CATHOLIC SCHOOLS IN IFUGAO

INTRODUCTION TO THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON

FINALS 2ND SEMESTER A.Y. 2023-2024

Human nature defines man, and this nature is revealed through a condition called being in the world. Human
nature possesses countless possibilities, but it has limitations that sometimes prevent possibilities from happening. But
man can use these limitations of transcendence until he or she reaches his or her goal worthy of being human or until
the endowment of the soul and intellect allows him or her to gain the power of knowledge and understanding. Man is
body, mind, and spirit. He or she exists depending on perspectives, has a purpose, or has to make a meaning for himself
or herself and create his or her purpose.
This handout presents the embodied human person in his or her being in the world and what he or she has to
face in the context of these conditions – freedom, intersubjectivity, society, and the meaning of life and death. In the
end, it is expected that you can recognize your condition in the world. Your awareness and sensitivity are enhanced in
dealing with matters concerning your freedom, your ability to choose, and the consequences of your choices. In the end,
your reflections on the meaning of your life will prepare you to where it leads you so that you can make more sense of
your life.
1. FREEDOM OF THE HUMAN PERSON
FREEDOM
The concept of freedom is mostly mistaken by many individuals as the ability to do what you like, in our
language “gagawin ko kung ano yung gusto ko kasi nga yun ang gusto kong gawin”. In this manner, freedom becomes an
escape for some to the actions that that were performed in a wrong manner because some will say that it is my freedom
so I am free to do it, which is why we need to know the meaning of freedom and the process of how it operates.
Freedom in its true sense is the ability to do what is good and avoid what is evil. This definition of freedom will
allow us to view that we as human beings must be aware of our actions whether it is on a religious aspect or any other
aspect. This would imply that our freedom is linked with responsibility in the sense that we must always be ready to face
the consequences of our actions. If the action is wrong then we must face the consequences and not avoid it by escaping
hiding or giving false information or erroneous reasons.
 Freedom is not really what we want to do but how we do it. Freedom is the attitude, that of a man who
recognizes himself in his life.
In the study of philosophy, many philosophers came to an agreement that human freedom is not a mere “plaything” but
rather it is an important part of the self. Freedom is a voluntary realization, justified by the greatest number of motives.
Because our action is then not only the expression of a personal choice but of a choice capable of justifying itself
rationally in the eyes of all.
 The limit of human freedom is the freedom of other people just like the limit of human right is the right of the
other people. In this sense man is not really free as he/she thinks but he/she can be truly free if he/she follows
the true meaning of freedom which is to do what is good and to avoid what is evil.
 There is no limit to man in doing what is right, doing good would rather free a person from the bondage of sin
which will allow the person to become truly free in the sense that he/she is responsible enough in doing such
actions.
TRANSCENDENCE and FREEDOM
As it was discussed in the first part of the lesson, Transcendence means going beyond ourselves. And freedom
means doing what is right and avoiding what is evil or freedom with responsibility. Now let us try to discover the
relationship of transcendence and freedom which will help us to have a better appreciation of the lesson.
 A person who has transcended his/her self is a person who has a better understanding of the things around him/her.
This would mean that he/she can think and act in a better manner than he/she was before.
 Now, on the part of freedom, an individual who transcended has a better view of how he/she can practice his/her
freedom. Meaning, that he /she can practice freedom with responsibility since he/she has already transcended. The
view of the individual is not so much on a personal level but rather on a level in which a wider scope of community is
already involved.

ACTIVITY 1. ANALYSIS
Small group activity.
a. Should freedom be absolute? Explain
b. If freedom should be limited, what would be its limits?
c. Who should determine the limits of freedom? An authoritarian leader? Our selves? The great majority?
Explain
d. How can Filipino values such as “utang na loob” promote or hinder freedom?

REALIZE THAT ALL ACTIONS HAVE CONSEQUENCES

ARISTOTLE - The power of Volition (the power to make your own choices or decisions)
The imperative quality of a judgment of practical intellect is meaningless, apart from the will. Reason can
legislate (control), but only through will can its legislation be translated into action.
For Aristotle, a human being is rational (based on facts or reason and not by emotion). The reason is divine a
characteristic. Humans have the spark of the divine. If there were no intellect, there would be no will. Our will is an
instrument of free choice. Reason, will, and action drive each other.
 The will of humanity is an instrument of free choice. It is within the power of everyone to be good or bad,
worthy or worthless. This is borne out by:
•Our inner awareness of an aptitude to do right or wrong
•The common testimony of all human beings
•The rewards and punishment of rulers
•The general employment of praise and blame.
 Moral acts, which are always particular, are in our power and we are responsible for them. Character or
habit is no excuse for immoral conduct. (e.g. cutting classes)
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS -L O V E I S F R E E D O M
Of all creatures of God, human beings have the unique power to change themselves and the things around them
for the better.
o A human being, therefore, has a supernatural transcendental destiny. This means that he can rise above his ordinary
being or self to the highest being or self. This is in line with the idea of St. Thomas that in the plan of God, a human
being has to develop and perfect himself by doing his daily tasks. Hence, if a human being perseveringly lives a
righteous and virtuous life, he transcends his mortal state of life and soars to an immortal state of life.
o The power of change, however, cannot be done by human beings alone but is achieved through cooperation with
God. Between humanity and God, there is a gap, which God alone can bridge through His power. For love agrees
with humanity`s free nature, for law commands and complete; love only calls and invites.
o St. Thomas emphasizes the freedom of humanity but chooses love to govern humanity`s life. Since God is love,
then love is the guiding principle of humanity toward –self-perception and happiness his ultimate destiny.

ST. THOMAS AQUINAS - S P I R I T U A L F R E E D O M

Actions
(good or evil) He establishes the existence of God as a first cause of all God`s
creations, human beings have the unique power to change
Conscience themselves and things around them for the better.

As humans, we are both material and spiritual. We have a

conscience because of our spirituality. God is Love and Love is our
God's Love destiny.

JEAN PAUL SARTRE - I N D I V I D U A L F R E E D O M

Sartre`s philosophy is considered to be a representative of existentialism. Sartre emphasizes the importance of
free individual choice, regardless of the power of other people to influence and coerce our desires, beliefs, and decisions.
To be human, to be conscious, is to be free to imagine, free to choose, and be responsible for one`s life. His philosophy
stems from the principle: that existence precedes essence.
Existentialism is a philosophical movement known for its inquiry into human existence. It is opposed to the idea that
man has a fixed nature. Instead, it asserts that to understand man’s nature, one has to go beyond the claims of biology,
physics, and psychology that a man is a substance with fixed properties or subjects interacting with the world of objects.

THOMAS HOBBES, JOHN LOCKE, JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU - SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY
These theorists view humans as naturally free. Because of this, no political society, according to them, can be
established without human consent. While the three theorists agree on their concepts of humans as naturally free, they
differ in their concepts of the human person and consequently their concepts of the ideal society and the best form of
government. In this lesson, we will describe the best form of government according to the social contract theorists.

Social Contract – refers to the hypothetical agreement in which people surrender their natural rights to the sovereign in
return for their protection. It is a concept employed by Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau to justify the establishment of a
political society, which, according to them, is not legitimate unless founded on the consent freely given by the people.
Key Concept: Social Contract Theory
What do you think?
*“Men are born free, but everywhere he is in chains.” - J. J. Rousseau
*“Rather than being ourselves, we tend to conform to an image or idea associated with being a certain type of
person.” -Soren Kierkegaard
THE COMMON GOOD, Aristotle was right in saying that humans need to live in a political society to live a good life. Plato,
on the other hand, was also right in saying that establishing a just society requires education of the individuals.
However, while it is in the best interest of humans to enter into the political society, can we require them to live in it
without their consent?
A. THOMAS HOBBES – English Philosopher
‘He that complaineth of injury from his Sovereign, complaineth of that whereof he is the author himself; and
therefore, ought not to accuse any man but himself.’
LEVIATHAN- a known book that is a defense of a state with absolute power
Humans are equal by nature, they are equal in both physical and mental powers. No one is too small not to
inflict harm to another and no one is too big not to be maimed by anyone. Humans are, therefore, equal in the sense
that no one can be spared from harm by anyone no matter how strong or wise he/she is. This equality of power enables
humans to desire the same things, which usually results in competition, distrust, and pursuit of glory, which, in turn,
causes wars among them. In the state of nature (the condition where there is no government), everyone is at war with
everyone. The state of nature is a state of constant war among the people. In such war, nothing can be said to be just or
unjust, good or evil for if there is no common power, there is no law, and if there is no law there is no standard of what
is just and unjust, of what is right or wrong (Hobbes 1998).
If humans are wolves, according to Hobbes, a Leviathan (literally refers to a sea monster but metaphorically
used by Hobbes to refer to the state with absolute power) is necessary to secure peace and order in society.

B. JOHN LOCKE – English Philosopher

‘because Earthly judges, the state in particular and human beings in general, the truth-claims of competing
religious standpoints.’ ‘Even if they could be enforcing a single “true religion” would not work, because you can’t be
compelled into belief through violence’
– known for his epistemological theory that the human mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) and that we acquire
knowledge through sense perception. Apart from his contribution in the field of epistemology, Locke is known for his
political philosophy which defends democracy as the only justifiable form of government.
Locke’s political society is the opposite of Hobbes’ political society. While Hobbes justifies totalitarian society
and authoritarian government, Locke justifies democracy.

C. Jean Jacques Rousseau – French Philosopher

The Social Contract – a known book - is said to have triggered the French Revolution.
- He wrote other books such as The Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and Emile in which he exposed his
Philosophy of Education
“Man was born free, and everywhere he is in chains,” This statement seems to be contradictory. Humans are free and
not free at the same time. This statement cannot be true if it refers to the same person at the same time. But Rousseau,
an expert on paradox, expresses a profound idea about human freedom. The statement talks about two human
conditions: the human condition in the state of nature and the human condition in the corrupt society. In the state of
nature (in the primitive condition), humans were free; in the corrupt society, humans were deprived of this freedom
(Tannenbaum and Schultz 2004).
Rousseau’s political society, then, has two purposes. The first one is to defend and protect the life and the goods
of each member. The second is to protect and promote people’s liberty. What form of association will realize these
purposes of the political society – this is the problem of Rousseau’s political philosophy.
For Rousseau, to be a member of the political society is to be bound by the general will. To be bound by the
general will is to be morally free. To be morally free is human’s greatest achievement, which is possible only inside a
political society.

 SOCIAL CONTRACT according to Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean Jacques Rousseau is a ‘social agreement’
that is futuristic and has lasting effects in people’s lives
State of Nature – it is a concept used by Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau to refer to the hypothetical society before the
existence of the political society.

Social Contract
Hobbes Locke Rousseau
Born free, and equal. They
Unlimited liberty for all; surrender their possessions and Uncorrupt, perfectible nature of
State of Nature
war against each other freedom to the sovereign and man
want something in reciprocity
Man dreads the state of
Deception an exploitation of a
Origin of nature so he followed the The state is based upon the
few men to protect private
Society/State laws of nature in entering people’s consent
property (state of war)
the social contract
Order; eschew conflicts Restoration of “corrupted”
Purpose/End of
arising from men insisting Protection of private property freedom and the common good
State/Society
their self - interest of all; to perfect man’s nature.

The complex and interrelated series of changes in humanity’s way of life has changed the power relationships
among societies by rapidly strengthening the position of some at the expense of others.
TYPES OF CONFLICTS:
  Conflict emerges:
 1. within the individual: body vs. soul
 2. within the society: power struggle (I vs. You)
 3. Universal Conflict: institutional (state vs. church)
 Power is the ability or exercise to influence and control.

Socrates - “The greater power that deigns to serve you, the more honor it demands of you.”
Plato - “The measure of man is what he does with power.”
Lao Tzu – “Mastering yourself is true power.”
“Nature does not hurry yet everything is accomplished.”
Friedrich Nietzsche
“Our drives are reducible to the will to power. The will to power is the ultimate fact at which we arrive.”
Man’s ability to form and shape society is one manifestation of power

Asymmetrical power relations

The unequal allocation of power resources.

The asymmetrical power relations of members of society problematize the unjust

and unfair effects of such relations manifested in one’s interaction
Power relations – forms of interactions mediated by the use and
deployment of authority and influence—from personal to the group to
the institutional.

 Society, a Web of Social Relationship

Society as a web of social relationships, hence, social change means change in the system of social
relationships – social processes, interactions, and social organizations. Our totality, wholeness, or “complete
life” relies on our social relations

Society involves Values and Norms

NORMS: The Rules We Live By
1. Sociologists classify the elements of a particular way of life by defining components of a culture: its norms, its values
and beliefs, and its use of material objects.
2. Norms are rules defining appropriate and inappropriate behavior.
3. Norms help to explain why people in a society or group behave similarly in similar circumstances.
4. Values are broad ideas about what most people in a society consider to be desirable.

 EVALUATE AND EXERCISE PRUDENCE IN CHOICES

 Careful good judgment that allows someone to avoid danger or risks
 There should be a balance in our relationship with others and the environment.
 We do not need to destroy the environment or escape from it. What is needed is to redesign it.
 Life is full of paradoxes, nobody could nor should control it. We have to be open to life and learn to accept and live
with paradoxes. Learning with contradiction is not the same as living in contradiction.
 In the spirituality of imperfection, we learn to accept that life and our environment are both evil and good. We learn
to be flexible and adaptable.
 The theory of freedom has negative and positive tasks. Our lives should not merely be controlled by rewards and
punishments.
 As Plato believes, the soul of every individual possesses the power to learn the truth and live in a society that is by
its nature.

 Choices have consequences and some things are given up while others are obtained in making choices.
 Filipinos embraced family and political parties. One does not only fulfill reasons of the mind but of the heart and
personal involvement as well.
 Filipinos look at themselves as holistic from interior dimensions under the principle of harmony. It aspires to
harmony with others and nature to be in (being with others)
 Filipino loob is the basis of Christian values of sensitivity to the needs of others and gratitude. It encompassed give-
and-take relationships among Filipinos.
 Repaying those who have helped us is a manifestation of utang na loob or debt of gratitude. Loob prioritized family,
relatives, and even non-kinsmen
 Self-sufficiency (kasarinlan) recognizing human worth and dignity.
 Kagandahang loob, kabutihang loob and kalooban are terms that show sharing of one`s self to others. Loob puts one
in touch with his fellow beings.

“Let me not crave in conscious fear to be saved, but hope for the patience to win my freedom” – Rabindranath Tagore
 Darkness and bondage could symbolize the opposite or liberation. Freedom is earned and protected. One could
not just easily take freedom for granted. More than just attaining economic freedom, freedom is also spiritual. As human
beings, we should not be enslaved by our self-interests but to be truly free, we should also be at one with others and
nature.

2. INTERSUBJECTIVITY
1. Realize that Intersubjectivity Requires Accepting Differences and Not to Imposing on Others
What Is Intersubjectivity?
Edmund Husserl
Believes that intersubjectivity is more than just shared understanding, it is the capability to put oneself “ in the
place where the other is.
 In search of a holistic interpretation of the human person, intersubjectivity is something that cannot be isolated.
Human existence is always a co-existence. Even human persons with disabilities are part of such co-existence. It
requires accepting the differences as embodied spirits or conscious beings without imposing anything on them.
Gabriel Marcel
“To – be – is – to – be – with”
The social aspect of a human person consists of either a direct intersubjectivity in a face-to-face relationship or
an indirect intersubjectivity in anonymity through culture.
 A person communes with his or her fellowmen, with whom he or she creates a community by fulfilling a
common task – encountering the society or community as a whole.
Karol Wojtyla (Saint John Paul II)
The human person is total, not dual. The social dimension of a human person is represented by ‘ We Relation’.
Participation explains the essence of the human person. No human being should put an end to him/ herself. We are
responsible to our neighbors as we are for our actions.
 We participate in the communal life (We). Our notion of the neighbor and fellow member is by participating in
the humanness of the other person ( I-YOU). The neighbor takes into account humanness.
Martin Buber
Same with Karol Wojtyla, the human person is total, not dual. “I – YOU relation”
 “I – Thou” philosophy in contrast with the “I – It” relationship.
 “I – Thou” philosophy is about the human person as a subject, who is a being, different from things or objects.
The human person has direct and mutual sharing of selves. This signifies a person-to-person, subject-to-subject
relation or acceptance, sincerity, concern, respect, dialog, and care. The human person is not just being - in - the
- world but being – with – others or being – in – relation.
 “I” is the subject
 “Thou” is another subject
 It is a relationship of mutual and reciprocal connection

 “I – It” relationship is a person to a thing, subject to object that is merely experiencing and using, lacking
directedness and mutuality ( feeling, knowing, and acting)
 “I” is the subject
 “It” is a person treated as an object
depicts separateness, disconnectedness, and detachment

Though we are part of our society, we are still different individuals living in this society. Each of us has different
appearances or points of view. The preceding topics will help us build strength despite our differences.
Labels could be negative or limiting. You may be called “impatient, whiny, or stubborn.” Nevertheless, we could
go beyond the labels, for as humans, we are holistic. As humans, we can be regarded in our totality. Thus, we can design
the labels to be something new and exciting. So, instead of being impatient, you are compelling. If one is whiny, you are
analytical and if one is stubborn, one is assertive or persistent.
If negative labels can be contagious, so can positive ones. Positive labels can strengthen not just your
relationships with your friends, but most especially your family.

Man as Being – for – Others

2. Appreciate The Talents Of Persons With Disabilities (Pwds) And Those From The Underprivileged Sectors Of Society
and their Contributions to Society
A. On PWDs
Feeling of impotence (state of being) OR QUESTIONING “Why me?” are some feelings of ambivalence regarding
a child’s condition. Some parents turn to religion, and consider “heaven-sent blessing in disguise.”
There are many categories of PWD or persons with disabilities. To mention some, there are the hearing
impaired, diabetic, asthmatic, or cystic fibrotic persons.
The process of suspecting, recognizing, and identifying the handicap of parents with PWD will include feelings of
shock, bewilderment, sorrow, anger, and guilt. Whether these pertain to deafness or spirited children, denial for
instance is universal. During diagnosis, isolation of affect occurs when the parents intellectually accept the deafness of
their child. The loss should require mourning or grief; otherwise, something is wrong seriously.

 Parents or the family need to reach the point of constructive action. They can decide to restructure certain
aspects of their lifestyle to accommodate the communicative as well the educational needs of those persons
with disability.
 Community sensitivity, through positive and supportive attitudes toward PWDs, is also an important component.

B. On Underprivileged Sectors of Society

Dimensions of Poverty
The notion of poverty is not one-dimensional; rather it is multi-dimensional. Several different concepts and
measures of poverty relate to its various dimensions. Each of these dimensions has the common characteristics of
representing deprivation that encompasses:
• Income • Health • Education • Empowerment (official authority or legal power) • Working condition

 The most common measure of the underprivileged is income poverty

 Health deprivation

 Human rights are relevant to issues of global poverty in their focus on shortfalls in basic needs. Extending human
rights into the realm of foreign direct investment is also an imperative.
 The church, in its pro-poor stance, is constantly challenged wherein justice is being denied for sectors like
indigenous people, victims of calamity, labor, etc.

C. On the Rights Of Women

In 1712, Jean Jacques Rousseau said that women should be educated to please men. He believes that women
should be useful to men, take care, advise, console men, and render men’s lives easy and agreeable.
 Mary Wollstonecraft (English writer and a passionate advocate of educational and social equality for
women) believes that women must be united with men in wisdom and rationality.
 Society should allow women to attain equal rights to philosophy and education as given to men.
 She maintains that women must learn to respect themselves. Men’s worth should not be based on
the vanity of women and babies, for this degrades women by making them mere dolls.
 Women should not marry for support. Instead, they should earn their own “bread.”
In the Philippines, women are subjected to oppression, among others, of class and sex. “Babae” sung usually
during women’s month (March), is a song that problematizes the gender role assigned by the social order to women
since their childhood.
Some images of women aspiring for liberation are heroines from Philippine history like Gabriela, Teresa, and
Tandang Sora. The song, “Babae” challenges the stereotype of women as represented in Philippine literature by the
figures of Maria Clara, Hule, and Sisa.
 The song “Babae” calls on to study and question the realities; gender roles, being social constructs
resulting from the interplay of power relations in a particular historical juncture, are also arenas for struggle.
 The song, moreover, demonstrates that Filipina women are not simply oppressed but have been actively
participating in movements that not only seek empowerment for their sector but for other marginalized
groups as well (“Sila’y nagsipaghawak ng sandata/ Nakilaban, ang mithiin ay lumaya”)

The Role of Dialogue in the Human Person’s Intersubjectivity

3. Explain That Authentic Dialogue Means Accepting Others Even If They Are Different From Themselves
 Talking to another person does not immediately qualify as a dialogue.
 An authentic dialogue entails a person–to–person, a mutual sharing of selves, acceptance and sincerity,
the “ I – Thou” relationship(Buber)

Martin Buber presented his philosophy through a Dialogue, a philosophical theory that showed a particular
quality of interaction, where the parties involved develop a connection or relationship.
 A dialogue does not always have to be an exchange of words . Dialogical relations are expressed in ways more
than the use of words; exchange of glances, appropriate pauses, stroking of hair, powerful silence, etc. In some
cases, non-verbal dialogical relations are not only the more appropriate means of conversation but also the
more profound form of conversation.

 In many conversations among people, what transpires are mere monologues. Consider the following
relationships:
1. “I – I “ relation –a speech. I never really hear what the other is saying because it never wants to listen. For the I,
the words of the other are simply sounds that they hear, which are devoid of content, meaning, and value. They
only want to hear themselves talk, and they want others to see the world from their perspectives, thus resulting
in monologue.
 2. “I – IT” relationship - open to listening but does not bear the character of a dialogue. I listen to the other but
precisely as an It, an object that needs to be understood and addressed as a thing and not as a person.
3. “I - THOU” relationship – in a dialogue, the I recognizes the other as a distinct person – Thou. The I – Thou
relationship is the experience of being in communion with the other through dialogue; and here, the other may
not necessarily be a human being. It could be your dog, a tree or God.

Obstacles to Dialogue Contrasted with

SEEMING – involves deliberately playing up or hiding BEING – an acceptance of the other in a way that is also
aspects of yourself to appear more desirable or an acceptance of the self as it is.
impressive.
SPEECHIFYING – one’s talking past another PERSONAL MAKING PRESENT – the process of fully
- hearing without listening to what one opening to the other
says
IMPOSITION - holding one’s own opinion, values, UNFOLDING - finding in the other the disposition
attitudes, and oneself without regard for those of others. toward what one recognizes as true, good, and
- telling the other how he or she should act, behave, and beautiful.
respond to things - seeing the other as a unique, singular individual
capable of freely actualizing himself or herself.

Tendencies that Make Dialogue and Personal Making Present Difficult

Analytical Thinking - when we break a person into parts
Reductive Thinking - when we reduce the richness of a person to a schema, a structure, and/or a concept
Derivational thinking - when we derive a person from a mixed formula
 We cannot consider every person we encounter to be related to us in an I- Thou manner. I – Thou relationship
is a privileged type of relationship that requires effort, and the aim is never to transform the other into
something we want them to be but to preserve the otherness of the other, and accept them as they are. This
does not mean that we have to accept everything that the other claims or vice-versa. There will always be
disagreements, differences of perspectives, and judgments. However, the point is to understand the other; and
understanding is not equivalent to agreement.

 Empathy allows us to experience what another consciousness is experiencing . Placing oneself in the situation
of another before an act helps us to be moral because it subjects us to the golden rule principle. This simple
exercise of imaginative transfer before an act can make a very big difference in how we treat others, and
eventually in how we establish relationships with others.
 Emmanuel Levinas on the Power of the Face of a Person . Levinas argues that the face of the other compels us
to respond to its needs. When we look at the face of the other, we see its vulnerability, we see it exposed and
we recognize what it needs; the face speaks to us and obliges us to answer its call. We are being called to be
responsible in the face of the other because we substitute ourselves for the other.
Substitution is not just another word that Levinas used to describe the act of putting ourselves
in the place of others, it is more than that. It is to bear the weight of what the other is
experiencing and find comfort in addressing the weaknesses and difficulties of the other.
 Empathy – movement starts from the I to the other then back to I
 Call of the Face – movement does not stop in the I. The I will go back to the
other to address its needs, and there is no longer a movement back to the I.
When we respond to the call of the face, we respond without expecting anything in return from
the other or anyone. Our responsibility is simply for the other, and if the other does not respond
to us, then that is no longer our responsibility. Reciprocity is not our responsibility.
 Levinas claims that the source of our responsibility to the other is not based on moral rules but simply
on the encounter with the face of the other.

Philosophically, our totality, wholeness, or “complete life,” relies on our social relations. Aristotle said
that friends are two bodies with one soul. Mutual sharing, acceptance, and sincerity are encouraged then with
the outlooks of Karol Wojtyla’s we relations and Martin Buber’s I – Thou relations.

ACTIVITY 2. ASSESSMENT 10 PTS

Write TRUE if the statement is correct, and False if it is wrong.

1. A dialogue can occur without the use of words.
2. The I in an I–it relationship is always morally bad.
3. The reciprocity of the other to us is our responsibility.
4. The direction of our consciousness is always inward.
5. Martin Buber demands that our relationship with others be always an I-Thou relationship.
6. Empathy maintains the otherness of the other.
 7. Empathy proves that the consciousness of the other is not sealed off to us.
8. All conversations are dialogue.
9. Substitution is another word that Levinas used to describe the act of putting ourselves in the place of others.
10. According to Levinas, the source of our responsibility to the other is based on moral rules and laws.

3. A. The Human Person in Society

 Formation of Society
 An organized group of people whose members interact frequently and have a common territory and culture
 A companionship or friendly association with others, an alliance, a community, or a union.
1. Recognize How Individuals Form Societies And How Individuals Are Transformed By Societies
One of the most often quoted lines of Aristotle, “Man by nature is a political animal,” refers to his idea of the
social and political nature of human beings. By this statement, he means that human beings are naturally directed into
forming groups primarily because of their basic subsistence needs.
The human person as social, dialogical, interpersonal, interactive, and intersubjective is embodied by or in a
family first. It is natural for human beings to be social because immediately upon birth, they already have an instant
small society that welcomes, and nourishes them and will soon introduce them to the big society, which is usually
socialization or introduction from barangay to the school, municipality, country and the world. When they grow older
and see other needs of their family, they organize themselves into groups, organizations, and institutions patterned from
the different family upbringings and orientations. They also build physical structures or buildings that embody patterns
or social systems.
Life was much simpler before. One begins to comprehend how technology evolved from medieval crafts to the
Industrial Revolution which was dominated by factors such as revolutionary discoveries in natural resources, detection,
and extraction of energy resources, invention of mechanical devices,availability of investment capital, improved
means of transportation, communication, and growing interest taken by scientific and commercial circles of technology
and engineering.
Society allows individual members to flourish and live a good life. Being part of a society, the human person is
shaped by his social conditions. Thus, the change in society will also change the persons living in that society.

 Our society influences the definition of who we are, and how we relate to other human persons. Consequently, if
we look at the different types of society in the history of humanity, we also see different kinds of people, with
different aims and goals, different lifestyles, different perceptions and understandings of the world, and
different ways of relating themselves to other human persons. The different types of societies are a result of the
continuous evolution of man brought about by several factors, but more evidently, of information, and
technology.

2. Compare Different Forms Of Societies And Individualities

A. PRE – INDUSTRIAL SOCIETIES
 Types of societies that existed before the 18th century or before the Industrial Revolution.
 Characterized as having limited forms of production, limited division of labor, and social stratification as
well as limited means of communication.
1. Hunting and Gathering Society
o Earliest & simplest form of society
o Small-sized and composed mainly of families
o Are nomadic
o Members are treated equally and decisions are usually arrived at through a consensus, because of
this, the roles of its members and division of labor are not very clearly defined
2. Pastoral Society
o Domestication of animals for a more stable food supply
o Have larger populations than hunting and gathering societies and remain longer in one place
o Often produce surplus food and resources, which they trade with other societies
3. Horticultural Society
o Primarily engages in the small-scale cultivation of plants, fruits, and vegetables and the
domestication of animals
o Semi-nomadic
o Roles and responsibilities are more clearly defined with many tasks assigned according to gender
4. Agrarian / Agricultural Society
o A further evolution of the pastoral and horticultural societies
o Involves large-scale and long-term cultivation of crops and domestication of animals
o Improved technology and the use of tools to aid in farming
o Giving rise to a growing population in agricultural societies
5. Tribal and Feudal Society
 Based on the ownership of land
 Rulers grant their followers or vassals the right to manage parcels of land
  Members of the society are organized based on status
 Leaders had control over the social systems of economy and politics and had control over the symbolic
reproduction of society.
 With these types of societies, formal social structures and mechanisms, like states and laws, were eventually
established due to the increasing complexity of social relations. This brought a lot of changes, including a
dramatic increase in population and inequality in the society.
B. INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
 Use of specialized machinery in the production of goods and services
 Resulted in the Industrial Revolution, which in turn gave rise to new production and industrial methods,
as well as innovations in transportation and communication
 Factories became the central working place of most people
 Wealth and power were controlled by fewer people – the capitalists while the masses belonged to the
working class
 The organization of societies and governments improved, creating more formal systems that attempted to
provide efficiency and structure. The increased mechanization (production of automobiles, the establishment of
electrical, steam engine, and other innovations) brought even more changes into society such as a tremendous
increase in production, population, inequality, and oppression.
C. POST-INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
 Marked by the establishment of societies based on knowledge, information, and the sale of services
 Members have higher education, better training, and specialized roles
 Virtual Society, where people organize themselves through communication technology and the Internet, is a
product of a post-industrial society
Consumer Society
 A society in which people often buy new goods, especially goods that they do not need, and in which
a high value is placed on owning many things.
 Culture of consumption slowly crept up into the different societies across the world in the industrial
age but in the 20th century, consumer society has been solidified, where the gradual movement to
its establishment, oppression, alienation, and impoverishment of workers in the production have
significant roles.
 Henry Ford ( founder of Ford Motor Company), known for his FORDISM system where he created a
way by which he could mass produce affordable cars or products through standardization, and the
establishment of better working conditions and compensations.
 Sign value has altered the way of consumption and reached a point where consuming a commodity
is no longer about the actual things being purchased but about the image and spectacle that the
commodity transmits to other people. - “Status quo”
 Relationships with others are materially established, critical thinking is suppressed, there is
discrimination, and social relationships and activities are reduced to economic activities.

Overabundance of commodities has established a Throw-Away Society where disposability becomes the
main characteristic of the products in the market
 throw-away practice in food consumption
 throw-away packaging of products
 proliferation of throw-away products
 Throw-away society creates an acquire-and-throw-acquire-and-throw cycle where we develop an
addiction to acquiring what is new and disposing of what is old.
 The most disturbing effect of the throw-away society is how everything is disposable –
including human beings.

Technological Or Virtual Society

 The Internet has dramatically changed the ways human beings interact. Internet
collapsed the distance created by space as it allows easier communication from
different parts of the world and at the same time the comforts of homes, offices, and
everywhere.

Our society today is labeled as a technological society as it is dominated by technological innovations. This
society has catered to a virtual society where human activities are performed in virtual realities. The presence of
different simulations ranging from games to romantic relationships has altered human interaction. A human
person becomes a disembodied subject as human transactions no longer require actual bodies. What is more
fearful is that technological society is not simply based on technological advances that our society engenders,
but is based on a way of thinking that has predominated human thinking for quite some time.

ACTIVITY 3. ASSESSMENT 15 pts

Write TRUE if the statement is correct, and False if it is wrong.
1. Man is by nature a political animal, is one of Plato’s famous quotes.
 2. Technological Society marks the use of specialized machinery in the production of goods and services.
3. The Society influences the definition of who we are and how we relate to other people.
4. Agricultural Society is marked by the domestication of animals
5. The Society today is known as a technological Society because it is dominated by technological innovations.
6. The throw-away established an overabundance of commodities.
7. The acquire-throw - acquire-throw cycle created the formation of the Throw-Away society.
8. The Tribal and Feudal Society is considered the simplest form of society because of the hunting process.
9. A society is a friendly association with others, an alliance, a community, or a union.
10. The Hunting and Gathering Society is a semi-nomadic type of society.
11. Members of the Post-Industrial society have higher education, better training, and specialized roles.
12. Henry M. Ford is the founder of the Ford Motor Company.
13. The Technological Society boils down to the use of the Internet.
14. The Human Person is embodied by or in a family first.
15. Factories became the central working place of most people during the Post-Industrial Society.

3. Explain How Human Relations Are Transformed By Social Systems

Social System
 Consist of a group of individual actors interacting with each other in a situation that has at least a physical
environmental aspect. These actors are motivated in terms of a tendency toward “optimization of
gratification” and whose relation to their situations, including to each other, is defined and mediated in
terms of a system of culturally structured and shared symbols.
 It is the formal organization of status and role that may develop among the members of a relatively small
stable group (family, school)
New Knowledge
“know thyself” is the main idea of Socrates of good living.
Socrates lived around 469 BC in Greece. His saying “knowledge is virtue; ignorance is vice” is a summation of what
he wants to teach about how human beings should live a good life. Ignorance, as opposite of knowledge, is the
source of evil. Humanity commits evil because people do not know any better. Humanity has met with increasing
success in understanding the secrets of nature and applying this new knowledge to human affairs.

POLICY MAKING
Most communication at the national level has become unified, and many are now organized on a worldwide basis. In
the public realm, governments have increasingly tended to accumulate functions formerly performed by the
province, district, tribe, or family. As life has become more complex, the legal system has also grown to the point
where almost all human activities come in contact with the law in one form or another. This integration of policy
making has brought people within states into an unprecedentedly closer relationship and has resulted in a greater
complexity of social organizations.
ECONOMIC SPHERE
A greater quantity of goods has been produced during the past century in the entire preceding period of human
history.

SOCIAL REALM
Modern knowledge and technology have created an immense impact on the traditional way of life. In a modern
society, 2/3 or more of the population lives in cities, and literacy is virtually universal. Health has also greatly
improved. This complex and interrelated series of changes in humanity`s way of life is generally known as
Modernization. Modernization has changed the power relationships among societies by rapidly interdependent, and
the conduct of their relations has been transformed. Many of the traditional forms of international relations have
survived – alliances and war, conquest and colonization, cultural diffusion, and propaganda.
 Modernization is seen as part of the universal experience, and in many respects, it holds great hope for the
welfare of humanity. Yet, it has also been in many aspects a destructive process. It has destroyed traditional
patterns of life, which had evolved through the centuries many humane values.

ON FRIENDSHIP
True friendships allow each other to be completely themselves. Acceptance and love give women the courage to try
new experiences and stretch their wings. People with less or no friends at all tend to smoke, become overweight,
and not exercise.

 According to Jurgen Habermas, our social interactions helped develop two important realms : the social
systems and the realm of the world. Together, the social system and the lifeworld make up a society. What
makes each society different is marked by the varying relationships between social systems and lifeworld.
 The development of society can be compared to the development of a person. For a person to live, she will
have to sustain her biological needs. Human life also needs spiritual nourishment.
 A society thrives and flourishes in the same way. It needs both material and symbolic reproduction just as
humans need physical and spiritual nourishment.
  Material reproduction – utilization and distribution of society’s resources for the physical survival
and welfare of all individual members.
 Symbolic reproduction – the transmission and renewal of cultural knowledge, establishment of
solidarity and cooperation, and the formation of identities of persons through socialization.
Development of society

Material reproduction Symbolic reproduction

Social systems Lifeworld

(economy and politics) (culture, norms, personality)

Instrumental and strategic action Communicative action

3.B. HUMAN PERSON AS ORIENTED TOWARD THEIR IMPENDING DEATH

The most overriding uncertainty for all human beings is the lack of knowledge about our deaths and what
happens after it. As this question touches upon our life as a whole, it also provides the scope within which we ask the
most comprehensive question for us: What is the meaning of life?
People are always been not ready for the confrontation of death and many of us fear this because once we leave
the world, it is automatically game over for us. And as death is something that we can’t escape, we must live our lives to
the fullest and exercise our purpose to its extent so that we will manage to leave a remarkable mark as we pass by.
Below are some questions on how we deal with the idea of purpose in life which somehow covers the concept of death.
1. Was there ever a chance in your life that you thought about death? Are you afraid to die and cringe at the very
concept of death? On the contrary, would you welcome death willingly and joyfully?
2. What is the goal you want to achieve in life?
3. What is the meaning of your life?
4. Why is there a need to know the meaning of my life?
5. How can you make your life meaningful to others?
6. How can I determine if I’m seeking the right purpose in life?

Recognize the meaning of life

 Martin Heidegger claims that when people face and acknowledge death, they can free up themselves to
become themselves. Death is an undeniable fact of experience. Heidegger says that since this is the case, the
human person cannot choose, but Dasein is thrown into it due to the facticity of his existence. Hence, human
existence must exhibited with care.
 Socrates for a person to be happy, he has to live a virtuous life. Virtue is, not something to be taught or acquired
through education, but rather it is merely an awakening of the seeds that lay dormant in the mind and heart of a
person
 PLATO - Contemplation is very important in the life of humanity because this is the only available means for a
mortal human being to free himself from his space–time confinement.
 PLATO`S THEORY OF IMMORTALITY - the body is the source of endless trouble to us because of the mere
requirement of food, and is liable also to diseases. It fills us full of love, lusts, and fears, and fancies of all
kinds, and endless foolishness. Thus, to see the truth, we must quit the body – the soul in itself must
behold things in themselves. Then, we shall attain the wisdom we desire. Knowledge can be attained
after death: for while In the company of the body, the soul cannot have pure knowledge.
 ARISTOTLE – realizing one’s potential
 Entelechy – to become its essence; nothing happens by chance. For example; A child strives to be an
adult; a seed strives to be a tree.
 Friedrich Nietzsche – 1st book, “ The Birth of Tragedy”
- on realizing one’s higher self or the way to the goal of self-fulfillment, one encounters difficulties.
 Arthur Schopenhauer – we have to be responsible for our existence. From his essay, it begins with the
predicament of the self with its struggle and its destiny: what am I? What shall I do with my life?
 Karl Jaspers – authentic existence is freedom and God. In freedom, one becomes aware of God.

The Harm Thesis

The issue of whether death harms a person or not requires another look at what death does. According to the
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, death can be a state (being dead) a process of extinction (dying), or that one of the
three events that occur during the dying process. Consequently, the definition of death can be very specific as to point
out what process stops occurring during death. According to the Uniform Determination Act, one is dead if there is (1)
irreversible cessation of circulatory and respiratory functions or (2) irreversible cessation of all functions of the entire
brain, including the brain stem. A determination of death, therefore, must be made by the accepted medical standards.
Whether death harms the person depends on the issue of what human persons are. The belief that persons are
human beings, mind, or self-aware will make for differing accounts of what death is and how it can harm a person.
  Every human person is finite; we are being-unto-death. The angst brought about by our inescapable
death makes us live life inauthentically. Until we dare to face the fact of inevitable death, we can never
live an authentic existence, a life lived according to what it has decided as its meaning and purpose.

“He who has a why to live can bear almost any how.” Friedrich Nietzsche

ACTIVITY 4. Reflect on the meaning of your life. (15 pts)

This activity aims to examine the happiest and worst times in search of the meaning behind your life. This can
help you identify more skilfully the activities or conditions where your purpose is well served and abused. This will also
help you distinguish the limitations and possibilities for your transcendence if you learn something new about your
purpose in life. Follow the template below. Use 1/2 sheet of pad paper.
Happiest Times Worst Times
List activities or conditions in your life when you List activities or conditions in your life when you
were most happy. felt dissatisfied.
1. 1.
2. 2.
What did you learn about your purpose in life?