type Trend Down Group 2

Lattice Energy Decreases

Enthalpy of Hydration Decreases (less exothermic)

Impact of Ion Size

The size of the sulphate ion (SO42− ) is considerably larger than that of the metal ions.
​

The increase in the size of the cation has a negligible effect on the (r+ + r-) term in the lattice energy
equation. Thus, the changes in lattice energy become less significant down the group.

Enthalpy of Solution Relation

The relationship between the enthalpy of solution (Hsoln ), enthalpy of hydration (Hhyd ), and lattice energy (
​ ​

HLE ) is given by:

​

Hsoln = Hhyd + HLE

​ ​ ​

When Hsoln changes from negative to positive, the compound becomes more insoluble.
​

Specific Cases of Group 2 Sulphates

 Beryllium (BeSO4) and Magnesium (MgSO4):

Have exothermic Hsoln values, making them soluble in water.

​

Calcium (CaSO4), Strontium (SrSO4), and Barium (BaSO4):

Have endothermic Hsoln values, thus are sparingly soluble in water.

​

🔄 Born-Haber Cycle
Definition and Purpose
The Born-Haber Cycle is a thermodynamic cycle used to calculate the lattice energy of ionic compounds.
It relates various enthalpy changes involved in forming ionic solids from gaseous ions.

Key Components of the Cycle

1. Lattice Energy (HLE ): The energy change when gaseous ions form a solid lattice.
​

2. Enthalpy of Formation (Hf ): The energy change when a compound forms from its elements.
​

3. Enthalpy of Atomization (Hatom ): The energy required to separate an element into its gaseous atoms.
​

4. Ionization Energy (HIE ): The energy required to remove an electron from an atom or ion.
​

5. Electron Affinity (HEA ): The energy change when an electron is added to an atom.
​

Essential Enthalpy Changes

Enthalpy Change Type Description Sign

Hf ​ Standard enthalpy change of formation Exothermic

Hatom ​
Enthalpy change of atomization Endothermic

HIE ​ Enthalpy change of ionization energy Endothermic

HEA ​ Enthalpy change of electron affinity 1st: Exothermic, 2nd: Endothermic

General Equation for Lattice Energy

To relate the enthalpy changes, the following equation is used:

Hf = HLE + [Hatom metal + Hatom non−metal + HIE metal + HEA non−metal ]

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Constructing the Born-Haber Cycle

To construct a Born-Haber cycle, we need to use the above enthalpy changes to calculate the lattice energy
based on known values.

Example: Sodium Chloride (N aCl)

Atomization Energies:

Sodium: +108 kJ/mol

 Chlorine: +121 kJ/mol
Ionization Energy:

Sodium: +494 kJ/mol

Electron Affinity:

Chlorine: -364 kJ/mol

Enthalpy of Formation:

Hf (N aCl) = 411 kJ/mol

​

Using the above values, we can determine the lattice energy.

Example: Calcium Chloride (CaCl2 ) ​

Atomization Energies:

Calcium: +132 kJ/mol

Chlorine: +121 kJ/mol

Ionization Energies:

Calcium: +590 kJ/mol (1st), +1150 kJ/mol (2nd)

Electron Affinity:

Chlorine: -364 kJ/mol

Using these values, one would follow the same process to find the lattice energy for CaCl2 . ​

Practice Problems
1. Calculate the lattice energy for Calcium Sulphide (CaS ) using the provided atomization and ionization
energy values.
2. Construct the Born-Haber Cycle for Magnesium Oxide (M gO ) and calculate its lattice energy based on
given values.

Note on Lattice Energy Calculation

The lattice energy can be calculated by rearranging the general equation for Hf based on the known values
​

and solving for HLE . ​

🔬 Lattice Energy and Stability

Lattice Energy Comparison
The stability of ionic compounds can be compared through their lattice energies.
Key Points:

MgO is more stable than NaCl due to:

Higher charges on magnesium and oxide ions compared to sodium and chloride ions.
Lattice energies of oxides are generally higher than those of chlorides.
🔥 Enthalpy Calculations
Standard Combustion Enthalpies
Standard combustion enthalpies for various compounds:

1,2-ethanediol (HOCH2CH2OH): 1180.0 kJ mol−1

Carbon: 393.7 kJ mol−1
Hydrogen: 285.9 kJ mol−1

Standard Formation Enthalpy Calculation

To find the standard formation enthalpy for 1,2-ethanediol, consider the following options:

A) 500.4 kJ mol−1
B) 465.1 kJ mol−1
C) +465.1 kJ mol−1
D) +500.4 kJ mol−1

Lattice Energy and Ion Size

A table showing sizes and charges of ions helps in understanding lattice energy:

Ion Radius (nm) Charge

U 0.181 +1

V 0.135 +2

W 0.151 +2

X 0.169 +1

Y 0.182 +1

Z 0.065 +2

Ascending Order of Lattice Energy

The correct ascending order of lattice energy for the ions can be represented by the following options:

A) U X < UY < WZ
B) U X < W Z < VY
C) U Y < UX < WZ
D) VY < UX < WZ

📊 Born-Haber Cycle
Calculation of Lattice Energy
 The Born-Haber cycle can be used for calculating lattice energy of calcium oxide. The following are the
elements involved:

Enthalpy of hydration
Enthalpy of ionization
Enthalpy of atomization
Electron affinity

Activation Energy
For the reaction between nitrogen monoxide and ozone, the thermochemical equation is: NO (g) +
O3 (g) → NO2 (g) + O2 (g)
​ ​ ​ ΔH = 200.0 kJ
If the activation energy of the reaction is 10.5 kJ mol−1 , the activation energy of the reverse reaction can be
found through:

A) 10.5 kJ mol−1
B) 189.5 kJ mol−1
C) 200.0 kJ mol−1
D) 210.5 kJ mol−1

🧪 Acid-Base Reactions
Neutralization Reactions
The standard enthalpy of neutralization for reactions with sodium hydroxide and hydrohalic acids are as
follows:

Acid ΔHneut (kJ mol−1 )

​

Hydrochloric acid -68.6

HF -57.6

HCl -57.3

HBr -57.2

The most negative standard enthalpy of neutralization of HF indicates it has the strongest acid due to factors
such as bond strength and electronegativity.

🔄 Reactions and Enthalpy Changes

Standard Enthalpy of Formation
The standard enthalpy of formation of several compounds is given below:
 Compound ΔHf (kJ mol−1 )
​

CH3NHNH2 +53

CO2 -393

H2O -286

Reaction Enthalpy Calculation

For the reaction: 4CH3 NHNH2 (l) + 5N2 O4 (l)
​ ​ ​ ​ → 4CO2 (g) + 12H2 O(l) + 9N2 (g)
​ ​ ​

The calculated standard enthalpy of formation for N2 O4 can be represented by:

​ ​

A) -20 kJ mol−1

B) -100 kJ mol−1
C) +20 kJ mol−1

D) +100 kJ mol−1

Reaction Between Ethanoic Acid and Ethanol

The standard enthalpy change for the preparation of ethanoic acid from ethanol is determined as follows:

A) 1051

B) 495
C) 209

D) +495

🧊 Solubility and Enthalpy

Solubility of Salts

The enthalpies of solution for magnesium chloride and sodium chloride are given as follows:

MgCl2: -106 kJ mol−1

NaCl: +3.9 kJ mol−1

From this data, we can deduce:

A) Mg2+ has higher hydration energy than Na+ .

B) MgCl2 is more soluble at higher temperatures.

C) MgCl2 has higher lattice energy than NaCl.

D) NaCl is more soluble than MgCl2.

🔥 Thermochemistry Concepts
Born-Haber Cycle
Magnesium Oxide
 The Born-Haber cycle for magnesium oxide involves several enthalpy changes. The correct correspondences
for the reactions involved are:

A: Enthalpy of vaporization, Ionization energy, Lattice energy, Enthalpy of combustion

B: Enthalpy of atomization, Ionization energy, Enthalpy of combustion, Enthalpy of formation

C: Enthalpy of atomization, Electron affinity, Lattice energy, Enthalpy of formation

D: Ionization energy, Electron affinity, Enthalpy of formation, Enthalpy of combustion

Reaction Enthalpies
Ethane and Chlorine Reaction

The reaction of C2 H6 with Cl2 forms C2 H5 Cl and HCl under standard conditions.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Given:

Standard enthalpy of formation of HCl = 92 kJ mol−1

Standard enthalpy of formation of C2 H5 Cl ​ = 137 kJ mol−1
Standard enthalpy change for the reaction = 144 kJ mol−1
Deductions:

A: C2 H5 Cl is less stable than C2 H6 .

​ ​ ​ ​

B: Standard enthalpy of formation of Cl2 ​ = 0 kJ mol−1 .

C: Standard enthalpy of formation of C2 H6 ​ ​ = +85 kJ mol−1 .
D: Standard enthalpy of combustion of C2 H5 Cl ​ ​ = 85 kJ mol−1 .

Lattice Energy and Enthalpy of Formation

YCl2 Lattice Energy

The lattice energy of Y Cl2 ​ = 2524 kJ mol−1 .

The thermochemical equations for formation of gaseous Cl− and Y 2+ are:

½Cl2 (g) + e− → Cl− (g) H = 228 kJ mol−1

​

Y (s) → Y 2+ (g) + 2e− H = +2334 kJ mol−1

To calculate the standard enthalpy of formation for Y Cl2 , evaluate options: ​

A: 418 kJ mol−1
B: 646 kJ mol−1
C: +418 kJ mol−1
D: +646 kJ mol−1

Standard Enthalpy of Combustion and Formation

Combustion Reactions

The following represent standard enthalpies of combustion and formation:

A: C(s) + O2 (g) ​ → CO2 (g) ​

B: H2 (g) + ½O2 (g)

​ ​ → H2 O(l) ​

C: S(s) + O2 (g) ​ → SO2 (g) ​

 D: M g(s) + ½O2 (g) ​ → M gO(s)

Enthalpies of Formation Data

Thermochemical Data for SO2, CO2, and CS2

Standard enthalpies of formation:

SO2 = 298 kJ mol−1

​

CO2 = 395 kJ mol−1

​

CS2 = +119 kJ mol−1

​

Deductions:

A: Standard enthalpy of combustion of SO2 ​ = 298 kJ mol−1 .

B: Standard enthalpy of combustion of CS2 ​ = 812 kJ mol−1 .
C: CS2 is more stable than CO2 under standard conditions.
​ ​

D: Combustion of sulfur is more exothermic than that of carbon under standard conditions.

Enthalpy of Solution
NH4Cl Dissolution

When 7.91 g of N H4 Cl is dissolved in 100 g of water, the temperature decreases by 5.2 °C.
​

Given:

Specific heat capacity of solution = 4.2 J g−1 °C−1

Molar mass of N H4 Cl ​ = 53.5 g mol−1
Deductions for enthalpy of solution:

A: +0.173 kJ mol−1
B: +1.17 kJ mol−1
C: +2.18 kJ mol−1
D: +14.8 kJ mol−1

Bond Energy Calculation

Bond Energy of H2

Given:

Standard enthalpy of formation of CH4 ​ = −75 kJ mol−1

Standard enthalpies of atomization:

C = +715 kJ mol−1

CH4 = +1664kJmol−1
​

Options for bond energy of H2 : ​

A: +219 kJ mol−1

B: +437 kJ mol−1
C: +512 kJ mol−1

D: +874 kJ mol−1
Enthalpy Changes in Reactions
Reversible Reaction

The enthalpy change H and activation energy Ea for the reaction:

​

CO(g) + N O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + NO(g)

​ ​

−1
H = 226 kJ mol
Ea = +134 kJ mol−1
​

Truths about the reaction:

A: Ea value remains unchanged with pressure.

​

B: The H value of the reverse reaction is 92 kJ mol−1 .

C: The forward reaction is an endothermic reaction.

D: The amount of CO2 and NO produced increases when temperature increases.

​

Ionic Compounds and Lattice Energy

Most Exothermic Lattice Energy

Comparisons of ionic compounds:

A: N a2 O ​

B: K2 O ​

C: M gO

D: CaO

Hydration and Charge Density

MgCl2 Lattice Energy and Hydration

Lattice energy of M gCl2 ​ = 2489 kJ mol−1

Enthalpies of hydration:

M g 2+ = 1891 kJ mol−1
Cl− = 381 kJ mol−1
Truths about the information:

A: The enthalpy of solution of M gCl2 is 217 ​ kJ mol−1 .

B: The charge density of M g 2+ is higher than that of Cl− .
C: The lattice energy of CaCl2 is more exothermic than that of M gCl2 .
​ ​

D: The solubility of M gCl2 in water decreases when temperature decreases.

​

🔥 Thermochemistry Concepts
Standard Enthalpy of Combustion
The standard enthalpy of combustion is the enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is completely
burned in oxygen under standard conditions.
Example Problem: Enthalpy of Combustion of Carbon Monoxide

Given the standard enthalpies of formation:

Carbon monoxide (CO): Hf∘ ​ = −111 kJ mol−1

Carbon dioxide (CO2): Hf∘ ​ = −394 kJ mol−1

To find the enthalpy of combustion of carbon monoxide:

The reaction for combustion of carbon monoxide can be written as: 2 CO + O2 → 2 CO2
​ ​

The enthalpy change can be calculated as: ΔH = Hf∘ (products) − Hf∘ (reactants)
​ ​

The options provided were:

A. +172 kJ mol-1
B. 283 kJ mol-1

C. 505 kJ mol-1

D. 616 kJ mol-1

Thermochemical Equations

A thermochemical equation for a hypothetical compound QO2 is given:

QO2 (g) → Q(g) + 2O(g)

​ H = +160 kJ

True statements about this equation include:

A. The bond energy of QO in QO2 is +160 kJ mol-1.

B. The standard atomisation energy of QO2 is +160 kJ mol-1.

C. The standard enthalpy of combustion of Q is 160 kJ mol-1.

D. The standard enthalpy of formation of QO2 is 160 kJ mol-1.

Energy Cycles
An energy cycle can help determine the standard enthalpy change, noted as Hox . The options for Hox ​ ​

include:

A. Hf∘ (CO2 (g)) + 2Hf∘ (H2 O (l))

​ ​ ​

∘ ∘
B. Hoc (CO2 (g)) + 2Hoc
​ (H2 O(l))
​ ​ ​

C. Hf∘ (CO2 (g)), 2Hf∘ (H2 O (l)) + Hf∘ (N2 (g))

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

∘ ∘ ∘
D. Hoatom (C(s)), Hoatom
​ (N2 (g)), 2Hoatom (H2 (g))
​ ​ ​ ​

Lattice and Hydration Energies

Carbonate Lattice Energy (kJ mol-1) Hydration Energy (kJ mol-1)

P 257 245
 Carbonate Lattice Energy (kJ mol-1) Hydration Energy (kJ mol-1)

Q 256 174

R 143 156

True statements regarding carbonates include:

A. The cation of Q is smaller than the cation of P.

B. The cation of P and Q have similar charge density.

C. P is the most soluble carbonate.

D. P, Q, and R are carbonates in the same group.

Enthalpy Changes for Combustion

The standard enthalpies of combustion for various substances are:

Hc∘ (H2 ) = 286 kJ mol−1

​ ​

Hc∘ (C6 H10 ) = 3754 kJ mol−1

​ ​ ​

Hc∘ (C6 H12 ) = 3920 kJ mol−1

​ ​ ​

To find the standard enthalpy change for the conversion of C6 H10 to C6 H12 : ​ ​ ​ ​

Options:

A. 452 kJ

B. 120 kJ
C. +166 kJ

D. +406 kJ

Born-Haber Cycle

The Born-Haber cycle is essential for calculating lattice energy. The enthalpy changes involved can be either
positive or negative.

For sodium chloride, the enthalpy changes with negative values could include:

A. H1 and H2​ ​

B. H1 and H5
​ ​

C. H3 and H4 ​ ​

D. H4 and H5 ​ ​

Dissolution Processes
For sodium hydroxide in water:

A. The reaction is an exothermic reaction.

B. The reaction involves ions and water.

 C. The hydration energy is lower than the lattice energy.

D. The rate of dissolution depends on the bond energy.

Calculation Example: Enthalpy Change of Solution

1. Problem Statement: When hydrogen chloride gas is dissolved in water, the temperature of the water
increased by 0.48°C. The hydrochloric acid formed requires 27.00 cm³ of a 1.00 mol dm³ aqueous solution of
sodium hydroxide for complete neutralization. The total heat capacity of the calorimeter and water is 4.05 ×
103 J °C−1 .

2. Calculate the enthalpy change of solution of hydrogen chloride in water.

Factors Influencing Enthalpy Change

The factors that determine the enthalpy change of solution include:

Nature of solute and solvent

Temperature
Pressure

Concentration

Additional Example Problems

1. Hydrogenation of 1,3-butadiene:

Reaction: C4 H6
​ ​ + 2H2 → C4 H10
​ ​ ​

Calculate the standard enthalpy of hydrogenation.

2. Homolytic Dissociation of Methane:

Reaction: CH4 ​ + Cl → CH3 + HCl

​

Calculate the standard enthalpy of reaction.

Lattice Energy Calculations

1. Born-Haber cycle for calcium chloride:

Given values for ionization energy, enthalpy changes, and formation, draw the cycle and calculate lattice
energy.

Enthalpy of Atomisation

Define the enthalpy of atomisation, which is the energy required to convert one mole of a substance into its
gaseous atoms.

Example for silicon tetrachloride:

Calculate the enthalpy of atomisation using given data.

Stability Comparison
Compare the stabilities of ionic compounds such as CaCl2 and CaO in terms of lattice energy and ion size.

Reaction Enthalpy for Ethanol Production

Given the reaction of ethene and steam to form ethanol, calculate the standard enthalpy change using
provided combustion values.

🌡️ Thermochemistry Concepts
Hess' Law

"Hess' Law states that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is the same, regardless of the number of steps
the reaction takes."

Standard Enthalpy of Formation

Definition: The standard enthalpy of formation (ΔHf∘ ) of a compound is the change in enthalpy when one
​

mole of the compound is formed from its elements in their standard states.

Equations for Standard Enthalpy of Formation

1. Sulphur Dioxide (SO2 ):​

The reaction for the formation of SO2 can be written as:

​

S(s) + O2 (g) → SO2 (g)

​ ​

2. Sulphur Trioxide (SO3 ): ​

The reaction for the formation of SO3 can be written as:

​

3
S(s) + O2 (g) → SO3 (g)
2
​ ​ ​

Enthalpy Cycle for Reaction

To determine the enthalpy change for the reaction:

2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g)

​ ​ ​

Steps:

1. Start with the enthalpy of formation values:

ΔHf∘ (SO2 ) = −ΔH1 (value to be determined)

​ ​ ​

ΔHf∘ (SO3 ) = −395 kJ mol−1

​ ​

2. Construct the cycle:

 Reaction Enthalpy Change

Formation of SO2 ​ ΔH1 ​

Formation of SO3 ​ −395 kJ mol−1

Overall Reaction ΔH = 2ΔHf∘ (SO3 ) − 2ΔHf∘ (SO2 )

​ ​ ​ ​

Standard Enthalpy of Combustion

Definition: The standard enthalpy of combustion (ΔHc∘ ) of a substance is the heat change that results when
​

one mole of the substance is burned completely in oxygen under standard conditions.

Example: Glucose (C6 H12 O6 ) ​ ​ ​

1. Standard Enthalpy of Formation:

ΔHf∘ (C6 H12 O6 ) = 1214.4 kJ mol−1

​ ​ ​ ​

ΔHf∘ (CO2 ) = −393.5 kJ mol−1

​ ​

ΔHf∘ (H2 O) = −285.8 kJ mol−1

​ ​

2. Constructing an Enthalpy Cycle:

Component Value (kJ mol−1 )

Glucose 1214.4

Carbon Dioxide −393.5

Water −285.8

Photosynthesis Reaction

1. Reaction Equation:

light
6CO2 (g) + 6H2 O(l)
​ ​ ​ C6 H12 O6 (s) + 6O2 (g)
​ ​ ​ ​

2. Enthalpy Change:

The enthalpy change is positive as it requires energy input (light).

Enthalpy Cycle for Calcium Chloride

Step Value (kJ mol−1 )

Atomization of Calcium +177

Atomization of Chlorine +121

First Ionization Energy +590

 Step Value (kJ mol−1 )

Second Ionization Energy +1100

Electron Affinity of Chlorine −364

Standard Enthalpy of Formation −795

Factors Affecting Enthalpy of Hydration

1. Charge of Ion: Higher charge increases enthalpy of hydration.

2. Size of Ion: Smaller ions have higher hydration enthalpies due to higher charge density.

Solubility Predictions
NaCl vs. AgCl:

ΔHsol (NaCl) = 775 kJ mol−1

​

ΔHsol (AgCl) = 910 kJ mol−1

​

Enthalpy of Solution
General Formula:

ΔHsol = ΔHlattice + ΔHhydration

​ ​ ​

Comparing Enthalpy of Solution

AgCl vs. AgBr:

Enthalpy of solution for AgCl is more exothermic than that for AgBr due to differences in lattice energies
and hydration enthalpies.

Heat of Neutralisation
Definition: The heat change that occurs when one mole of water is produced from the reaction of an acid
with a base.

Calculating Standard Enthalpy of Neutralisation

1. Given Data:

Initial temperature: 20.5 \, ^\circ C

Final temperature after reaction: 31.8 \, ^\circ C

Specific heat capacity of water: 4.18 \, \text{J g}^{-1} \, ^\circ C

2. Calculation Steps:

Use the formula q = mcΔT to find the heat released during the reaction.

Energy Cycle for Sodium Hydroxide

 1. Formation Equation:

1 1
Na(s) + Cl2 (g) + H2 (g) → NaOH(s)
2 2
​ ​ ​ ​

2. Calculate ΔHf∘ of NaOH:

​

Use energy cycle relationships to determine unknowns in the cycle.

Differences in Lattice Energy

Factors:

1. Ionic Size: Smaller ions lead to higher lattice energy.

2. Charge: Higher charges increase lattice energy.

Standard Enthalpy Change of Formation for Strontium Carbonate

1. Starting with Reaction:

SrO(s) + CO2 (g) → SrCO3 (s)

​ ​

2. Calculations:

Combine enthalpy changes to calculate the overall change for formation.