EN-202

Fall 2024

Dr. Farrukh Khalid

School of Energy Science and Engineering
IITG

© McGraw Hill LLC

 3–1 Pure Substance
Pure substance: A substance that has a fixed chemical
composition throughout. Air is a mixture of several gases, but
it is considered to be a pure substance.

Figure 3–1
Nitrogen and gaseous air are pure Figure 3–2
substances. A mixture of liquid and gaseous water is
a pure substance, but a mixture of liquid
and gaseous air is not.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 2

 3–2 Phases of a Pure Substance

Figure 3–4
The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a)
molecules are at relatively fixed positions in a solid, (b)
Figure 3–3 groups of molecules move about each other in the liquid
The molecules in a solid phase, and (c) molecules move about at random in the
are kept at their positions gas phase..
by the large springlike inter-
molecular forces.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 3

 3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure
Substances 1

Compressed liquid (subcooled liquid): A substance that it

is not about to vaporize

Figure 3–5
At 1 atm and 20°C, water exists in the liquid phase (compressed or subcooled liquid).
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 4

 3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure
Substances 2

Saturated liquid: A liquid that is about to vaporize

Figure 3–6
At 1 atm pressure and 100°C, water exists as a liquid that is ready to vaporize
(saturated liquid).
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 5

 3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure
Substances 3

Saturated liquid–vapor mixture: The state at which the

liquid and vapor phases coexist in equilibrium

Figure 3–7
As more heat is transferred, part of the saturated liquid vaporizes (saturated liquid–vapor
mixture).
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 6

 3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure
Substances 4

Saturated vapor: A vapor that is about to condense

Figure 3–8
At 1 atm pressure, the temperature remains constant at 100°C until the last drop of liquid is
vaporized (saturated vapor).
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 7

 3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure
Substances 5

Superheated vapor: A vapor that is not about to condense

(that is not a saturated vapor).

Figure 3–9
As more heat is transferred, the temperature of the vapor starts to rise (superheated vapor).
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 8

 3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure
Substances 6

If the entire process between

state 1 and 5 is reversed by
cooling the water while
maintaining the pressure at
the same value, the water will
go back to state 1, retracing
the same path, and in so
doing, the amount of heat
released will exactly match
the amount of heat added
during the heating process. Figure 3–10
T-v diagram for the heating process of
water at constant pressure.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 9

 3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure
Substances 7

Saturation Temperature and

Saturation Pressure
The temperature at which water starts
boiling depends on the pressure;
therefore, if the pressure is fixed, so is
the boiling temperature.
Water boils at 100°C at 1 atm pressure.
Saturation temperature T : The
sat

temperature at which a pure substance

changes phase at a given pressure.
Figure 3–11
Saturation pressure Psat : The The liquid–vapor saturation curve of
pressure at which a pure substance a pure substance (numerical values
are for water).
changes phase at a given temperature.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 10

 3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure
Substances 8

Table 3–1 Saturation (or Temperature T, °C Saturation pressure Psat, kPa

vapor) pressure of water −10 0.260

at various temperatures −5 0.403

0 0.611
5 0.872
10 1.23
15 1.71
20 2.34
25 3.17
30 4.25
40 7.38
50 12.35
100 101.3 (1 atm)
150 475.8
200 1554
250 3973
300 8581

© McGraw Hill LLC 11

 3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure
Substances 9

Latent heat: The amount of energy absorbed Table 3–2 Variation of the
or released during a phase-change process. standard atmospheric pressure
and the boiling (saturation)
Latent heat of fusion: The amount of energy
temperature of water with
absorbed during melting. It is equivalent to the
altitude
amount of energy released during freezing.
Elevation, m Atmospheric Boiling
Latent heat of vaporization: The amount of pressure, kPa temperature,
energy absorbed during vaporization and it is °C

equivalent to the energy released during 0 101.33 100.0

condensation. The magnitudes of the latent 1,000 89.55 96.5

heats depend on the temperature or pressure
2,000 79.50 93.3
at which the phase change occurs.
5,000 54.05 83.3
At 1 atm pressure, the latent heat of fusion of
water is 334 kJ/kg and the latent heat of 10,000 26.50 66.3

vaporization is 2257 kJ/kg. 20,000 5.53 34.7

The atmospheric pressure, and thus the

boiling temperature of water, decreases with
elevation.
© McGraw Hill LLC 12
 3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure
Substances 10

Some Consequences of Tsat and Psat Dependence

Figure 3–12
The temperature of liquid nitrogen exposed to the atmosphere remains constant at −196°C,
and thus it maintains the test chamber at −196°C.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 13

 3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure
Substances 11

Figure 3–13
The variation of the temperature of fruits and vegetables with pressure during vacuum
cooling from 25°C to 0°C.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 14

 3–3 Phase-Change Processes of Pure
Substances 12

Figure 3–14
In 17 75, ice was made by evacuating the airspace in a water tank.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 15

 3–4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change
Processes 1

The variations of
properties during phase-
change processes are
best studied and
understood with the help
of property diagrams
such as the T-v, P-v, and
P-T diagrams for pure
substances.

Figure 3–15
T-v diagram of constant-pressure phase-
change processes of a pure substance at
various pressures (numerical values are for
water).
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 16

 3–4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change
Processes 2

Critical point: The point at

which the saturated liquid and
saturated vapor states are
identical.

Figure 3–16
At supercritical pressures ( P  Pa ) ,
there is no distinct phase-change
(boiling) process.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 17

 3–4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change
Processes 3

Saturated liquid line

Saturated vapor line
Compressed liquid region
Saturated liquid–vapor
mixture region (wet region)
Superheated vapor region

Figure 3–17
Property diagrams of a pure substance.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 18

 3–4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change
Processes 4

Figure 3–18
The pressure in a piston–cylinder
device can be reduced by reducing
Figure 3–17 the weight of the piston.
Property diagrams of a pure substance.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 19

 3–4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change
Processes 5

Extending the Diagrams to Include the Solid Phase

Figure 3–19
P-v diagrams of different substances.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 20

 3–4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change
Processes 6

For water,
Ttp = 0.01C
Ptp = 0.6117 kPa

Figure 3–20
At triple-point pressure and temperature, a
substance exists in three phases in equilibrium.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 21

 3–4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change
Processes 7

Sublimation: Passing from the solid phase directly into the

vapor phase.

Figure 3–21
At low pressures (below the triple-point value), solids evaporate without melting first
(sublimation).
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 22

 3–4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change
Processes 8

Phase diagram

Figure 3–22
P-T diagram of pure substances.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 23

 3–4 Property Diagrams for Phase-Change
Processes 9

The P-v-T surfaces present a great deal of information at once, but in a

thermodynamic analysis it is more convenient to work with two-
dimensional diagrams, such as the P-v and T-v diagrams.

Figure 3–23 Figure 3–24

P-v-T surface of a substance that contracts P-v-T surface of a substance that expands
on freezing. on freezing (like water).

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 24

 3–5 Property Tables 1

For most substances, the relationships among

thermodynamic properties are too complex to be expressed
by simple equations.
Therefore, properties are frequently presented in the form of
tables.
Some thermodynamic properties can be measured easily,
but others cannot and are calculated by using the relations
between them and measurable properties.
The results of these measurements and calculations are
presented in tables in a convenient format.

© McGraw Hill LLC 25

 3–5 Property Tables 2

Enthalpy—A Combination Property

h = u + Pv( kJ / kg )
H = U + PV ( kJ )

Figure 3–25 Figure 3–26

The combination u + Pv is often encountered The product pressure × volume has
in the analysis of control volumes. energy units.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 26

 3–5 Property Tables 3

Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor States

v f = specific volume of saturated liquid
v g = specific volume of saturated vapor
v fg = v g − v f

Table A–4: Saturation properties

of water under temperature.
Table A–5: Saturation properties
of water under pressure.
Figure 3–27
A partial list of Table A–4.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 27

 3–5 Property Tables 4

Enthalpy of vaporization, (Latent heat of vaporization) h fg

The amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit mass of

saturated liquid at a given temperature or pressure.
It represents the amount of energy needed to vaporize a unit
mass of saturated liquid at a given temperature or pressure.
It decreases as the temperature or pressure increases and
becomes zero at the critical point.

© McGraw Hill LLC 28

 3–5 Property Tables 5

Saturated liquid and saturated Figure 3–29

vapor states of water on T-v Schematic and P-v
and P-v diagrams. diagram for
Example 3–2.

Figure 3–30
Schematic and
P-v diagram for
Example 3–3.

Figure 3–28
Schematic and T-v diagram for
Example 3–1.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 29

 3–5 Property Tables 6

Saturated Liquid–Vapor Mixture Temperature and pressure are

dependent properties for a mixture.
Quality, x: The ratio of the mass of
vapor to the total mass of the
mixture.
Quality is between 0 and 1.
x = 0 saturated liquid
x = 1 saturated vapor
The properties of the saturated liquid
are the same whether it exists alone
or in a mixture with saturated vapor.
mvapor Figure 3–31
x= The relative amounts of liquid and vapor
mtotal phases in a saturated mixture are specified
mtotal = mliquid + mvapor = m f + mg by the quality x.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 30

 3–5 Property Tables 7

Figure 3–32
A two-phase system can be treated as a homogeneous mixture for convenience.

© McGraw Hill LLC 31

 3–5 Property Tables 8

V = V f + Vg
V = mV → mt Vavg = m f V f + m g Vg
m f = mt − mg → mt Vavg = ( mt − m g ) V f + m g Vg
v avg = (1 − x ) v f + x v g
v avg = v f = x v fg ( m3 / kg )
mg
v fg = v g − v f x=
mt
v avg − v f
x= Figure 3–33
v fg
Quality is related to the horizontal
uavg = u f + xu fg ( kJ/kg ) distances on P-v and T-v diagrams.

havg = h f + xh fg ( kJ/kg )
yavg = y f + xy fg y → v, u , or h y f  yavg  y g
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 32

 3–5 Property Tables 9

Figure 3–34
The v value of a saturated liquid–vapor mixture lies between the v f and v g
values at the specified T or P.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 33

 3–5 Property Tables 10

Saturated liquid-vapor mixture states on T-v and P-v diagrams.

Figure 3–35 Figure 3–36

Schematic and T-v diagram for Schematic and P-v diagram for Example
Example 3–4. 3–5.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 34

 3–5 Property Tables 11

Superheated Vapor
Compared to saturated vapor,
superheated vapor is characterized by
Lower pressures ( P  Psat at a given T )
Higher temperatures (T  Tsat at a given P )
Higher specific volumes ( v  v g at a given Por T )
Higher internal energies ( u  u g at a given Por T )
Higher enthalpies ( h  hg at a given P or T ) Figure 3–39
At a specified P,
In the region to the right of the saturated vapor line and superheated vapor exists
at temperatures above the critical point temperature, a at a higher h than the
substance exists as superheated vapor. saturated vapor Example
3–7).
In this region, temperature and pressure are
independent properties.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 35

 3–5 Property Tables 12

Figure 3–37
A partial listing of Table A–6.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 36

 3–5 Property Tables 13

Compressed Liquid Higher pressures ( P  Psat at a given T )

The compressed liquid Lower temperatures (T  Tsat at a given P )

properties depend on Lower specific volumes ( v  v f at a given P or T )
temperature much more
strongly than they do on Lower internal energies ( u  u f at a given P or T )
pressure. Lower enthalpies ( h  h f at a given Por T )
y  y f @T
Figure 3–41
y → v , u , or h Schematic and T-u
diagram for Example 3–8.
A more accurate relation for h
h  h f @ T + v f @ T ( P − Psat @ T )

Compressed liquid is
characterized by
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 37

 3–5 Property Tables 14

Figure 3–40
A compressed liquid may be approximated as a saturated liquid at the given temperature.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 38

 3–5 Property Tables 15

Figure 3–42
At a given P and T, a pure substance will exist as a compressed liquid if T  Tsat @ P.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 39

 3–5 Property Tables 16

Reference State and Reference Values

The values of u, h, and s cannot be measured directly, and they are calculated
from measurable properties using the relations between properties.
However, those relations give the changes in properties, not the values of
properties at specified states.
Therefore, we need to choose a convenient reference state and assign a value of
zero for a convenient property or properties at that state.
The reference state for water is 0.01°C and for R-134a is −40°C in tables.
Some properties may have negative values as a result of the reference state
chosen.
Sometimes different tables list different values for some properties at the same
state as a result of using a different reference state.
However, In thermodynamics we are concerned with the changes in properties,
and the reference state chosen is of no consequence in calculations.

© McGraw Hill LLC 40

 3–5 Property Tables 17

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 41

 3–6 The Ideal-Gas Equation of State 1

Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature,

and specific volume of a substance.
The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the gas
phase is the ideal-gas equation of state. This equation predicts the P-v-T
behavior of a gas quite accurately within some properly selected region.
T 
P = R 
V 
PV = RT Ideal gas equation of state 8.31447 kJ / kmol  K

Ru  8.31447 kPa  m 3
/ kmol  K
R= (kJ / kg  K or kPa  m3 / kg  K )
M 0.0831447 bar  m3 / kmol  K
Ru = 
R gas constant 1.98588 Btu / lbmol  R
M molar mass (kg/kmol) 10.7316 psia  ft 3 / lbmol  R

Ru universalgas constant 1545.37 ft  lbf / lbmol  R

© McGraw Hill LLC 42

 3–6 The Ideal-Gas Equation of State 2

Figure 3–43
Different substances have different gas constants.

© McGraw Hill LLC 43

 3–6 The Ideal-Gas Equation of State 3

Mass = Molar mass × Mole number

m = MN ( kg )
Various expressions of ideal gas
equation
V = m v → P V = mRT
mR = ( MN ) R = NRu → P V = NRuT
V = N v → P v = Ru T
P1 V1 P2 V2 Ideal gas equation at two
=
T1 T2 states for a fixed mass
Real gases behave as an ideal gas Figure 3–44
at low densities (i.e., low pressure, Properties per unit mole are denoted
high temperature). with a bar on the top.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 44

 3–6 The Ideal-Gas Equation of State 4

Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas?

At pressures below 10 kPa, water vapor can be treated as an
ideal gas, regardless of its temperature, with negligible error
(less than 0.1 percent).
At higher pressures, the ideal gas assumption yields
unacceptable errors, particularly in the vicinity of the critical
point and the saturated vapor line.
In air-conditioning applications, the water vapor in the air can
be treated as an ideal gas. Why?
In steam power plant applications, the pressures involved are
usually very high; therefore, ideal-gas relations should not be
used.

© McGraw Hill LLC 45

 3–6 The Ideal-Gas Equation of State 5

Figure 3–46
Percentage error
  Vtable − Videal  
    100 
 V table  
involved in assuming steam to be an
ideal gas, and the region where steam
can be treated as an ideal gas with less
than 1 percent error.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 46

 3–7 Compressibility Factor—A Measure of
Deviation from Ideal-Gas Behavior 1

Compressibility factor Z: A factor that accounts for the

deviation of real gases from ideal-gas behavior at a given
temperature and pressure.
PV RT
Z= Videal =
RT P
P V = ZRT Z = 1 for ideal gases

v actual
Z=
v ideal Figure 3–47
The compressibility factor is
unity for ideal gases.

© McGraw Hill LLC 47

 3–7 Compressibility Factor—A Measure of
Deviation from Ideal-Gas Behavior 2

The farther away Z is from unity, the more the gas deviates from ideal-
gas behavior.
Gases behave as an ideal gas at low densities (that is low pressure, high
temperature).
Question: What is the criteria for low pressure and high temperature?
Answer: The pressure or temperature of a gas is high or low relative to
its critical temperature or pressure.

Figure 3–49
At very low pressures, all gases approach
ideal-gas behavior (regardless of their
temperature).

© McGraw Hill LLC 48

 3–7 Compressibility Factor—A Measure of
Deviation from Ideal-Gas Behavior 3

P Reduce T Reduced v actual Pseudo-

PR = TR = vR =
Pcr pressure Tcr temperature RTcr / Pcr reduced
specific
volume

Figure 3–48
Comparison of Z factors for
various gases.

Source: Gour-Jen Su, “Modified

Law of Corresponding States,”
Ind. Eng. Chem. (international
ed.) 38 (19 46), p. 803.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 49

 3–7 Compressibility Factor—A Measure of
Deviation from Ideal-Gas Behavior 4

Figure 3–51
Figure 3–50 The compressibility factor can also
Gases deviate from the ideal-gas behavior the be determined from a knowledge of
most in the neighborhood of the critical point. PR and v R .
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 50

 3–8 Other Equations of State 1

The ideal-gas equation of state

is very simple, but its range of
applicability is limited.
It is desirable to have equations
of state that represent the P-v-T
behavior of substances
accurately over a larger region
with no limitations.
Such equations are naturally
more complicated.
Figure 3–54
Several equations have been Several equations of state have been
proposed. proposed throughout history.

© McGraw Hill LLC 51

 3–8 Other Equations of State 2

van der Waals Equation of State

 a 
2 (
 P + v − b ) = RT
 v 

27 R 2T 2 cr RTcr
a= b=
64 Pcr 8 Pcr
This model includes two effects not
considered in the ideal-gas model:
• the intermolecular attraction forces.
• the volume occupied by the molecules
themselves. Figure 3–55
Critical isotherm of a pure
The accuracy of the van der Waals substance has an inflection point at
equation of state is often inadequate. the critical state.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 52

 3–8 Other Equations of State 3

Beattie-Bridgeman Equation of State

RuT  c 
v  vT 
( v
)
A
P = 2 1 − 3  v + B − 2

 a  b
A = A0 1 −  B = B0 1 − 
 v  v

The constants are given in Table 3–4 for various substances.

It is known to be reasonably accurate for densities up to about
0.8 ρcr .

© McGraw Hill LLC 53

 3–8 Other Equations of State 4

Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State

 RuT C0  1 bRuT − a aa c    − / v 2
P= +  B0 RuT − A0 − 2  2 + + 6 + 3 1 + 2  e
 T v 3
v v v v T2  v 

The constants are given in Table 3–4.

This equation can handle substances at densities up to about 2.5 cr .
Virial Equation of State
RT a (T ) b (T ) c (T ) d (T )
P= + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 ...
v v v v v
The coefficients a(T), b(T), c(T), and so on, that are functions of
temperature alone are called virial coefficients.

© McGraw Hill LLC 54

 3–8 Other Equations of State 5

Table 3-4 Constants that appear in the Beattie-Bridgeman and the Benedict-
Webb-Rubin equations of state

Source: Gordon J. Van Wylen and Richard E. Sonntag, Fundamentals of Classical Thermodynamics, English/S I Version,
3rd ed. (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 19 86), p. 46, table 3.3.

Source: Kenneth Wark, Thermodynamics, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1983), p. 815, table A-21M. Originally published
in H. W. Cooper and J. C. Goldfrank, Hydrocarbon Processing 46, no. 12 (19 67), p. 141.

© McGraw Hill LLC 55

 3–8 Other Equations of State 6

Figure 3–56
Complex equations of state represent the P-v-T behavior of gases more accurately over a
wider range.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 56

 3–8 Other Equations of State 7

Figure 3–57
Percentage of error involved in various equations of state for nitrogen
  v − v equation  
 % error =  table   100  .
  v table  
 
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill LLC 57

 Summary
• Pure substance.
• Phases of a pure substance.
• Phase-change processes of pure substances.
• Property diagrams for phase change processes.
• Property tables.
• The ideal gas equation of state.
• Compressibility factor.
• Other equations of state.

© McGraw Hill LLC 58

 3.3 Conservation of Mass for CV
Starting with the general cons.
of mass between t1 and t2,
V1
Mstored =Min – Mout

The conservation of mass can

be written as a rate equation

V2
dM CV
= min − mout
dt
Where min and mout are the total rates of mass flow
into and out of the CV, and dmCV/dt is the rate of
change of mass within the CV.
Chapter 3 59
© McGraw Hill LLC 59
 Mass Flow Rate for Slug Flow
Control Surface
Look at the volume
of fluid that leaves
the CV in time ∆t:

∆x V = x Ac

The volume flow rate leaving the CV is

ddV dx
=
= Ac → V = V AC
dt
d t dt
Multiply by density to give the mass flow rate
VAc
Chapter 3 m =  VAc = 60
© McGraw Hill LLC
v 60
 Steady–Flow Processes
For steady flow, the total amount of mass
contained in CV is constant.
dM CV d
dt
=   dV
dt CV
=0

Total amount of mass entering must be equal to

total amount of mass leaving
 mi =  mi
m = mass flow rate in out

=
1 V A = V A
in
i i i
out
i i i
v
1 1

in vi
Vi Ai =  Vi Ai
out vi

For incompressible
i =  Vi Ai
Vi Aflows,
ρ=uniform
in out

Chapter 3
V i i = Vi i
in out 61
© McGraw Hill LLC 61
Chapter 3
Example 1. Water flows through a closed tank with
d1=6 cm, d2=5 cm, and d3=4 cm Find the flow velocity at each inflow and
outflow.

m1 = 2 kg/s m2 = 3 kg/s

© McGraw Hill LLC 62

Chapter 3

m1 = 2 kg/s m2 = 3 kg/s
Example 1. Water flows through
a closed tank with
d1=6 cm, d2=5 cm, and d3=4 cm
Find the flow velocity at each
inflow and outflow.
m = VAc
m
V1 =
 A1

=
( 2 kg/s )
m3 = m1 + m2 = 5 kg/s
( 998 kg/m 3
)4

( 0.06 m )2
V1 = 0.709 m/s

V2 = 1.53 m/s V3 =3.99 m/s

© McGraw Hill LLC 63
 Average Velocity
Many times we only need to know the
average velocity, not the velocity profile.
For the flow at a CS, the volume flow
rate can be found in two different ways:

V =  Vn dAc = Vavg Ac
Ac

Using these two expressions, we can

solve for Vavg

1
Vavg =
Ac  V dA
Ac
n c

V avg is the velocity of a slug flow Using the average flow velocity, the
that gives the same volume flow mass flow rate becomes:
rate as the original velocity profile.
m =  Vavg Ac
Chapter 3 64
© McGraw Hill LLC 64
Chapter 3

Example 2. Water flows steadily at 0.5 m/s through a

2 cm diameter hose. What is the water velocity through the
0.4 cm diameter nozzle?
m = m
in
i
out
i

d 2 = 0.4 cm
V A = V A
in
i i i
out
i i i

V1 = 0.5 m/s

d1 = 2 cm d122
A1 d
V2 = V1 = V1 4 = V1 12
A2  2 d2
d2
4
Note that the ratio of 2
 2 cm 
diameters is the same in V2 = ( 0.5 m/s )   = 12.5 m/s
any units.  0.4 cm 

© McGraw Hill LLC 65

Chapter 3

Example 3. Steam enters a uniform-diameter tube with an

average velocity of 4 m/s and a specific volume of 0.127
m3/kg. The steam exists the tube with a density of 9.94
kg/m3. Determine the average outflow velocity.
 2 = 9.94 kg/m3
WATER
m = m
in
i
out
i

V A = V A
Steam in Steam out

V1 = 4 m/s i i i i i i
in out
v1 = 0.127 m /kg = 1/ 1
3

1V1 V1
V2 = =
 2 v1 2

=
( 4 m/s ) = 3.17 m/s
( 0.127 m3 /kg )(9.94 kg/m3 )
© McGraw Hill LLC 66
Chapter 3
Example 4. Saturated water mixture enters a uniform 25 mm
diameter tube at 490 K with a quality of 0.95. The mixture is
heated and exits the tube at 620K and 2 MPa. The average
velocity at the exit is 17 m/s. Determine the average inflow
velocity and the mass flow rate.
T2 = 620 K
T1 = 490 K
x1 = 0.95 P2 = 2 MPa m = m
in
i
out
i

V2 = 17 m/s
V A = V A
WATER
Mixture in Steam out
i i i i i i
in out

v1 = v f + x1 ( vg − v f ) Table B.1
= 0.0011845 + 0.95 ( 0.091390 − 0.0011845 ) = 0.086880 m 3 /kg
 2 = 7.2573 kg/m3 Table B.3

m =  2V2 A2 = ( 7.2573 kg/m ) (17 m/s ) 4 ( 0.025 m ) 2
3
= 0.0606 kg/s

© McGraw Hill LLC 67

Chapter 3

Example 4, continued

Since the area is the same at the inflow and outflow,

1V1 =  2V2

Solve for the inflow velocity:

 2V2
V1 = = v1 2V2
1
= ( 0.086880 m3 /kg )( 7.2573 kg/m 3 ) (17 m/s )
= 10.72 m/s

© McGraw Hill LLC 68

Chapter 3

Example 5. Air enters a uniform-diameter tube with an

average velocity of 2 m/s at a temperature of 400 K and a
pressure of 0.12 MPa. The air exists the tube at a
temperature of 350 K and a pressure of 0.1 MPa.
Determine the average outflow velocity of the air.
T1 = 400 K T2 = 350 K
P1 = 120 kPa P2 = 100 kPa m = m
in
i
out
i

AIR

V1 = 2 m/s
Air in Air out
V A = V A
in
i i i
out
i i i

Since the area is the same at the inflow and outflow, 1V1 =  2V2
P1 P2
For an ideal gas P =  RT : V1 = V2
RT1 RT2
 P1  T2   120  350 
Solving: V2 = V1    = ( 2 m/s )    = 2.1 m/s
 P2  T1   100  400 
© McGraw Hill LLC 69
Chapter 3
Example 6. The jet pump shown injects water at U1=40 m/s through
a 6 cm pipe and entrains a secondary flow of water U2=3 m/s in the
20 cm diameter annular region around the small pipe. The two flows
become fully mixed downstream, where U3 is approximately uniform.
For steady, incompressible flow, find U3.

U1 m = m
in
i
out
i

U3 V A = V A
i i i i i i
U2 in out

m1 + m2 = m3
U1 A1 + U 2 A2 = U 3 A3
  
U1 d12 + U 2  d 22 − d12  = U 3 d 22
4 4 4
( 40 m/s )( 6 cm ) + ( 3 m/s ) ( 20 cm ) − ( 6 cm ) 
2 2 2

U3 =  = 6.33 m/s
( 20 cm )
2

© McGraw Hill LLC 70

Chapter 3

Example 7. A 20 inch diameter can has a 0.5 inch hole.

The flow leaving the tank has a velocity of 5 ft/s. How
quickly does the water level in the tank go down?
 dM CV
M CV =  V =  D 2h = min − mout
4
dt
dh  2
D  D = 0 − V2 d
2

4 dt 4
2 2
d dh d  0.5 in 
= −V2   = ( 5 ft/s )  
H dt D  20 in 
V2 dh
= −0.0031 ft/s= − 0.0375 inch/second
dt

The negative sign indicates that the water level drops.

© McGraw Hill LLC 71

Chapter 3

Example 8. A round water jet at V1=8 m/s and D1=5 cm

hits a wall and spreads radially. Assuming V1=V2, find the
thickness of the water sheet at r=20 cm.
Assume steady, incompressible flow, 1 =  2

h min = mout
1V1 A1 =  2V2 A2
R
A1 = A2

d12 = 2 Rh
d1 4

( 5 cm )
2
1 d12
h= = = 0.156 cm
8 R 8 ( 20 cm )

© McGraw Hill LLC 72

Chapter 3

Example 9. 0.5 kg/s of superheated steam enters a

turbine at 1.0 MPa and 500 K. What is the inflow pipe
diameter to have a flow velocity of 15 m/s?

T1 = 400 K m = m i i
P1 = 120 kPa in out

V1 = 15 m/s turbine V A = V A

in
i i i
out
i i i

From Table B.3I, ρ=4.3268 kg/m3


m = 1V1 A1 = 1V1 d12
4

4m 4 ( 0.5 kg/s )
d1 = = = 0.099 m = 9.9 cm
V1  ( 4.3268 kg/m ) (15 m/s )
3

© McGraw Hill LLC 73

 References

Powerpoint by Mehmet Kanoglu et al

Powerpoint by Turns

© McGraw Hill LLC 74