BCM GROUP 8 BUILDING TECHNOLOGY

MEMBERS
1. BCM3/8354/2024
2. BCM3/8220/2024
3. BCM3/8312/2024
4. BCM3/8214/2024
5. BCM3/8329/2024
6. BCM3/8262/2024
7. BCM3/8409/2024
8. BCM3/8650/2024
9. BCM3/8408/2024
Windows are architectural elements on wall and roof openings designed to allow
light, ventilation and sound.
Components of a window and their functions
The figure below shows some window components:

1. Frame: This is the outer structure that holds the window in place, typically
made of wood, vinyl, aluminium or fiberglass. Its function is that; it provides
structural support to the entire window system.
2. Sash: The movable or fixed part that holds the glass. It allows the window to
open or close either in double-hung, casement of fixed window and also
allows ventilation to take place.
3. Glass pane: The transparent or opaque part that allows natural light into the
building and provide insulation using glazing such as single, double, or triple-
glazing for enhanced thermal performance.
4. Sill: The bottom part of the frame, often sloped, that directs water away from
the building to prevent leaks and water damage to the structure.
5. Transom: A horizontal bar separating the main window from a smaller
window or panel above it, often fixed or operable, to allow extra light and
ventilation into the space.
 6. Mullion: A vertical or horizontal bar that divides and supports multiple
window panes or sections within a frame, providing structural reinforcement
and aesthetic separation.
7. Jamb: The vertical sides of the window frame that provide structural support
and house tracks or balances for sashes in sliding or double-hung windows,
ensuring smooth operation.
8. Head: The top horizontal part of a window frame that supports the structure
above the window and seals the top edge to prevent air and water
infiltration.
9. Grills/Muntins: Decorative bars that divide the glass into smaller panes for
aesthetic purposes, either applied on the surface or between glass layers
enhancing the window’s visual appeal.
10. Hardware: This includes locks, handles, hinges and operators such as
cranks for casement windows to facilitate secure operation, opening and
closing and locking of the window.
The figures below show some of the hardware used in windows:
Windows challenges due to excessive heat flow (inflow and outflow) and
solutions:
1. Heat inflow:
a) The cause: Windows, especially those with single-pane glass or poor
glazing, allow infrared radiation from the sun to enter, heating the
interior. This is usually quantified by the Solar Heat Gain Coefficient
(SHGC) where a higher (SHGC) closer to 1 means more heat enters.
South- and west facing windows are particularly vulnerable in
summer due to direct sunlight.
The impact of heat inflow is that; it increases indoor temperatures leading to higher
cooling demands, raising energy cost. It also causes discomfort, fades furniture and
can overheat spaces in regions with intense sunlight.
The solution to curb heat inflow is:
a) Use of low-E coatings: Apply low-emissivity coatings on glass to reflect
infrared heat while allowing visible light. A soft coat of low-E can reduce SHGC
blocking 70% of solar heat.
b) Use of smart glass (Electrochromic glass): It changes tint with an electric
current, reducing SHGC dynamically.
c) External shading, interior shading, use of solar control firm and cross
ventilation are other methods to control heat inflow.
 2. Heat outflow:
a) The cause: Heat escapes through windows due to poor insulation,
quantified by the U-factor. Conduction from the glass, convection from drafts and
radiation losses contribute. Gaps around the frames, poor weatherstripping or
metal frames with high thermal conductivity such as aluminium without thermal
breaks exacerbate this.
Its impact is that in cold climates, heat loss increases. It can also create cold drafts,
reduces comfort and can lead to uneven temperatures in rooms.
The solution for this is that;
a) Use of thermally broken frames: frames with thermal breaks such as vinly,
fiberglass can improve the U-factor by 20-30% compared to a standard one.
b) Interior shading, proper insulation, double or triple glazing, use of low-E
coatings and high quality weatherstripping can prevent heat outflow.

3. Condensation
a) The cause: when warm indoor air contacts a cold window surface, it cools
below its dew point, causing condensation. Single-pane windows or those
with U-factors are prone to this, especially in humid climates or during
winter. Poorly sealed spacers in double-glazed windows can also fail,
allowing moisture to enter between panes.
Its impact is that it leads to water damage, mold growth which can cause health
issues like allergies, and deterioration of window frames especially wooden ones.
The solution for this is:
a) Use of warm-edge spacers: replacing aluminium spacers with warm-edges
spacers such as silicone or stainless steel, which reduce heat transfer at the
glass edge and minimize condensation risk by keeping the edges warm.
b) Use of desiccant-filled spacers, Dehumidification, use of electrically heated
glass, and proper insulation are other methods to prevent condensation in
buildings.
 Process of window installation
1. General preparation: Obtain requisite drawings, (elevation drawings, floor
plan, and window schedule), labour, tools, equipment, building materials and
fixtures. These include,

Labour

✓ Window Installer / Carpenter – Main tradesperson handling installation.

✓ Glazier – Specializes in cutting, fitting, and installing glass.
✓ Labourer / Assistant – For carrying, cleanup, and support work.
✓ Sealant Applicator – Applies caulk or foam to seal gaps.
✓ Scaffolder / Access Specialist – If the windows are at heights.

Tools

✓ Measuring Tape – For accurate window sizing.

✓ Spirit Level / Laser Level – Ensures proper alignment.
✓ Cordless Drill & Bits – For fixing frames and brackets.
✓ Hammer / Rubber Mallet – For adjusting frame fits.
✓ Utility Knife – For cutting insulation or trims.
✓ Caulking Gun – For sealant application.
✓ Screwdrivers – Manual or electric, for screws and hardware.
✓ Pry Bar / Crowbar – For removing old windows or frames.
✓ Glass Suction Cups – For safe glass handling.
✓ Square & Chalk Line – Ensures squareness of frame and alignment.
✓ Oscillating Multi-Tool / Reciprocating Saw – For trimming old frames or materials.

Equipment

✓ Scaffolding / Ladder – Access to higher floors.

✓ Dust Sheets / Drop Cloths – Protection for floors and furnishings.
✓ Safety Gear – Gloves, safety glasses, helmets, harnesses.
✓ Vacuum / Broom & Dustpan – Cleanup of broken glass or debris.
✓ Portable Workbench / Sawhorses – On-site cutting and assembly.

Building Materials

✓ Window Frames – Timber, aluminum, uPVC, or composite.

✓ Glazing / Glass Panels – Single, double, or triple-glazed; clear or tinted.
✓ Sealant / Silicone / Caulk – Weatherproofing and airtight sealing.
✓ Expanding Foam – For filling gaps around frames.
 ✓ Fixings – Screws, nails, brackets, anchors.
✓ DPC (Damp Proof Course) / Flashing Tape – Moisture protection.
✓ Trims & Architraves – For neat internal and external finishing.
✓ Shims / Packers – For leveling and spacing during installation.
✓ Insulation Tape or Wool – For thermal and sound insulation.

Fixtures (Fitted to Windows)

✓ Window Handles / Latches

✓ Hinges (Side Hung, Top Hung, etc.)
✓ Window Locks / Security Bars
✓ Trickle Vents
✓ Weather Stripping
✓ Fly Screens (Optional)
✓ Window Blinds / Shutters

2. Opening preparation: Ensure the opening is level, plumb and take dimensions
for the window. (opening should be larger by 5mm-10mm)
3. Window sash acquisition: the following diagram explains more about sash
acquisition,
NB: the above diagram only shows horizontal sliding sash made of timber, plastic, metal
or combination of these materials with single or double glazing.

4. Installation of window sash: Ensure the sash is plumb and level, use holdfasts,
(steel clamps embedded into masonry by 50mm-100mm) for stability to each
jamb and fill in the gaps between sash and window wall opening using mortar
(typically mix 1:3)
5. Window glazing installation: Based on the dimensions of the sash panels,
(frames should be larger by 2mm). The panels are secured to the sash using
linseed oil putty. The figure below show typical glazing in windows:

6. Installation of other window fixtures: window locks, fasteners and stays as

they may be specified.
7. Finishes application: application of the specified finishes to the windows sash
and putty/beading surfaces.

REFERENCE
1. R. Chudley and R. Greeno (1998) BUILDING CONSTRUCTION HANDBOOK (6th
ed.). Elsevier books.