CTFT CTFT

Chirayu Athalye Chirayu Athalye

Basics of CTFT Basics of CTFT

CTFT Properties CTFT Properties

CTFT Pairs CTFT Pairs

Frequency Response of
CTFT Frequency Response of
Continuous-Time Fourier Transform (CTFT) LTI Systems LTI Systems

References
Z ∞ References

Appendix
Analysis Equation: X (iω) := x(t) e −iωt dt; Appendix
−∞
Chirayu D. Athalye Z ∞
1
Synthesis Equation: x(t) = X (iω) e iωt dω.
2π −∞
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,
BITS Pilani, K K Birla Goa Campus. F CT F T
CTFT Pair: x(t) ←−
−→ X (iω) or x(t) ←−−−→ X (iω).
2025

CTFT CTFT
Convergence of CTFT Dirichlet Conditions for CTFT
Chirayu Athalye Chirayu Athalye

Let x : R → C.
Z ∞ Basics of CTFT Z ∞ Basics of CTFT
1 iωt
e(t) := x(t) − X (iω) e dω. CTFT Properties Condition-1: x(·) is absolutely integrable, i.e., |x(t)| dt < ∞. CTFT Properties
2π −∞ CTFT Pairs
−∞ CTFT Pairs

Frequency Response of Condition-2: Over any finite interval, x(·) has finitely many isolated/strict local maxima and Frequency Response of

Theorem (CTFT: Mean Square Convergence)

LTI Systems
minima.1 LTI Systems

References References
Z ∞ Condition-3: Over any finite interval, x(·) has finitely many discontinuities of finite size.
Appendix Appendix
Suppose x : R → C has finite energy, i.e., |x(t)|2 dt < ∞. Then,
−∞
1 X (iω) < ∞ for all ω ∈ R, i.e., the integral in analysis equation converges. Theorem (CTFT: Pointwise Convergence)
Z ∞ If Dirichlet conditions are satisfied, then
2 |e(t)|2 dt = 0. (Mean square convergence for the synthesis equation) 1 X (iω) < ∞ for all ω ∈ R.
−∞
2 x(·) is equal to its CTFT representation at all points where x(·) is continuous.
Remark 3 At the points of discontinuity, the CTFT representation converges to the
Z ∞average of values
1 iωt
on either side of the discontinuity. (CTFT Representation: X (iω) e dω )
1 Even if x(·) satisfy the Dirichlet conditions, the synthesis equation of CTFT converges in 2π −∞
the mean square sense.
2 Physical systems respond to input signal’s energy. Therefore, in case mean square Remark: If x(·) is a continuous function with compact support, then its CTFT representation
convergence, an input signal x(·) and its CTFT representation are indistinguishable. converges everywhere.
1
Equivalently, x(·) is piecewise monotonic (with a finite number of sections) over any finite interval.
 CTFT CTFT

Chirayu Athalye Chirayu Athalye

Remark Basics of CTFT Linearity Basics of CTFT

Using Dirac delta (impulse) function, it is possible to find CTFT of certain bounded CTFT Properties
F F CTFT Properties

signals which are neither square integrable nor absolutely integrable. CTFT Pairs
If x1 (t) ←−
−→ X1 (iω) and x2 (t) ←−
−→ X2 (iω), then CTFT Pairs

Frequency Response of F Frequency Response of

In this case, CTFT X : R → Ce , where Ce is the extended complex plane. LTI Systems a x1 (t) + b x2 (t) ←−
−→ a X1 (iω) + b X2 (iω), LTI Systems

References where a, b ∈ C. References

Necessary Conditions for CTFT Appendix Appendix

1 If CTFT exists for x : R → C, then x(·) is a bounded signal. Time Shifting and Frequency Shifting
2 Moreover, if CTFT is finite valued, then lim x(t) = lim x(t) = 0. F F
t→∞ t→−∞ Time Shifting: If x(t) ←−−→ X (iω), then x(t − λ) ←− −→ e −iωλ X (iω), where λ ∈ R.
F F
−→ X (iω), then e iω1 t x(t) ←−


Frequency Shifting: If x(t) ←− −→ X i(ω − ω1 ) , where ω1 ∈ R.
CTFT of Periodic Signals (Relation Between CTFT and CFS)
2π
Let x : R → C be periodic with the fundamental period T ; thus, ω0 = T
. Parseval’s Relation
∞ ∞ Z ∞ Z ∞
F 1 2
|x(t)|2 dt =
X X
x(t) = ak e ikω0 t ←−
−→ X (iω) = 2π ak δ(ω − kω0 ). X (iω) dω
−∞ 2π −∞
k=−∞ k=−∞

CTFT CTFT

x(t) ←−
F
−→ X (iω) and
F
y (t) ←−
−→ Y (iω). Chirayu Athalye
Time Scaling Chirayu Athalye

F 1  iω 
Differentiation and Integration Basics of CTFT x(αt) ←−
−→ X , where α ∈ R. Basics of CTFT

CTFT Properties
|α| α CTFT Properties
FS
Differentiation: x 0 (t) ←−
−→ iω X (iω). CTFT Pairs CTFT Pairs

Z t Frequency Response of Conjugation Frequency Response of

LTI Systems LTI Systems
Integration: If y (t) = x(t) dt ∀n ∈ Z, then F F
−∞
References −→ X (iω), then x ∗ (t) ←−
If x(t) ←− −→ X ∗ (−iω). References

Appendix Appendix
X (iω)
Y (iω) = + πX (0) δ(ω),
iω Conjugate Symmetry for Real-Valued Signals
where the impulse reflects the dc or average value that can result from integration. 1 If x(t) is a real-valued sequence, then X (iω) = X ∗ (−iω). Note that
X (iω) = X ∗ (−iω) ⇐⇒ X (−iω) = X ∗ (iω).
Differentiation in Frequency Domain
Therefore,
F dX

t x(t) ←−
−→ i (iω) a Re X (iω) and X (iω) are even functions; whereas,
dω

b Im X (iω) and ]X (iω) are odd functions.

F
F
Time Reversal and Duality



Furthermore, Ev x(t) ←−
−→ Re X (iω) and Od x(t) ←−
−→ i Im X (iω) .
F
Time Reversal: x(−t) ←−
−→ X (−iω). 2 If x(t) is real and even, then X (iω) is real and even.
F
Duality: y (τ ) = X (iτ ) ←−
−→ Y (iω) = 2π x(−ω). 3 If x(t) is real and odd, then X (iω) is purely imaginary and odd.
 CTFT CTFT

Chirayu Athalye Chirayu Athalye

Basics of CTFT Basics of CTFT

Signal CTFT
CTFT Properties CTFT Properties

CTFT Pairs CTFT Pairs

F F 1. δ(t) 1
x(t) ←−
−→ X (iω) and v (t) ←−
−→ V (iω). Frequency Response of Frequency Response of
LTI Systems LTI Systems
2. δ(t − τ ) e −iωτ
References References
Convolution Property Appendix 1 Appendix
3. u(t) + π δ(ω)
F iω
y (t) = (x ∗ v )(t) ←−
−→ Y (iω) = X (iω) V (iω).
1
4. e −at u(t), Re(a) > 0
a + iω
Multiplication/Modulation Property 1
5. e at u(−t), Re(a) > 0
F 1
a − iω
y (t) = x(t) v (t) ←−
−→ Y (iω) = X ∗ V (iω).
2π 1
6. te −at u(t), Re(a) > 0
(a + iω)2
t n−1 1
7. (n−1)!
e −at u(t), Re(a) > 0
(a + iω)n

2π CTFT CTFT
For periodic signals (with the fundamental period T ), ω0 = T
.
Chirayu Athalye Example Chirayu Athalye

Signal CTFT CFS Basics of CTFT Let x(t) := e −a|t| . Notice that Basics of CTFT

CTFT Properties −at at CTFT Properties

( x(t) = e u(t) + e u(−t).
1, if k = 0 CTFT Pairs CTFT Pairs
1. x(t) := 1 2π δ(ω) ak =
0, otherwise Frequency Response of 2a Frequency Response of
LTI Systems Therefore, X (iω) = 2 . LTI Systems
∞ ∞ References
a + ω2 References
X X
2. x(t) = ak e ikω0 t 2π ak δ(ω − kω0 ) ak 2a F
Appendix
Moreover, by the duality property, −→ 2π e −a|ω|
←− Appendix
k=−∞ k=−∞ a2 + t 2
(
1, if k = 1
3. e iω0 t 2π δ(ω − ω0 ) ak = Normalized sinc Function
0, otherwise

1
, if k = 1
2


ak = 12 ,
 
4. cos(ω0 t) π δ(ω − ω0 ) + δ(ω + ω0 ) if k = −1
 sin(πt) ,

 
0, otherwise if t 6= 0,
 sinc(t) := πt
1
, if k = 1 1, if t = 0.

 2i


π  −1
4. sin(ω0 t) δ(ω − ω0 ) − δ(ω + ω0 ) ak = , if k = −1
i  2i

0, otherwise
 CTFT CTFT

Chirayu Athalye x(t) h(t) y (t) X (iω) H(iω) Y (iω) Chirayu Athalye

Basics of CTFT (a) Time Domain (b) Frequency Domain Basics of CTFT

CTFT Properties CTFT Properties

Example CTFT Pairs
Figure: CT-LTI (Continuous LSI) System CTFT Pairs
(
Frequency Response of Frequency Response of
1, if |t| < 1, LTI Systems Frequency Response and Eigenfunction Property of CT-LTI Systems LTI Systems
The rectangular pulse is given by rect(t) :=
0, if |t| > 1. References
F
References

Appendix
1 Consider a CT-LTI system with the impulse response h : R → C. Let h(t) ←−
−→ H(iω). Appendix
Its CTFT is
The output of this system to an input signal x : R → C is given by
(
∞ 1 2 sin(ω) 2
if ω 6= 0,
Z Z
,
rect(t) e iωt dt = e iωt dt = ω
−∞ −1 2, if ω = 0. y (t) = (h ∗ x)(t) ∀t ∈ R.

F
ω 3 Therefore, using the convolution property of CTFT, we have
Therefore, rect(t) ←−
−→ 2 sinc .
π Y (iω) = H(iω) X (iω),
t 
F
Furthermore, by the duality property, sinc ←−
−→ π rect(ω) where H(iω) is the Frequency Response of the CT-LTI system.
π
4 For the input signal x(t) := e iω1 t , where ω1 ∈ R, the output is given by
Z ∞
y (t) = h(τ ) e iω1 (t−τ ) dτ = H(iω 1 ) e iω1 t ∀t ∈ R.
−∞

Therefore, x(t) := e iω1 t is an eigenfunction of CT-LTI Systems.

CTFT
Homework Chirayu Athalye
Consider a CT-LTI system with the impulse response h : R → R.
Basics of CTFT
F
Let h(t) ←−
−→ H(iω), and θ(ω) := ]H(iω). CTFT Properties

Show that for the input x(t) := a cos(ω1 t + φ), where a, ω1 , φ ∈ R, the output is given by CTFT Pairs

Frequency Response of
y (t) = a H(iω 1 ) cos ω1 t + φ + θ(ω1 ) ∀t ∈ R. LTI Systems

References

Appendix
Example (Analog Ideal LPF)
ωc ω t 
c F

h(t) = sinc ←−
−→ H(iω) = rect ω/ωc
π π

(a) Impulse Response (b) Frequency Response

Figure: Ideal Lowpass Filter (LPF)