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Notes..history of education

Philosophy of education (Pwani University)

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EFN B102: HISTORY OF EDUCATION

By DR KISAKA

History of Education could be defined as:

The study of the past development of educational systems, theories, practices and institutions
within the general historical framework of political, social, economic, scientific, technological
and cultural changes that different societies have gone through over time.

REASONS FOR STUDYING HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Having defined what we mean by History of Education, let us now find out the importance of
this subject to teachers-to-be.

History of Education is studied for the following reasons;

a) Improving the quality of education

The study of the past educational expertise has many lessons that can be used to improve
present educational theory and practice. The problems and challenges we face in our
education today are not unique, others have faced the same problems and attempted solutions
with varying degrees of success or failure. We can adopt their successes and avoid their
mistakes un attempting to improve our education. History of Education is rich in both
failures and breakthroughs for us to run away from or copy respectively.
b) Strengthening the professional competence of the teacher
A proper study of History of Education affects the way in which teachers or student teachers
conduct their personal and professional activities. The subject contributes to strengthening
both encouraging the teacher to examine, evaluate, accept or modify the cultural heritage:
and to become an educational critic and agent for intelligent cultural transmission and
change, rather than blindly accept the educational status quo, ideas, practices and
unchallenged claims. In other words, an examination of educational theories and practices in
their historical context encourages teachers to adopt a critical attitude towards present
theories and practices.
c) Understanding our own educational systems better

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The past illuminates the present. History not only teache4s what educational is, but also
where it came from, why it came to be, and what it is bound to become in the future. History
of Education is a narrative of the origins, growth and development of educational institutions,
methods, concepts, aims, curricular, theory and practice without which they would appear
new, unexplored, and untried to us in the present world. History of Education thus helps us
appreciate the road travelled by education to reach where it is today.
d) Making comparisons within a historical perspective
History of Education helps one to draw comparisons of the origins and development of
several ideas, practices and theories of education in different societies. In that way it can help
one to formulate better ideas, patterns and principles and provide a larger perspective. It may
also enable one to draw from and act imaginatively using broader range of humanity than
that represented by a single cultural experience.
Apart from drawing a comparison in the evolution of educational ideas, one is also able to
show the development of a particular theory and practice in historical context, and
demonstrate the particular conditions out of which such a theory or practice arose and the
specific purpose it was intended to serve.
Making comparisons within a historical perspective enables one to use the power of
contextual study to introduce innovation by formulating new and better questions, generating
fruitful hypotheses and initiating unexplored lines of inquiry.
e) Satisfying intellectual curiosity
History of Education is like other areas of knowledge, with its own body of knowledge and
conventional methods of acquiring this knowledge. Human beings, and no less teachers and
teachers-to-be are possessed wit inherent desire or curiosity to explore and know what
education is, where it came from, and where it is gong. Studying History of Education
satisfies this innate desire. One need not to go beyond this reason to justify the of History of
Education.
f) Developing power of thinking
The fruitful study History of Education compels us to train and exercise all aspects of
intellectual activity, excites curiosity and the spirit of inquiry, disciplines the faculty of
reason, and cultivates the arts of self-expression and communication. Historical study is also
basic to cultivating the attitudes of the mind that characterize the educated person, the habits

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of skepticism and criticism: of thinking with broad perspective and objectivity:

distinguishing between the good and the bad in human experience. Historical study of
Education gives one the discerning eye to give shape, form, organization, sequence and inter-
relationship and relative importance of ideas.
g) Exposing one to knowledge in other disciplines
Historians of Education must always go beyond the confines of their discipline to fully
understand the nature of the phenomena they study. They particularly need to acquainted
with the social sciences such as sociology. Psychology, philosophy and comparative
education, which can be used in a mutually enriching way to analyze important educational
ideas. Though scholars in each discipline may operate from their own particular perspective,
they must of necessity all draw from the well of history, which contains the raw record of
human experience, and sets the context of events in a tie continuum within which other
disciplines must operate. The study of History of Education thus exposes one to knowledge
in other social sciences and humanities, which are engaged in study of human affairs.

The scope of History of Education

The scope of the History of Education embraces the description, elaboration and analysis of the
formal, informal and non-formal aspects of education.

The formal aspect of education refers to the institutionalized form of learning found in
educational institutions or schools of varying levels and organization which societies establish to
be agents for the specific purposes of transmitting skills, knowledge and values.

The informal aspect refers to the total cultural and educative context into which individuals are
born, grow up in, and reach maturity. Through the process of enculturalization, individuals
acquire the cultural tools they need to be useful and acceptable members of their society such as
language, artistic skills, attitudes, values, morals, and so on. Informal education agencies include
the family, the church, the mosque, the shrine, both mass and electronic media, the state, and
peer groups. All these socialize individuals and sustain them in the roles that are accepted in
society.

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Learning within the informal sector may occur spontaneously or in a planned manner. Included
in the informal sector are the philosophical, intellectual, theological, political, aesthetic,
economic, technological and artistic patterns that make the entire cultural experience of a group
of people

The group defines the levels of competence to be acquired for effective participation by the
individuals.

The non-formal aspect or third channel of education refers to planned educational activities and
programs that exist outside the highly formalized institutional school structure. This sector is
usually needs oriented, targets a particular out-of-a-school group of people, is flexible in terms of
time-tabling, age and is, is not competitive. It is of essence highly utilitarian and diversified to
meet the needs of the beneficiaries. It is not structured in levels.

Examples of the formal, informal and non-formal education would be 8-4-4, African Indigenous
Education and Adult Literacy Education, respectively.

In the context of both formal, informal and non-formal educational processes, History of
Education in this unit will deal with the foundations of modern education since the ancient times
in selected regions in the World, Hebraic-Christian Education, Islamic Education, the
Renaissance, Reformation and Counter reformation, Modern Movements in Education from the
17th century to the present, African Indigenous Education, and the development of Western
Education in Africa with special references to Kenya from the colonial to post-colonial periods.

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EDUCATION IN ANCIENT EGYPT

Introduction

We shall look at the foundations of modern education in Ancient Egypt.

Objectives:

By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 Identify the origins and development of Ancient Egyptian Education

 Identify aims and structure of Ancient Egyptian Education
 Discuss the contribution of Egyptian Education to modern education

Content

Egyptian civilization is the oldest in the long history on man. It pre-dates the Chinese, Indian and
Graeco-Roman civilizations. Egyptian civilization reached its peak between 4,000 B.C. and
1,000 B.C. It is also the earliest civilization with a recorded history. This civilization was a
product of the agricultural activities centered on the River Nile, political unity between the upper
and lower kingdoms under Pharaoh Menes in 3,100 B.C. and resulting centralized autocratic
theocracy, which managed to maximize the existing agricultural economy.

Religion and social classes

In ancient Egypt, all things were inseparable from religion. This made Herodotus (484 B.C. –
425 B.C.), the Greek father of History, to describe the Egyptians as extremely religious. The total
number of deities was in excess of two thousand, the Pharaoh being considered and treated as a
deity on earth, or the god king. The Pharaoh ensured that the gods were worshipped and
sacrifices made to them. All land belonged to the Pharaoh and there was an intimate link
between the religions, the economic, the social, the political, the artistic, the scientific and the
technological practices.

The Egyptians believed in physical life after death, which was considered as a kind of transient
sleep. Because of this, the Egyptians developed mummification or conservation in death in a
highly sophisticated science.

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Egyptian society was stratified into three classes. The upper class included the Royal Family, the
nobles and the priests. The middle class were the professionals and scribes. The lower class
included the fellahin or serfs and the slaves. Egyptian priests had a very powerful position
politically, socially, economically and educationally. They both directly and indirectly controlled
the entire educational system.

THE AIMS AND STRUCTURE OF ANCIENT EGYPTIAN EDUCATION

Aims

Egyptian Education aimed at perpetuating social stability and the status quo. Education
perpetuated a socially stratified society by slotting the various classes into their social, political
and economic riches in society.

The education aimed at producing professionals and labour oriented personnel to support
the social structures. For this reason, Egyptian Education was practical, technical, professional
and utilitarian.

The River Nile being at the heart of Egyptian civilization, education was designed to foster the
development of complex agricultural science, creating irrigation and flood control networks,
which made Egypt the granary of the Ancient world.

Egyptian Education also preferred a religious view of the world by seeking to enhance the
people’s religious and moral development and the piety of gods. Education was considered
both a preparation for the life and a vehicle for life after death. Education thus contained
religious and philosophical studies to achieve the society’s polytheist ideals.

Structure

a) Elementary education
Elementary schools were first established between 3000 B.C. and 2000 B.C. in response to
the basic needs of the Egyptian society. They were established to offer training in various

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rather than literacy. The latter was initially restricted to the clergy, with only their sons being
exposed to reading and writing under priests in temple schools.
Schooling for few lucky boys began at four years of age and lasted up to the time they were
14 years, when they were considered ready for the world of work.
The curriculum included mastering the symbols mastering the symbols and signs of writing
unique to the respective social classes, professionals or vocations; elementary science,
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music and dancing. The last two were taught for
recreational, moral and religious training.
The dominant methods of teaching were dictation, memorization, copying of texts, imitation,
repetition, participation and observation, the last particular in physical education. These
methods did not encourage higher-level thinking, problem solving, or the spirit of inquiry,
with teachers hardly explaining their lessons. School discipline was severe and ruthless.
Laziness was highly discouraged and severely punishable. Good manners, physical fitness
through swimming and archery, cleanliness and moral uprightness were highly valued. To
Egyptians bodily hygiene was of religious significance, and may well have originated the
adage that cleanliness is next to godliness.
Those boys who did not go to elementary school were trained informally by their fathers in
skills other than the 3Rs – reading, writing and the arithmetic. Through apprenticeships and
oral traditions, the masses were taught to fit into their prescribed positions in society. Girls
only received training in domestic roles under their mothers at home. Slaves were offered
any formal education.
b) Secondary education
Secondary education was conducted in the same premises as elementary education. It was
mainly a continuation of improvement and consolidation of elementary school learning, with
particular attention being given to refining the style and composition of the art of writing and
craftsmanship. Boys of upper class informally participated in learning activities that
enhanced their etiquettes and code of behavior.
c) Higher and professional education
This education took place in temples, colleges or universities. On the East Bank of Nile, at
Tell-el-Armana, there was a kind of university, the House of Life. Higher education was
mainly for the instruction of priests and professionals.

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This education was guardedly, secretly and informally passed on to immediate relatives,
colleagues and social equals. It was thus restricted to those recognized as heirs by virtue of
birth. This was particularly in regard to priesthood and medicine. Other professionals
included teachers and scribes who used their homes, offices, business premises and temples
to impart the relevant knowledge and skills to selected boys.

Contribution of Egyptian Education to human civilization

The Egyptian Educational achievements and contributions to human civilization are many. In art,
modern painting and sculpture borrowed much from Egyptian models. In architecture, Egyptians
were the first to successfully mass with stone in copying the massive desert cliffs and mountains
to build pyramids, are of enduring wonders of the world. In literature, the Egyptians used
proverbs, similes, aphorisms, etc., to teach moral conduct, methods that are in extensive use in
today’s teaching. In mathematics, the Egyptian method of multiplication was until recently used
in Eastern Europe and Asia. In medicine, the Egyptians had knowledge of physiology, surgery
and blood circulation, and are the originators of the Hippocratic Oath.

In writing, the Egyptians developed hieroglyphics and invented the earliest known writing
materials. ‘Paper’ is an abbreviation of “papyrus”, which was a plant cultivated in Egypt and
used for writing.

However, there are critics of Egyptian civilization ho argue that these achievements were not
built due to stagnation and decline that followed the old of the old Kingdom. That as it may be,
but the foundations of modern western world developments in science and technology in Ancient
Egypt are not in dispute.

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EDUCATION IN ANCIENT INDIA

Introduction

We shall examine how the three major religions; Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism influenced
the development of education in Ancient India

Objectives

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Describe how religions of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism contributed to development

of education in Ancient India
 Identify by listing the major contents of these religions.

Contents

Indian civilization, religion and education

Indian civilization arose between 2,500 and 1,500 B.C. along the Indus River. It was centred on
the proper utilization and management of the resources of the Indus River Valley, mainly
agriculture.

The civilization thrived 1,300 B.C. and 450 A.D. during which time, Hinduism and Buddhism
arose and developed into major world religions. A third religion, Jainism, arose, although it had
fewer adherents than the first two.

The three religions affected education in India in basic ways. To understand the education of
Ancient India therefore requires us to also understand the religious foundation of this education.
Education was inseparable from religion. Indeed, the principles of this education were contained
in the three religions’ holy texts.

At the elementary level education was devoted to the vocations and was therefore, practical and
utilitarian. It included religious instruction.

Higher education was highly esteemed as the path to salvation. Among the Hindus or Brahmans,
higher education was offered in training colleges called parishads and forest colleges which
catered for the higher education of distinguished scholars and emphasized contemplation

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religious education was conducted in temple colleges, whereas secular matters were taught in the
court schools. The dominant teaching methods were oral and rote, emphasizing memorization
and imitation.

Hinduism and education

Hinduism is one of the leading religions of the world, in terms of the number of its followers
scattered all over the world. The religion has three main gods

 Brahma, the creator, or lord of the universe

 Vishnu, the preserver of the universe, and
 Siva, the destroyer

Teachings about, these gods are contained in the Upanishads. Hinduism is a complex and
eclectic religion, combining several ideas, and being polytheistic in worship and action, but
monotheistic in theory.

According to Hinduism, salvation means ascending from the sinful materialistic world into god,
Brahma. According, the main aim of education is to enable one to be free from earthly desire.

The language of Hindu learning and scriptures is called Sanskirt. The Vedas contain Ancient
Hindu religious teachings, which include hymns, chants and rituals. The Vedas are the holy texts.
They clearly show that Indian society was stratified into rigid caste system, which prescribes the
duties of each caste. The castes included:

 The Brahmins – the intellectuals, rulers, teachers and priests

 The Kshatriyas – warlords, warriors and administrators
 The Vaisyas – farmers, herders, money-handlers and merchants
 The Sudras – menial servants and serfs of the first three castes

Members of each caste had their own duties, responsibilities, and privileges. The caste system
was thus a social and religious stratification and was central to the operation of Hinduism. The
caste system allowed no mobility between the classes and no equality of opportunity, even in
education. The sudras and women hardly received any education.

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Those cast out of their classes for non-adherence to the rigid stipulations were referred to as
Pariahs. These were casteless and had no rights or privileges.

Buddhism and education

Buddhism developed as a major religion from about 500 B.C. due to the following factors:

a) The emergence of alternative civilization centred on the Ganges River Valley

b) The new civilization rendered Hinduism inadequate for the rich, independent minded and
urbanized population

By 200 B.C. Buddhism had spread the Indian peninsula to other parts of Asia.

The founder of Buddhism was Gautama Siddharta (563 B.C. – 489 B.C.), particularly known as
the ‘Buddha’ or the ‘Enlightened One’ by his followers. Born in Nepal to the North of India, the
Buddha became disillusioned with his aristocratic lifestyle and left his family to lead an ascetic
life of meditation through yoga. Six years later, at 35 years of age, he received a revelation on
the right path in life. This major motivation for adopting ascetic life was to understand why
suffering existed in the world. In the revelation, the Buddha is said to have seen the past, the
present and the future, and found the cause of suffering to be desire. The right or noble path
revealed to him consisted of eight steps, namely;

The right views, right aspirations, right speech, right conduct, right livelihood, right effort, right
mindfulness, and right contemplations. The Buddha emphasized that one’s success in following
the right path during his present life is determined by his/her behavior in preceding lives, or the
law of karma which determined one’s order of re-incarnations.

The ultimate aim in following the right path was to reach a state of Nirvana in which suffering
had been overcome, a desire-less state that stops any further re-incarnations, with the soul
becoming nothing.

In Buddhism, knowledge was accepted from all sources and was respected. The main aim of
education was to produce an individual who could free himself/herself from self-centredness,
one who could become compassionate, pitiful and enduring. In Buddhism, education was for all,
irrespective of caste.

Jainism and education

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Jainism is closely associated with Buddhism and is one of the oldest religions in India, though a
minority one. The religion was founded around 500 B.C. by Vardhamana, who was born in
NorthWest India. Jain means ‘Conqueror of evil’. There are believed to be such conquerors, the
supreme ones being Pishabha and Mihavira. Jains believe that earth is external and is revived in
different cycles by different Jains.

Salvation in Jainism is achieved when soul is isolated from the body and attains the ultimate
state, Nirvana. Like Buddhism, Jainism emphasizes ascetism and monastic life, and in the of
time has become more and more identified with Buddhism in India.

Educationally, the major aim was to produce an individual who would be critical and self-reliant,
one who constantly viewed existing religions with skepticism and sought to achieve spiritual
well-being through yoga.

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EDUCACTION IN ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME

Introduction

We shall discuss education in ancient Greece and how Greek educational thought affected that of
the rest of western Europe and consequently shaped educational systems in Africa after being
used with Roman civilization after the Roman Conquest.

Objectives

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

a) Compare Athenian education with that of Sparta

b) Identify the major contribution of Ancient Greek education to modern education

Content

The Greeks or Hellenes settled in the Greek Peninsula sometimes after 2000 B.C. They formed
themselves into twenty city-states or polis. Though there was no unified government, the Greeks
were united by language, religion and a common civilization.

Greek society was regimented into three classes: the citizens, the non-citizens and state-owned
slaves. Provision of education was determined by one’s social class. In terms of education, the
city-states of Sparta and Athens were the most important. However, their education was not as
religious as that of other ancient civilizations.

Greek education can be divided into two methods, the old and the new. The first is referred as the
Age of Homer, which began about 900 B.C. and ended about 776 B.C. the date of the first
Olympiad. This education was dominated by the Homeric epics, was theologically and
discipline-based, and was interpreted by Spartan education.

The new education lasted from about 431 B.C. and extended to the point Greek civilization was
fully integrated into Roman life after 4th century B.C. This education marked the peak of Greek
civilization characterized by a cultural revolution in which old traditions in education, religion
and morality were discarded. By close of this period philosophical schools had been established,
being later organized into the university of Athens. The new education was philosophically
oriented towards peace and war and is respected by Athenian education.

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Education in Sparta

Spartan education represented the Old Greek education and was regulated by the Constitution of
Lycurgus (850-800 B.C.). The constitution established a military socialist state-controlled
education to serve the needs of the various social military institutions in Sparta.

The city-state o Sparta was situated in the middle of a hostile conquered people who greatly
outnumbered the Spartans both in and outside the polis. As an indication of this disproportion, by
about ninth century B.C. there were about 9,000 Spartan citizens against 250,000 non-citizens (a
ratio of 1:28). Due to this, main objective of Spartan education was to produce warriors for the
survival of society. It was designed to instill and develop obedience and loyalty in Spartan youth
and was highly paternalistic.

The paedonomus or superintendent was charged with the duty of educating Spartan youth. At
birth, infants were exposed to ice and snow in the mountains to weed out the weaklings. At the
age of seven years, boys began to live in barracks where they were given small ratios, bathed in
cold water and received beatings from elders.

Life in the barracks emphasized harsh existence. Educational activities included drills and
gymnastics with a little informal training in intellectual education in the form of basic language.
Discipline was harsh.

Between the age of 18 and 20, boys became ephebi or cadet-citizens and underwent vigorous
military training. From age 20-30, they were posted to serve at border points. At age 30, they
became warriors, full citizens and could marry but continue to lead a communal life in the
barracks. Women received gymnastic training at home aimed at producing mothers of strong and
brave warriors.

Spartan education developed no art, literature, philosophy or science. They developed an

education that produced physical strength, endurance, stamina and strength of character, loyalty
and patriotism.

Today the word ‘Spartan’ makes an image of discipline, obedience, loyalty and hand-to-mouth
existence. In politics, it is derogatory to refer to a regime ´Spartan´.

Education in Athens

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Athenian education is symbolic of the New Greek education. As on the case of Sparta, Athenians
believed in the supremacy of the state, although theirs was tempered by an emerging belief that
individual’s self-actualization was just as good for the welfare of the state. Athenian education
was liberal and emphasized science, humanities and physical fitness.

The Athenian state only provided education between the age of 16 and 20 which was an
advanced course in physical training in preparation for military service. Before this, and starting
at 7 years of age. Athenian boys received two types of education in private schools: physical
exercises and music, singing and playing musical instruments.

State education also included instruction in reading, writing and literature and was wholly under
state officials. The boys became cadet-citizens at 16 years, graduating to full citizens after two
years, after which education and training continued, since the whole environment was educative.
Girls received domestic education in seclusion in their homes.

During the transitional Age of Pericles that was marked with extreme individualism, political and
economic exchanges with various kinds of people, a cultural revolution occurred, and with it the
need to change the curriculum. The emergent curriculum was centred towards individual land
was literally and theoretical. It included geometry, drawing, grammar and the rhetoric. The
education of citizen-cadets now emphasized intellectual development rather than physical
fitness. This produced freelance teachers known as Sophists who faced the challenge of training
young men for a political career. They were trainers in practical wisdom and claimed they could
teach any subject. Their influence on Athenian youths was profound, to the point that they
accepted no university criteria for truth, knowledge and morals. This was negative, for no
satisfactory interpretation of life could be made: every situation would be subject to individual
judgement. This was seen as destructive by the older generation who disapproved of the
Sophists’ tendency to be biased towards a laissez faire (leaving thing alone) approach in
teaching. As a result, there arose a conflict between the Old and New Greek education.

Realizing that a return to the old moral system would not be possible, there arose educational
theorists who were known as the ‘Great Mediators’. They tried to construct a middle ground in
the conflict based on a new understanding of work or virtue revolving around the individual,
rather than Athenian citizenship. Among the most unknown educational theorists were Socrates
(469 B.C. - 399 B.C.), Plato (427 B.C. - 347 B.C.) and Aristotle (384 B.C. - 328 B.C.).

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As a result of their efforts, two cases of higher education developed; the rhetorical schools,
preparing pupils for public life through training in oratory, and the dialectic philosophical
schools whose primary objective was speculative, metaphysical and ethical questions. The
university of Athens grew out of a synthesis of the two types of schools. The university had the
elaborate structure of a modern university and continued to function as the hub of learning within
the Roman Empire until Emperor Justinian suppressed it in A.D. 529.

After the Roman Conquest of 146 B.C., Greek civilization fused with Roman education and
spread over the East, extending beyond its boundaries without changing its character. The Greek
legacy for the history of education and the course of human civilization was thus spread around
the world by the Roman Empire.

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ISLAM AND EDUCATION IN AFRICA

Introduction

We shall look at Islamic education in Africa; the aims and curriculum, major features and
contribution to human civilization

Objectives

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Identify the historical roots of Islamic education in Africa

 List the objectives of Islamic education
 Identify the features/pillars of Islamic education
 Name at least five ways to which Islamic education has contributed to educational and
scientific development to modern times

Content

Islamic Education in Africa

Arabic language and records have helped a lot in the understanding of early African history and
civilization. Much of the knowledge about ancient kingdoms of Kush, Timbuktu, Sokoto, Mali,
etc. was derived from Arab travelers and historians.

The process of Islamization occurred through the activities of individual Muslim scholars and
teachers who ventured to large towns and cities to establish Islamic Centres of learning. This
process was slow and it took generations for their influence and converts to grow the pre-literate
societies they worked in.

In West Africa, Islam was first established towards the 11th century A.D. when Muslim dynasty
began to rule the kingdom of Bomu in 1085. In other parts of West Africa, it was not until the
end of 15th century that Islam was firmly established in Hausaland. The 19th century saw a series
of Jihads, Islamic holy wars, the consequence of which was the establishment of Islamic
institutions in many African societies with Islam becoming virtually the dominant culture. A
typical example is Northern Nigeria where over 70% of the population is Islam. In the Sudan,

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Arab immigrants between the 10th and 15th centuries introduced Islam to the Northern Nilotic
population.

In East Africa, Islam slowly filtered down across the Sahara from Persia and Arabia first being
established along the Coast, from where it gradually penetrated to the interior. Although the
Muslim groups along the East African coast have tended to maintain a social and cultural
identity in contrast to their indigenous non-Muslim coastal neighbours, intermarriage between
them resulted in the Waswahili who have their own distinct language and culture with Islamic
roots.

Objectives and curriculum

The Islamic education system places less importance on examination and certificates compared
to western formal education. In general, it places more importance or expressive and normative
than instrumental goals. The essence of this education is moral and character training, although it
places considerable emphasis on physical, mental, scientific and practical aspects. Each lesson
emphasizes moral aspects.

Islamic education also focuses on secular issues and material aspects of life. Subjects such as
sciences, literature and arts are studied to sustain livelihood and acquire truth to enhance moral
uprightness. Through the study of vocational and industrial subjects, the individual is enabled to
earn a livelihood. After the initial study of the Koran and Arabic language, every child pursues
vocational preparation until he/she masters a profession, art or trade in order to earn a living and
lead an honourable and dignified life, morally, spiritually and materially. This way, the material
aspects of education enrich the moral/spiritual objectives.

However, the Koranic school curriculum in Africa has been seen to have a strong religious bias,
thereby diminishing emphasis on secular aspects of education. Koranic schools focus on
memorizing the 6o parts (esus) of the Koran. This can take up to five years and is divided into
five stages, with a ceremony marking the completion of each. Memorizing of the Koran goes
hand in hand with learning of Arabic alphabet, the vowel sounds and writing.

The Koran School System

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Children between the ages of six and fifteen are admitted to the Koranic schools, usually found
in or outside a mosque, but sometimes in private houses or premises. In these schools, the
Mallam (teacher) teaches the children to memorize the shorter verses of the Koran through
repetition and rote. The teacher uses tada (ink) to write each chapter on the wala (slate) of each
child. At the primary level, children are only required to memorize one or two of the chapters in
each part of the Koran that are needed for daily prayers.

From the child is taught the alphabet of the Arabic language which is composed of 26 letters, all
consonants. The stage lasts between 6-30 weeks. This is followed by a period in which the child
is taught the formation of syllables with vowels, which are four notations or signs written above
or below a consonant to indicate what vowel sound go with it. The newly acquired skills are used
to read the first two parts of the Koran all over again. This stage can take between 6-18 months.

The above is the elementary level, which every Muslim must pass through to be able to pray and
perform other religious duties and ceremonies, which are done in Arabic.

Some students proceed to secondary school or Ilm, which has a wider curriculum covering
Islamic literacy, theological and legal subjects. The curriculum includes tafsir, the interpretation
of Koran; literature, mainly derived from Koranic commentary; study of hadith, texts that
contain teachings about the Muslim faith, traditions, rites, personal conduct and social
organization, study of figh, the theory of Islamic sacred law (Sharia), which prescribes people’s
status, duties and rights; Arabic; Madith or praises to Prophet Muhammad; Sira or literature on
stories and verse about the life of The Prophet; and Wa’z which is literature describing the
Islamic ideas of paradise and hell.

The secondary level is for students of all ages. The stage merges with the post-secondary level
and marks the point where the students start to specialize in a chosen area. This marks the
beginning of the university level. Having chosen the area of the specialization, the student
proceeds to a university or continue under the tutelage of local specialists. At the end of
university learning, a licence is awarded, empowering one to practice either as a teacher (Imam
or Alkali), depending on their speciality.

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Some of the characteristics of the Koranic educational institutions are:

 There are no rigidly codified rules; only conventional was of behavior to guide pupils and
teachers
 Periods for classes are vaguely fixed
 Teacher can declare a holiday if included in other matters such as burial, a naming
ceremony
 Teacher-pupil relationship is cordial and, personal, with the former acting as a custodian
 School week starts from Saturday to Wednesday
 Usually there was three sessions a day, whose times for beginning and ending vary from
area to area and from teacher to teacher
 Fees are nominal, paid in cash and kid, and not fixed. Teachers may also receive gifts,
especially during the festive periods
 During the month of Ramadhan, pupils accompany their teachers to their preaching
grounds.
 On ceremonial occasions, pupils present plays based on the life of The Prophet
 The Walimat or graduating ceremony is the most momentous occasion in the life of a
Muslim scholar and can take place any time after primary level
 Teacher qualifications differ from school to school and from place to place and range
from the highly learned Ulama to those only qualification is that they can recite the
Koran and write Arabic characters
 Most schools are run according to the discretion of the individual proprietors, who are
usually Koranic school teachers themselves. Due to this, there is no uniform curriculum,
teacher qualifications, teacher wages, tuition and admission fees, and certificates.

Integration of Islamic and formal western education

Islamic religion and culture occupy an important place in the lives of a large population of
Africa. During and after colonialism there have been attempts to integrate Islamic and western
formal education.

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The first has been to introduce secular subjects into the framework of Islamic education, or to an
Islamic perspective within a largely secular curriculum. This has usually ended up over-loading
the curriculum and not resolving the inherent contradictions between the two.

A second approach has entailed the introduction of modern teaching methods to teach the
traditional Islamic subjects. This has in essence meant leaving the Islamic curriculum intact, to
the seclusion of the formal western education curriculum.

Both approaches have been successful only to a limited extent. As some scholars have suggested,
a more effective would be to adopt a two-way integration process which would involve different
curriculum, material, structure and processes accompanied by a candid admission of the basic
contradictions inherent in the two systems. The approach is considered pragmatic in view of the
strong and deliberate proselytization present in both systems that are difficult to reconcile or
abandon. As long as these remain, Christians will continue being wary of sending their children
to Muslim schools, with Muslims just as suspicious of Christian schools dominated by scripture
teaching and Christian staff.

Achievements of Islamic education

The achievements and contributions of Islamic education to modern developments in the

knowledge of science and technology are many. We shall only mention a few of the most notable
here.

Inn mathematics, the Muslims introduced Arabic numerals and decimal notations. Arabs made
great advances in geometry, invented algebra and developed spherical trigonometry, especially
the sine, tangent and cotangent.

In the field of physics, Muslim Arabs invented the pendulum and advanced the world’s
knowledge of optics. They also built several astronomical observatories and instruments.

In chemistry, they discovered substances such as potash, silver nitrate, nitric acid and sulphuric
acid. In manufacturing, they were acknowledged leaders through their captivating variety, beauty
of design and perfection of workmanship in gold, silver, copper, bronze and iron. In design, they

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produced glass and pottery of the finest quality and invented the dyeing and manufacturing of
papers.

In farming, they adopted scientific methods and came up with elaborate systems of irrigation,
land reclamation and flood control. In medicine, they studied physiology, hygiene, methods of
treatment, blood circulation, surgery and were the originators of the Hippocratic Oath.

In art and architecture, the Muslims proved their expertise in the construction of mosques,
palaces, tombs and cities.

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EDUCATIONAL DURING THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

Objectives

By the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

 Explain the forces that contributed to the rise of universities in Europe

 Describe the structure, organization, methods of teaching and types of universities
 Discuss university degrees during the medieval times and point to the influence of
medieval universities.

Content

Medieval education and universities\

The ancient world may fairly be said to have had their universities, institutions in which all
learning of the time was imparted. Such institutions existed in Alexandria, Athens,
Constantinople and later Beirut, Bordeaux, Lyons and Odesa. But the growth of Christian
supernaturalism and mysticism as well as barbarian inroads from the North and South had put an
end to most of these by A.D. 800. After A.D. 800, Eastern Moslems founded universities in
Baghdad, Cairo and Basra, but these came to an end in the early 12th century. Then there arose in
Spain at Cordova, Toledo and Seville, the universities of western Moslems, lasting to the end of
the 13th century, when they suppressed by Orhodox Fanatism. The Moslem universities may
therefore be said to be parents of the Christian universities.

Medieval education and the rise of universities

The Middle Ages are also referred to as the ‘Dark Ages’. The early Middle Ages lasted from the
6th to 11th centuries. European universities can be said to have come into existence in the late
Middle Ages: from the 11th to the 13th centuries. They are therefore a feature of the comparative
peace that ensued when the northern men, the last migratory Teutons, accepted a settled life in
the 10th and 11th centuries. In the resulting quest for universal knowledge, the need arose for
higher education, for dialectic discussion and for intellectual interests. Therefore, a number of
upper cathedral and monastic schools came into prominence. The most important of these was at
Paris under William of Chapeaux and Abelard. These schools were later to be known as
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universities. The essential elements of early universities were students and teachers. They found
their models in the universities of Spain.

The forces behind the rise of universities

Many influences combined to produce the universities. Universities did not originate under
exactly similar conditions. Among the forces or influences that produced universities were the
following:

a) The Moslem influence

The Moslem religious conquest, ‘jihads’ or ‘holy wars’ had reached Spain by A.D. 900,
giving Spain a civilization and intellectual life. The Moslem had come into contact with
Greek civilization and learning in Syria, cloth9ing their faith in Greek forms. The Nestorian
Christians had collaborated with them. They had also mathematical and astronomical
knowledge from Hindu sources and brought them to Spain. By A.D. 1000, European monks
were attracted to this training because they regarded Moslem to the western equivalent, thogh
like the clerics they regarded Moslem training as being dangerous. Spain thus reflected
ancient Rome at this time. Moslem – established universities of Cordoba, Toledo and Seville,
physics, chemistry, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, physiology and Greek philosophy
were taught. The Moslem translated Greek classics into Arabic, cultivated high standards of
learning and were tolerant when it came to new ideas. The outstanding scientific work of the
time Avienna’a (980 -1037) Canon of Medicine. Roger bacon (1214-1294) owed much debt
to Moslem mathematician, physicists and chemists.
b) The development of Scholasticism
Scholasticism was a feature of educational development in Europe from the 11th to 15th
centuries. The scholastic method consisted in citing all known authorities on both sides of a
given question, drawing an orthodox conclusion and then by a variety of distinctions and
devices showing how each authority may be reconciled. It was the explication of what was
implicit in mysticism: a reaction from the ‘other-worldliness’ which had led the church to
withdraw from the ways of the world, becoming pre-occupied instead with the world to
come. Bernard (d1153) was the prince of mystics. Scholasticism was a systemization of
speculation and faith by rigid application of Aristotelian logic to philosophical and
theological questions of the Middle Ages. Aristotle was rediscovered and his teachings were

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strong mean to the scholars of the Middle ages and had to be broken down into essentials to
be assimilable. For Aristotle ideas were only names, really consisting only of concrete
individual objects.
Scholasticism was therefore necessary in order, first, to correct the mystical tendencies of the
orient, the mere contemplation which had introduced in Europe and was sapping the energies
of the Europeans, withdrawing the best br5ains from the life of the whorl; secondly, to put
Europe in possession of rational thought of the ancient world; thirdly, to save Europeans
from moral suicide and ignorance, paving the way through the logical method for modern
research and science; and finally, to compel Christendom to rouse itself and state its position
as definitely opposed to Islam, with systematic body of doctrine distinctive from Islam.
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) was the most important of the Scholastics. He tried to combine
Aristotelian thought with Christian tradition.
c) The growth of cities and wealth
The development of commercial enterprises and municipal government stimulated secular
interests and learning more than ever universities. The growth of intellectual interests
hastened the development of specialization and in time European universities began to offer
studies in four faculties, arts, consisting of seven liberal arts-grammar, rhetoric, dialectic,
arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music, law, medicine and theology. Not all Medieval
universities offered studies in all four faculties. Some instead specialized in one area: Salerno
founded in 1224 in the study of Medicine, Bologna (1158) in the study of law, Paris (1180)
in the study of theology. By 1500 there seventy-nine universities in Europe.
d) Kings and universities
The founding of universities was encouraged by definite privileges in the form of charters;
these were written documents from the Pope or emperor giving the university full recognition
as a distinct body. The first charter was given by emperor Fredrick I to Bologna in 1158.
University privileges and exemptions included: the right of internal jurisdiction, based on
their inbuilt sense of maturity; the right to confer a degree or licence to teach; exemption
from taxation and contribution; exemption, partly or wholly from military service; clerical
status for their scholars, who wore clerical dress, as in orders, though they might not be
ordained; and the right to strike, or move the university, consisting as it did of students and

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teachers only, it its privileges were infringed. The scholars of Oxford therefore to from Paris
and those who founded Cambridge moved there from Oxford.

Types of universities in Europe

These forces thus combined in various proportions. Each university had its own characteristics.
In France and England universities were outgrowths of the church. Thus the university of Paris
came to be known for its dialectic and scholastic pursuits. In Southern Italy, universities came
into being or were influenced by contacts with the Saracens, Normans and Greeks, leading to the
study and practice of medicine by the university of Salerno. In Northern Italy, a struggle with the
German Emperor for its right led to great interest in Roman and canon Law at Bologna, the first
organized university.

Medieval universities were organized around teachings, faculties and student population. They
were organized like guilds, for no individual then was sure of his or her rights, even of life and
property, unless these were protected by specific guarantees secured from some organization.
The same therefore applied to groups of students, or teachers, which recognized as distinct
bodies. Thus the term university meant to corporate body of persons.

Being heterogeneous masses of students, drawn from all over Europe, language and kinship
constituted the most natural divisions in the universities. Students and masters were therefore
organized in groups according to their national affiliations. It was to these nations that charters
containing privileges were granted.

The masters were organized into faculties (faculty means a kind of knowledge). These were to
regulate studies and methods. In time the name ‘faculty’ applied to a department of study, like
the faculty of law, theology or arts. Later, ‘faculty’ came to refer to a body of men in control of a
department of study. This body of men later gained control of granting degrees.

Medieval universities used methods of teaching based on the formal lecture, which would be
memorized by the students. Lectures involved reading and explaining the required texts. Students
then debated the relevant points with each other, and sometimes the students and masters held
public disputations. Latin was the language used for lectures.

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The examination for the award of degree were strict. After three to seven years at university, the
student had to defend a thesis before the members of the faculty. For doctor’s degree, the
examination frequently lasted a week or more. The examinations were oral and tested the ability
to defend and dispute. If the candidates passed, they would become masters, doctors or
professors, since these were synonymous in the early university period. All these signified that a
student was able to defend, dispute and determine a case, and so was authorized to teach
publicly, all such students were admitted to a guild of masters or teachers, or faculty, a level of
purity with its other members.

The preliminary degree, the baccalaureate, or bachelor’s was a term signifying a beginner in any
field or organization, and was formal admission as a candidate for the licence. Initially, it was
not a degree by itself, but in the 15th century, it became a distinct stage in the educational
process, defined as a minor degree. The masters of doctorate merely indicated two aspects of the
final conferment of the privilege: the master was a more private and professional test and the
doctorate was public and ceremonial. In due course ‘master’ was preferred in England and
‘doctorate’ on the continent. The development of three successive degrees was therefore a result
of slow historical growth and not a feature of the medieval university.

Influence of university training

Universities like Paris, Bologna, Salerno and Salamanca (1230) provided more advanced
instructions than ever previously offered in Europe. Culturally and socially their effects were
considerable, helping to accelerate the pace of social progress and hastening the end of the
medieval epoch. Before the universities arose, education ideals were the function of exhaustively
constructed worldview that was dominated by religious interests, and schools existed largely to
train the clergy.

a) Political influence
Unlike monastic, conventual’s and cathedral school, then universities were usually located in
centres of population rather than in remote spots. Also unlike the religious institutions, they
were democratic in nature, so that politically, ecclesiastically and theologically they were
bulwark of freedom, given their legal privileges. They preserved freedom of opinion and

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expression, the monarchs respected the scholars’ opposing views and there were rare
instances of violation of student privileges. Even monarchs like Henry VIII and Philip of
France appealed to universities for arbitration in their divorce cases, which raised critical
doctrinal matters of the time.
b) Intellectual influence
Although medieval times were static educationally, because of barbaric conquests, and
although universities were restricted, formalized and meagre, their greatest influence was in
crystallizing intellectual interests and making libraries and teachers more accessible than the
religious institutions did. They provided a retreat for the rare geniuses such as Bacon (1214-
1294), Dante (1265-1321), Petrach (1304-1374), Wycliffe (1324-1384), Huss (burned 1415)
and Copericus (1473-1543).

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EDUACTION DURING THE PERIOD OF RENAISSANCE AND THE REFORMATION

Introduction

We are going to discuss features of historical importance in education during the period of
Renaissance and Reformation.

By the of Objectives

this lecture, you should be able to:

 Explain what Renaissance was;

 Discuss the causes of Renaissance;
 Describe the re-emergence of liberal education with Renaissance;
 Expalain what the Reformation and Counter- Reformation stood, and their specific
influences upon education.

Causes of the Renaissance

The causes of the Renaissance include the following:

a) The spirit of medieval universities

Scholasticism led to the speculative spirit which culminated in a struggle between Naturalism
and the Hellenic in nature, seen then to be progressive; and Supernaturalism, seen in the
authoritarian, stable and suspicious Catholic Church.
b) The crusade of 1095-1270
The crusaders who flocked to the East in the seven crusades following 1095 came into
contact with Eastern civilization. This created a craving for new products and commodities;
trade prospered and commerce and manufacturing were reactivated in the free cities. The
middle class r burghers rose in importance, pointing the way to a new manner of living. The
crusades also European contact with Bryzanite and Arabic learning, both being in direct line
with the Hellenic tradition. This tradition was more thoughtful and inquiring.
c) The invention of printing
Towards the close of 13th century, the process of making paper was introduced into Europe
from the East. By 1450, paper was in common use, with the way being opened for the

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invention of printing. The discovery of the art of painting spread the new learning all over
Europe. It meant that manuscripts were replaced by replaced by books, and great numbers
could be printed, so that information and learning spread to more people. Printing therefore
made learning and education widespread, though grammar was still the despot and rote
memory the slave.

Educational significance of Renaissance

The Renaissance was characterized by two educational features:

a) Liberal education
Renaissance education encouraged the development of freedom and individualism, moving
away from medievalism and supernaturalism of the Romans towards the free Germanic
spirit. Educationally, the Renaissance influenced language and developed a broader and more
liberal kind of education which aimed the whole man in mind, body, taste, knowledge, heart
and will. This education encouraged the development of the free man, possessing his own
individuality and the power to participate effectively in everyday life, based on a wide
knowledge of life in the past and an appreciation of the opportunities in the present.
Thus from the 15th century onwards there were four growing tendencies in European
education: an endeavor to make it natural and practical instead of abstract and theoretical,
including an aesthetic element unknown in medieval education; the education of care for the
body, which had been greatly neglected and dispersed in previous cultures; a move to extend
to all classes of people, and not to the clerics as was formally the case; and an endeavor to
adopt gentle and attractive methods of teaching, instead of the harsh and repulsive methods
formerly used.
b) Humanistic education
Humanistic education emphasized the language of Greece and Rome: the humanities. The
spirit of humanism was not confined to scholars, but was spread to other parts of the society,
aiding in generally tolerant way of life, and in scholarly circles contributing toward
moderation in intellectual altercations.
Nevertheless, in due course humanistic education was narrowed down to linguistic education
only. It was becoming pointless and profitless to concentrate on humanistic education by the

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17th century. Its fanaticism is shown by the religious wars of the 16th and 17th centuries.
Aristotle had been replaced by Cicero (106 B.C. – 43 B.C.) and Ceceronianism, which
maintained that the aim of education was to impart a perfect Latin style based on Cicero and
his imitators. Erasmus (1467-1536) satirized this in the Ciceronian.

The Reformation and Education

In the 16th century, protestants revolted and the Roman Catholic Church reformed. The
Reformation was a series of revolts from the catholic church, which had resisted all efforts at
internal reforms of its ecclesiastical doctrines. At the Council of Tent (1543-1563), the need for
reform had been accepted. The Reformation therefore as the application of Renaissance to
matters of religion. Thus the 16th century Protestant Reformation spelled the demise of the grand
medieval synthesis, a consequence wholly unintended by religious leaders.

The principal period of Reformation growth was between 1520-1550, after which the Catholic
Reform movement got underway. The immediate impulse to the revolt against the Catholic
Church was the Publication by Luther (1843-1546) in ninety-nine theses, reflecting his
conviction that salvation was a matter of faith rather that the consequence of good work. The
German Reformation followed Luther, while that of the Swiss, the Dutch and the Scandinavians
was based on the teachings of Calvin (1509-1564). The protestant revolt had important
consequences for education, to which rebels looked for fulfillment of their ideas.

Impacts of Reformation on Education

a) Influence of secondary schools and universities

The move towards a state system of education at the elementary level was soon to be
extended to secondary schools. Princes and states began to control such schools.
In the case of universities, many remained loyal to Catholicism, the champion of authority.
All adhered to the Principles off Submission to ecclesiastical authority. In Germany, the
universities gradually threw off their allegiance to temporal princes. The English universities,
especially Oxford and Cambridge, went over to Protestantism, under the Church of England.
Despite these educational changes during the Reformation, education remained largely what
it had been before, in the hands of clerics, teaching old subjects, with science being suspect

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as magic or a black art. Education therefore, remained a struggle between supernaturalism

and authority, on one hand and nature and science on the other.

How did the following individual contribute to the development of education during this period?

i. John Amos Comenius (1592-1670).

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EDUCATION DURING THE PERIOD OF ENLIGHTENMENT: 18TH CENTURY

We shall focus on importance during the period of Enlightenment in the 18th century.

Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able:

 Describe the background to the concept of enlightenment during the 18th century
 Discuss the impact of Enlightenment as a concept on education during the 18th
century
 Discuss the contribution made to educational theory during the period of
Enlightenment in the 18th century

Content

Enlightenment and education

To the pessimists of the time, learned 17th century Europe appeared to be dominated by two
largely unassailable sources of authority: Graeco-Roman literature and Scriptures. In contrast the
18th century was a time of optimism, guided by reason, natural law, a cosmopolitan faith in
universal progress, and a belief that mankind was at long last free from superstitions, prejudices
and savagery. The 18th century saw general revolt against absolutism and ecclesiasticism.

The revolt in the 18th century falls into two epochs. During the first half, the movement was
directed against repression in religion and thought, leading to nationalism and skepticism of
Voltaire (1694-1778) and ‘Encyclopaedists’. In the second half, it was against repression in
politics and towards an assertion of right man, leading to emotionalism and naturalism of Jean-
Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778). Thus the 18th century has appropriately been called the Age of
Reason, or Enlightenment.

How did the following individual contribute to the development of education during this period?

ii. Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).

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EDUCATION DURING THE PERIOD OF SCIENCE AND NATIONALISM: 19TH

CENTURY

Introduction

We shall discuss features of educational importance during the period of science and nationalism
in the 19th century

Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Describe the background to science and nationalism in the 19th century

 Discuss the impact of science and nationalism on education in the 19th century
 Discuss the contribution made by individuals to educational theory during the period of
science and nationalism in the 19th century

Content

Science and nationalism and education

The closer one approaches the present, the more difficult it becomes to outline historical
movements under a simple formula or a simple theme. This is particularly the case in trying to
outline the broad intellectual and social contours of the 19th century to there is any unifying link
binding the 19th century to 18th century, this is to be found in the doctrine of progress. A very
turn it was clear that men were overcoming the world around them, at a rate never before
imagined or thought possible.

The 19th century in Europe was an age of conflicting ideologies. As historian, Merz, said, ‘no age
has been so rich in rival theories, so subversive of old ideas, so destructive of principles which
stood firm for many ages’. In the 19th century, its various social-political dogmas replaced the
much eroded inherited commitments to the church and the monarchies. The social-political
dogmas developed within the context of the continuing individualism. Education, inevitably,
graphically reflected the influences of those trends in society.

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Influence on education

a) Nationalism
After French Revolution, came Napoleon. This stirred up a fervent patriotism, which gave a
new lease of life to the old national divisions. Cultural unity was transformed into political
cohesion and unity. Popular national education was seen as a means to develop the spirit of
nationalism.
b) Industrialism
The discovery of steam engines resulted in growth of factories and towns as well. This also
led to the growth of trade and therefore change in the socio-economic structure or status of
people. Hence the middle class challenged the political status quo and it changed. The middle
class wanted liberal and popular education under state control.
c) Democracy
The extravagances and horrors of French Revolution brought about revolutionary movement
against the 18th century Enlightenment, freedom and reason. Freedom and reason were no
longer viewed as adequate as the sole directors of human conduct. Then older traditions of
the church and monarchies were re-established. But the successes of this regressive
movement was to be short-lived and partial, for the liberalization movement went on
unabated. The democratic spirit sought to the re-organization of social institutions to better
serve the common welfare. Education was also to be re-organized.
d) Capitalism
With the development of factory system, power became concentrated in the business of
management groups. The business group were supportive of education as a way of
maintaining social stability and increasing economic stability. Thus education was seen as
channeling young people into social order of the state and perpetuating social stability and
status quo.

Contribution to educational theory

Before the French Revolution, education had been much the same all over Europe, but after the
revolution, there was great diversity of educational development in different parts of Europe,
corresponding to the differences between nations produced by the Napoleonic wars.

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Educationally, Germany was the leader of Europe, being the first to build the earliest educational
structure, followed next by France and lastly England. By the 1860’s majority of Europeans were
still illiterate. It is in Germany where educational theorists were remarkably active. They
attempted to base educational philosophy on some system of psychology, re-arranging and
organizing patterns of educational experience. The 19th century educational theorists thus reaped
the results of the educational philosophizing of the 18th century, with Rousseau haven awakened
his education of the world.

Contribution of individuals

John Friedrich Herbat (1776-1841) was one such an educational theorist. He was born at
Oldenburg in North-Western Germany, a son of a prominent attorney. He was tutored at home
under the close supervision of his mother until the age of twelve and then sent to Oldenburg
Gymnasium for a six-year programme of studies. Herbat’s educational theory is closely
integrated with his theories of ethics and psychology, both of which were built up from a more
general metaphysical theory.

Herbat was both an educator and a philosopher. Thus his approach to educational problems was
grounded in both philosophy and experience. His education theories were therefore not
theoretical deductions. In his books Science and Education (1806) and Outlines of Educational
Doctrines (1835) he spelt out his educational theory and practice. He is the pioneer or ‘Father of
Exact (or Experimental) Psychology of Education’. For him, the success of education depended
on a thorough understanding of the processes involved in ‘knowing’, ‘learning’ and ‘teaching’.
As a result, he advanced the theory of Associationism: the idea of assimilating new ideas by
means of mental experiences, already encountered.

Contribution on in childhood education

Johann H. Pestallozi (1746-1827) believed that children should be educated through their senses
or experiences and according to their natural development. He thought that all children should
receive at least primary education, and that teachers should be trained.

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Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852) advocated basing children’s education on their needs, interests
and purposeful play. The teacher’s role was to guide children to realize their potentialities.
Education was to be child-centred. Froebel established a kindergarten in order to put his
educational ideas into practice. It was to be an environment like a garden, where children could
realize their full intellectual growth. Kindergartens still exists today.

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EDUCATION DURING THE PERIOD OF PROGRESSIVISM AND RADICALISM: 20TH

CENTURY

Introduction

We are going to discuss features in education during the period of progressivism and radicalism
in the 20th century

objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Describe the features of historical trends that led to tendencies of progressivism and
radicalism during the 20th century
 Discuss the impact of progressivism and radicalism during the 20th century
 Discuss the contribution of progressivism and radicalism during the 20th century

Content

Basis of progressivism and radicalism in education

The 20th century consolidated the 19th century changes, moulding educational change to provide
to provide socially and economically dictated innovations that were influenced by two world
wars. In general, however, 20th century educational trends are mainly then concerns of the
educational philosopher and the sociologist. Nevertheless, to history of education, a number of
trends are noteworthy.

Modernization process

The 20th century is the age of machines and of science. The modernization process originated in
Europe in the scientific and industrial revolutions of the 18th century and the 19th century.
Modernization has thus meant the need for sophisticated levels of trained manpower. Education
of coming to grips with cultural heritage and change has therefore continued to encourage and
discipline human potentially in order to provide technical and managerial personnel.
Educationally, modernization has extended period of study, of formal education in order to cope
with scientific and technical advances.

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Changing criteria of education authority

Since Plato’s (427-347 B.C.) republic, which advocated a class-based society, educational
theories and systems have dealt with the issue of approptness in education. The 20th century
maintained this interest, with a conflict arising between those who conceive as being selective
social agency, and those who view school as a comprehensive social agency without streaming
open to all and with equality of opportunity. There are even those who view school as an uneasy
compromise of a selective and comprehensive agency, which dents the class system with its
inadequacies and distinction among people. The result has been a mixture of expansion of
educational opportunity and constant, widespread experimentation in education to satisfy rising
expectations. Though education has been broadened in scope, to become more varied in
offerings, and and has extended in length, there are still those who want the status-quo preserved
and educational advances to remain largely pedagogic.

Progressivism, radicalism and education

Progressivism as an educational theory

The ideals of enlightenment and democracy also affected the American view of education. The
educational manifestation of progressivism arose from desire to enlist the schools for building a
better society.

Progressive education advocated the elimination of 19th century class formalism, and the
substitution of a new ‘learning by living’ methodology. It meant that the functions of the public
schools were to be extended beyond their traditional formal and intellectual concerns. The
function of public schools was to meet the needs of the city, the factory and massive influx of
immigrants from Europe. The schools were also to encompass the responsibilities for physical,
social and recreational needs of children. These had formally been left to other agencies.

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Contribution to the theory of progressivism in education

Dewey sought a closer relationship between school and life. Education was not to be seen as
preparation for life but life itself. Education was to face the business of living, and solve practical
problems. Thus, he introduced manual training such as shop-work, sewing and cooking in the
laboratory school. Industrial education was taught in the fourth Grade, and school subjects were
centred on the occupations of society at large. This concept is emphasized in our 8-4-4 system of
education.

Radicalism as an educational theory

Radicalism recognizes education and schooling are not the same thing: form and substance, ritual
and content are not to be confused. The movement recognizes that schools, by virtue of being
institutions, inevitably cause damage to children. Schools therefore are seen as having an anti-
education effect on society.

Contribution to the theory of Radicalism in education

Ivan Illich (b. 1926) is regarded as the main proponent of the de-schooling movement. He, like
the other de-schoolers, objects to institutions of schooling on four grounds:

 The multi-dimensional objection

Schools combine four distinct social functions: custodial care, social role selection,
indoctrination and education, that is, the development of skills and knowledge
 The graded curriculum objection
Schools consider learning as a product of teaching and in addition the curriculum is
graded following the dictates of university requirements
 The hidden curriculum objection
Schools being merely institutions are impelled towards a certain type of propaganda,
claiming to succeed in teaching this or that, when actually only succeeding in teaching
the hidden curriculum: teaching self-importance, the value of competition for prizes, and
encouraging dependency on teachers
 Schooling as a wastage of resources objection

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Schools use up the resources available for education, while de-schoolers believe that
funds could be better used to provide meaningful education outside school.

Illich therefore sees schools as the enemy of learning and the educative process, and says they
should be avoided. He advocates alternatives including cheap non-competitive alternatives for
individuals going to school being replaced by opportunities to go practically anywhere from a
similar course in physics to the local fish-market. He prefers this to full-time attendance at
institutions at specific ages, following graded curricula under teacher supervision.

Some of these alternative approaches to education have been attempted in practice in Europe and
America. Indeed, many countries are currently re-examining their educational approaches with a
view to re-structuring them to meet their needs. The moves to democratize and universalize
education are still at issue.

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INDIGENOUS EDUCATION IN AFRICA

Introduction

We shall discuss indigenous education in Africa

Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Discuss the view that before the coming of Europeans to Africa, Africans had their
own systems of education
 Describe the goals, content and methods of indigenous education in Africa
 Show how aspects of indigenous education in Africa are relevant to the theory and
practice of primary school education in the community where you work

Content

Africans and their systems of education

Long before the Arabs and Europeans came to Africa, the African peoples had no literacy and
formal schooling. However, African peoples had developed their coherent systems of education.
We noted in our first lecture that education is the whole process by which one generation
transmits its culture to the succeeding generation or still better as a process by which people are
prepared to live effectively in their environment. One of the basis of this definition then, it is
easy to see that before the coming of the Arabs and Europeans there an effective system of
education in African clan, chiefdom or kingdom. Thus this kind of traditional education was
effective since the elevation of the African race; it was tangible, definite and intangible.

Goals of indigenous education in Africa

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Indigenous systems of education in Africa varied from one society to another. However, the
goals of these systems were often similar. Indigenous education was essentially an education for
living. Its main purpose was to train the youth for adulthood within. Emphasis was placed on
normative and expressive goals. Normative goals were concerned with instilling the accepted
standards and beliefs governing the correct behavior. Expressive goals were concerned with
creating unity and consensus.

Content of indigenous education in Africa

Content of indigenous education in Africa grew out of the immediate environment, real or
imagined. From the physical environment children had to learn about the weather, the types of
landscapes as well as their associated numerous and insect life. Children had to learn to cope
with the environment. Certain emotional attitudes and sentiments were developed around aspects
of their environment as well as the attitudes the people had towards them.

Methods of instruction in indigenous education

In most African societies, parents played an important role in the education of their children.
There was often marked division of labour. The mother educated all children in the ready years.
Later the father took over education of male children while the mother remained in control of the
females.

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DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN KENYA: 1920-1945

Introduction

We will look at the development of education in Africa from 1920 the end of the World War II
in 1945

Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to identify and discuss:

 The main factors behind the development of education in Africa during the period
(1920-1945)
 The impetus behind the formulation of policy on education during the period (1920-
1945)
 The main features of development in systems of education during the period (1920-
1945)

Content

Factors behind the development of education

Impact of the Phelps Stokes Commission Report

An important event that gave rise to the expansion of educational institutions was the visit in the
early 1920s of the Phelps Stokes Commission on education in Africa. A new climate of opinion
was highlighted by the publication of the commission’s reports. The reports were the result of the
work of a commission composed of American, British and African Educators who visited
educational institutions in Africa. The commission’s terms of reference were: to assess the nature
and quality of education of Negros both in Africa and the USA. The importance of the
commission to Africa lay in its recommendations. It focused attention to the needs and problems
of African education. It encouraged local administrators to study experiments that had been made
among American Negros.

Policy of education in Africa

After the (1914-1918) World War I, the League of Nation was created in Europe in the hope that
disputes between nations would be settled by discussion rather than by war. Countries which had

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been German colonies such as Tanzania mainland, the Cameroon’s and Togoland were put under
the supervision of the League of Nations and were known as ‘Mandated territories’. The nations
principally Britain and France, to whose rule these countries passed, received a ‘mandate’ or
commission, from the League of Nations by which they were to regard the interests of the native
people in the countries as their first consideration. They were to do all they could to enable these
people stand on their own feet in the world. This idea of trusteeship was extended by the British
government to include other colonies, such as Nigeria, Ghana (Gold Coast by then) and Malawi
(Nyasaland then). These were not held under the mandate from the League.

The Dual Mandate argued that in preparing the African peoples to stand on their own feet in the
modern world, the only form basis for eventual self-government was to build on the native
foundations, that is, on the potential political institutions which people already possessed. These
institutions should be taken on gradually modified by the introduction of western ideas so that, in
time, they became efficient and modern, but African, instruments of government. The name
Indirect Rule was given to this system. It was adopted in every British colony in Africa where
there was importance given to chieftainship. This system led to the establishment of Local
Government, generally known as Native Authorities. The se authorities were given a varying
measure of responsibility and authority extended from a local headman to the authority of the
great chiefs. Thus, an orderly system of local government was established which was linked
through administrative service to the central governments. It was an instrument by which policy
on education in Africa was developed.

Developments in systems of education

During the period 1920-1945, most territories in Africa witnessed developments in their systems
of education. Most colonies in British tropical Africa witnessed the development of educational
systems which were capable of providing a quarter of children with 2 to 4 years of education and
select a few with 8 to 12 years. Belgian policy in Congo was similar, but with emphasis on
primary education. The French on the other hand, made little use of pre-existing missionary
foundations, but set up state schools in which a small minority of Africans fo0llowed the
curricula of Metropolitan France.

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In East Africa, there was considerable enthusiasm in western education after the end of World
War I. education expanded greatly at all level with missionaries having a virtual monopoly of all
types of primary and secondary school education. In Uganda, junior secondary education was
given at: King’s College Budo, Mengo High School, Namilyango and Kisubi. From 1938,
following the De-La-Warr Commission Report on higher education, these schools started
preparing students for Cambridge School Certificate. Makerere started as a technical college in
1922. In the Directors of Education Conference held in Dar es Sallam in March, 1929, it was
agreed that Makerere become the centre of higher education for East Africa. Makerere taught
medicine, agriculture, elementary engineering, surveying and teacher education. The De-La-
Warr Commission Report in 1937 recommended that the college should award its own diplomas
which were to be recognized by universities and professional bodies. Tanzania mainland was
taken away from Germany and given to Britain after World War I as a mandated territory. The
effects of the war and the process of transfer affected the development of education. Policy
formulations were slow. This affected the establishment and growth of primary and secondary
education. Tabora and Tanga provided education up to standard six. These were gradually
upgraded in junior secondary schools by 1939 preoparing students for entry to Makerere.

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DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN KENYA: 1945-1960

Introduction

We will look at the development of education in Africa from the end of the World War II in
1945 up to 1960

Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to identify and discuss:

 The main factors behind the development of education in Africa during the 1945-
1960 period
 The impetus behind the formulation of policy on education during the 1945-1960
period
 Main features of development in systems of education

Content

Factors behind the development of education

There were a number of factors that contributed to the development of education in Africa during
the 1945-1960 period

 War veterans
Soldiers from all over Africa were recruited by Europeans colonial powers. These
soldiers fought in many of the world. While in these areas they were able to see their own
countries from a world perspective. On their return, they became resource persons for
new ideas in the development of education. They called on colonial masters to accelerate
the education of Africans.
 Demand for self-government
There was impatience in Africa when, after the war, Europeans concentrated their efforts
on reconstruction of their own countries to the neglect of their colonies. The European
colonial powers underestimated the strength and urgency of African feelings. African
demanded reconstruction of their own educational systems as soon as possible.

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With development funds being availed by the colonial governments and United Nations,
African education expanded rapidly to address the shortage of educated people in Africa.
Priority was given to higher education.

Growth and expansion of institutions within system of education

Higher education

The period 1945-1960 witnessed growth and expansion institutions of higher education in
African territories. Within four years, following the end of World war II, four university colleges
were opened within British territories at Ibadan, Nigeria, The Gordon Memorial College in the
Sudan, Achimota in Ghana and Makerere in Uganda. The University College at Salisbury in
Zimbabwe (Former southern Rhodesia) entrants to these colleges were few.

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DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN KENYA: 1960-2000

Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Describe the factors behind development of education in Africa during the 1960-2000
period
 Identify and discuss the main agents in the formulation, adoption, and implementation
of policies on education in Africa during the 1960-2000 period
 Discuss the features of change in systems of education in Africa during the 1960-
2000 period

Content

During the 1960-2000 period, African countries placed considerable importance in the role of
education in promoting economic and social development after achievement of independence.
Their systems of education were expected not only to furnish future manpower with relevant
skills and knowledge but also to enrich people’s lives. The countries saw economic growth as a
means of development. They, therefore, saw education as one to foster knowledge, skills and
values relevant for productive activity.

The February-March 1963 Kinshasa Conference was a follow up meeting to discuss the
implementation of the Addis Ababa plan. The conference met under the auspices of the
Economic Commission for Africa. The meeting re-affirmed the resolutions of the Paris
Conference and called for more aid from UNESCO and other sources to help African nations in
the development of their education.

The UNESCO General Conference of 1970 formulated a set of recommendations that facilitated
the formulation, adoption and implementation of policies that stressed the long-term educational
reform and new types of education strategies in Africa.

The UN established an International Commission on Education Department. The report of this

commission – learning to be – was tabled at the General Conference of UNESCO in 1972. It
recommended that basic education should meet the needs of substantial portions of the
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population with no access to minimal educational opportunities. It was to supplement, and not to
rival, the formal system. Basic education was to provide a functional, flexible and low-cost
education, particularly for those whom the formal system could not reach.

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DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN KENYA: UP TO 1920

Introduction

We shall focus our attention on the historical development of modern education in Kenya prior
to 1920

Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Discuss the establishment and development of formal education in Kenya up to 1920

in the light of the role played by
a) Europeans Christian Missionary Societies
b) Government Officials
c) Africans in Kenya
 Discuss the response of Africans in Kenya to the establishment and development of
formal western education

Content

Early education activities

Before colonization no foreign systems of education had been establishment inland. This did not
mean that no education systems existed in Kenya. African communities in Kenya had developed
their own ways of training the younger generations. On the Kenyan Coast, Koranic Schools had
sprung up in and around the mosques which had been built by first Arabs for their worship.

Christian Missionaries and the establishment and development of formal western education

Christian Missionaries are said to be founders of formal western education in Kenya. The
missionaries arrived from two directions. There were those who came through Mombasa and
eventually were responsible for the establishment of this education along the Coast and the
central regions of Kenya. From Uganda came other missionaries who occupied the present
Nyanza and Western Provinces of Kenya.

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Establishment of mission stations

The first group of Christian Missionaries settlement in Kenya may be traced back to the time of
the Portuguese. Roman Catholic missionaries from Portugal were at work at the Coast in the 16th
and 17th centuries. These missionaries did not remain to take sustained evangelical work. Thy
made some contacts with the local population. There were over 600 converts from among local
people.

It was not until the establishment of the colonial rule in 1895 and the building of Uganda
Railway (1895-1901) that the missionaries established their stations upcountry. Between 1895
and 1920 many mission stations were established in Kenya. The Church of Scotland Mission
(CSM) moved from Mombasa to Kibwezi and then to Kikuyu where it founded a station in 1898.
From here, it spread to Tumu Tumu (Nyeri) and Chogoria (Meru). The CMS, on the other hand,
founded stations at Kabete, Weithaga, Kahuhia, Mahiga and Embu between 1903 and 1910. The
United Methodist moved inland mainly to Meru. The African Inland Mission (AIM) established
itself at Kangundo, Kijabe, Githumu and Kinyona. At the same time, came Catholic Holy Ghost
Fathers, who stationed themselves at Kambaa, Kilungu, Nairobi and Kiambu by 1910.

Contributions of missionaries to the establishment and development of formal western education

An important educational phase was started by J. L. Krapf in 1844. Krapf and Rebmann in the
service of the Christian Missionary Society (CMS) established the first schools for Africans in
Rabai Mpya in 1846. This establishment marked the beginning of modern education in Kenya.
To this event may be added the opening by the CMS of schools at Freretown in 1975 for Freed
slaves, at Sagalla (Taita) in 1882, and at Taveta in 1890. The CMS moved upcountry and in close
succession established numerous schools in the central part of the country at Kabete (1898),
Kahuruko, weithaga, Kahuhia, Kabare, Embu and Kigar. The missionaries who came after 1846
moved to the interior of the country establishing schools at they invaded those areas.

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DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN KENYA: 1920-1945

Introduction

We shall examine features in the development of modern education in Kenya during the 1920-
1945 period.

Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Discuss the factors behind changes in the development of education during the 1920-
1945 period
 Identify and discuss major agents who have helped to shape the policy on education
during this period
 Discuss initiatives made by government, missionaries and Africans in Kenya in the
development of education during this period

Content

The period 1920-1945 witnessed important changes in the development of education in Kenya.
There were a number of probable contributory factors

Factors behind the changes in development of education

 Incentives to local leaders

Local leaders were persuaded to send their sons and subjects to mission for training. Thus
there were established schools for sons of chiefs. The British administrators encouraged
chiefs and headmen to educate their children so that they might succeed their factors in the
ruling posts. The colonial officials also wanted to have literate children assist in government
business so as to make colonial administration efficient. The government rewarded the chiefs
with parcels of land and permitted them to force people to work for them. Chiefs were under
orders to assist missionaries in their educational efforts.
 School education was seen as a gate way to employment
The skills of reading and writing gained in school resulted in paid employment as clerks and
store men in the administration and in large-scale new farms. This knowledge also opened

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ways to a new and respected status in the community. An important factor was the
knowledge of the white man’s ways of life and his language. There could only be gained at
school.
 School education was seen as a gate way to political leadership
Following the breakdown of tribal systems and a changed economic system, African
communities became interested in western education. School education was not only a means
for economic improvement, but also an effective gateway to political leadership. It was
amongst the educated African elite that political leaders had to emerge and articulate their
grievances of the illiterate peasants and workers. These held their leaders in great respect.
They prized education highly and often made sacrifices to educate their children.

Policy on education in Kenya

In 1924, the Phelps stokes Commission visited Kenya and made a detailed study of existing
conditions. It then made suggestions for development. In its recommendation, the commission
stressed:

 Co-operation between and missionaries

 Need to educate the Africans for his environment i.e. education for rural development
 Religious values in schools
 Use of vernaculars i.e. there be recognized as first language of school instruction in schools
 Need for more financial support for the education of Africans
 Vocational training for Africans
 Adaptation of education to meet local needs

African education initiatives

African played an important role in the development of education through local native councils
and independent school movement

a) Local Native Schools

To meet African demands for education, the local native councils (established in 1924 with
powers to collect taxes) set up new schools which were secular and divorced from mission
influence. These schools were set up by Africans who decided to work through government

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machinery. In 1927, Central and Northern Nyanza local native councils raised ten thousand
pounds from levies at the rate of twenty shillings per taxable population. Nandi local native
council gave forty acres of land to the government school at Kapsabet. At Tambach they
gave land and money. Maasai county council supported the Narok school. Local native
councils in Central Kenya combined to vote money to establish a Kikuyu Government
Secondary School in 1930. Thus local native schools were established as follows; Narok
(1922), Kerich (1925), Kajiado (1926), Tambach (1926), Loitoktok (1929), Kakamega
(1932), Kagumo (1934) and Kisii.
b) Independent Schools
In Western Kenya a number of independent schools were opened before World War I. little
was done to control these schools until after the Phelps Stokes commission. These ‘outlaw
schools’ were conducted by Africans without dependence on government or missionary
organizations. By 1925, there were schools set up by 500 adherents of John Owalo in
Nyakach.
A move was made to establish independent schools outside the control of the church. Those
who defected from the church and had initially offered land on which the schools had been
built, reclaimed their land. Under the Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA), and
the Kikuyu Karing’a Education Association (KKEA), then number of independent schools
rose from 34 in 1935 to 44 in 1936
.

Missionary education

You note from your textbooks that secondary schools were the rarest commodity in missionary
education. The first secondary school was followed was Alliance High School which was
established in 1926. It was followed by Kambaa (afterwards Mang’u) in 1930, Maseno in 1936
and Yala in 1939. For many years these schools catered for junior secondary classes (Present
stds. VII and VIII). These schools offered courses leading up to the senior secondary
examination (present form II). But no school offered its pupils for school certificate examination
during this period. It was in 1940 that the first Cambridge School Certificate (overseas) was
attempted by school candidates at Alliance and Kambaa (Mang’u).

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In short, by 1939, the bulk of missionary education Africans was elementary. In 1939, for
instance the proportions of African children attending different levels of education were 96.77%
elementary, 3.05% in primary and 0.18% in secondary schools. The content of that education
was largely religious and industrial. Yet even here, mission schools were not doing well, as there
was not enough artisans and teachers to man the lower levels of government as clerks and hut
counters: hence the government reservations regarding the usefulness of African opposition to
missionary education.

The role of government in African education

What did the government do to better its situation and that of Africans? You might rightly ask.
The government took a number of steps towards standardization of education given to Africans.
First it provided education policy guidelines and frameworks within missionary education
developed. It is in this context that the Education Ordinance of 1924 and 1931 and the grants in
aids rules of 1925 have to be understood. The government also appointed special
boards/committees on African education.

The government did not meet African aspirations for academic education. While the missionary
education stressed religious education, the government emphasized technical education. Literary
education was left in the balance. Another point worth noting is the government did not as yet
develop its own secondary schools for African wards. At least there was the position in 1939.
The government also provided facilities for teacher training in a number of its schools

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DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN KENYA: 1945-1963

Introduction

We shall focus on the development of education during the 1945-1963 period

Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Identify and discuss factors that influenced the development of education during the
1945-1963 period
 Discuss major agencies that helped in shaping policies on education during this period
 Describe the features of change in the system of education during this period

Content

Policies on education in Kenya: 1945-1963

Following the end of World war II in 1945, government views on education in Kenya changed.
The role of education in economic development and modernization became more clearly
appreciated. In this respect, the Colonial Development and Welfare Act of 1945 marked a
significant shift from traditional policy of colonial self-sufficiency to a policy of giving increased
amounts of aids to the colonies – including Kenya. The war years marked a shift in economic
policy. These years also revealed a desire on the part of the British Government to create better
political situation in the colonies in preparation for eventual self-government. The government
engaged in a rapid expansion of the government aided school system to cope with the pressure
for education.

African educational system. The committee’s findings and recommendations were published in
1949. Findings; the most serious problem was that expansion of primary level had been done
without adequate financial provision or control. The committee recommended: control of
primary school expansion; expansion of teacher training; responsibility for primary and
intermediate schools be placed under district education boards; co-operation between the
government and voluntary agencies in educational development; a 4-4-4 system of primary,
intermediate and secondary schools to replace 6-2-4 organization. The report was approved by
the government in August 1950, and the task of reorganizing the school system was started.
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The Binns Committee report of 1952, which visited East Africa, contributed to the development
of policies on education during the 1945-1963 period. The report was in general in agreement
with the Beecher report supervision and inspection of the education and on co-operation between
government and missionary bodies. It recommended the preservation of vernaculars in schools
and general elimination of Kiswahili, except where it was the local vernacular.

The Education Ordinance of 1952 sought to provide a greater degree of central control of school
and decentralization pf the administration i.e. separation of inspectoral and management duties.

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DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN KENYA SINCE 1963

Introduction

We shall look at development of education in Kenya since the time of independence in 1963

Objectives

By the end of this lecture, you should be able to:

 Discuss factors that have influenced changes in the development of education in Kenya in
the post 1963 period of independence
 Discuss features of change in policies on education in Kenya in the post 1963 period of
independence
 Discuss changes in the development of the system of education in Kenya in the post 1963
period of independence

Content

During the post 1963 period of independence, Kenya placed considerable importance on the role
of education in promoting economic and social development. This resulted in rapid expansion of
education system. There are factors that contributed to this feature in the development of
education in Kenya.

Factors contributing to changes in the development of education

 Internal factors
The expansion of and reform in the system of education were partly motivated by
political pressures. On the eve of Kenya’s independence, politicians and their manifestos
called for more educational opportunities, for cheaper or free education, for universal
primary education (UPE), for Africanization of syllabuses and the teaching staff, and for
change in the atmosphere in which the African culture and personality could flourish.
 External factors
These partly contributed to the expansion of education especially at secondary and higher
levels. Several reports contributed to the formulation of policies on education in Kenya.

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These included the report of the conference of African States on the development of
education in Africa which met in Addis Ababa in May, 1963, the International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) in the same year.

Policies on education in Kenya since 1963

At independence in 1963, Kenya inherited a system of education with maximum provisions for
the minority Europeans and Asian groups and minimum provisions for the majority African
Kenyans. This racially based system had been enforced by the colonial administration since the
Fraser commission Report of 1909. It was still as strongly put forward by the Beecher Report of
1949 on which educational administration and the development was based on the last few years
leading to independence. At independence, expectations were naturally heightened and the
pressure for more and better education renamed as intense as ever.

The new government was quick to recognize the complexities facing education at independence
and the need to provide guidelines for their solution. To give needed changes a firm foundation
and clear direction, the minister for education appointed a commission chaired by S. H. Ominde.
Terms of reference were: a) to survey the existing educational resources in Kenya, and b) to
advice the government in the formulation of national policies for education. The commission
found out that the conditions created by independence were totally different from those under
which similar committee on education during the colonial, there was the assumption that
different racial groups would remain separate.

The Ominde Commission Report was submitted in two parts. Part One which dealt with
questions of policy was completed in 1964. Part Two which provided quantative
recommendations and plan of priorities was completed in 1965.

The commission report endorsed as a valid educational policy objective, the provision of free
primary education. In the commission’s view, this level of education would contribute to
economic progress both by providing a reservoir of candidates for secondary and higher
education and fulfilling the minimum basic education requirement for participation in the
modern sector of the economy. It was, however, noted that, while the economic values of
expanded primary education was appreciated, it was not so important at that time. Secondary,
commercial, technical and higher education were more important. Consequently, too great an

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emphasis on primary education was not allowed to hinder economic growth in these other
sectors. The independence government therefore chose as a policy to place main emphasis on the
expansion of higher levels of education. Besides, the policy was: to gear these levels of higher
levels of education to manpower needs of modern sector of economic lives, and to provide
facilities for a slower but steady increase in primary school enrolment.

The commission considered issues of racial and religious segregation in schools, localization of
curriculum and the medium of instructions. Racial integration would be facilitated by giving
African pupils bursaries to enable them to attend former European schools. The commission
recommended that the ex-European or Asian schools should maintain standards of education,
while opening them to children of other races. It suggested that each secondary school should
allocate at least 20% of its places to students from outside its region. The commission believed
that the secret of a national feeling overrides tribal and loyalties lay in bringing about more
conscious mixing within educational system.

While recognizing the impact of modernization, the commission was anxious that schools should
promote the nation’s own historic instincts and moral values. Considerable attention was
therefore to be given to curriculum reform as a means of promoting greater knowledge and
appreciation of Kenya’s History and culture. English was to be the universal medium of
instruction in all schools. Kiswahili was to be compulsory in primary schools.

The 1965 sessional Paper No.10 on African Socialism and the application to planning in Kenya
has contributed to the development of policies on education since independence. The paper
evolved a principle which identified a direct relationship between education and economic
growth. It facilitated the formulation of policies geared to make education produce the high and
middle level manpower that would accelerate the pace of economic development in Kenya.

In 1967, parliament in Kenya discussed and enacted what came to be known as the Education
Act of 1968, (revised in 1970). The Act contained several sections forming the legal foundation
in Kenya. Among the sections geared to helping in shaping of policies on education were:
promotion of education, management of schools, registration of unaided schools, inspection and
control of schools, examinations and diplomas, the Kenya Institute of Education, and financing
of education.

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Thus, according the Development Plan 1964-1970, the main thrust of policies on education were
mainly geared towards manpower development. In primary education, for example, efforts were
made to avoid its rapid expansion to meet general popular demand. Importance was attached to
expansion of secondary school education. This policy was reflected in the distribution of
development expenditure on education during the first Development Plan period. The largest
share of development expenditure went to secondary schools. From 1969-1970, the percentage of
expenditure on secondary education was 43% as compared to 0.003% for primary schooling.
There was a major commitment to the expansion of pre-university Form Five and Form six.

In line with the policy of concentrating on the production of high level manpower, there was also
a major investment in university and tertiary education. Development expenditure in the early
1970s also emphasis on expansion of vocational and technical secondary schools. By the end of
1970, there were the ten vocational secondary schools. They offered programmes intended to
provide students with skills basic to specific occupations.

Education for manpower development met its objectives within few years after 1963. The
Africanization of the civil service was virtually filled. There then followed the problem of
unemployment. In response to the problem of unemployment, there was the policy to establish
non-formal institutions with a strong vocation bias, e.g. the National Youth service (NYS), youth
polytechnics, industrial-training centres.

In 1975, a committee was appointed to examine Kenya’s educational objectives and policies
(The National Committee on Educational Objectives and Polices). He committee report
emphasized the need for basic education in the country and restructuring of the education system

Development in system of education

Awareness of the need for change

The most striking feature of the system of education in Kenya since independence has been
increasing demand by more and more people in society for the opportunity to receive education.
This has all along been a feature calling for adjustive change in the system to respond to the
needs of the people. There has been an awareness of the need to cope with the need ever
increasing numbers within the inherited system of education.

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At independence, Kenya inherited from the British colonial administration an educational

structure that consisted of racial segregation. This structure had institutions within the system set
up on racially segregated lines. There was an awareness of the need for removal of
discriminatory practices based on racial segregation within the system of education.

There was an awareness of the need to modernize and increase the efficiency of the government
administration and to provide specialist training for small but crucial commercial and industrial
sector and to maintain national educational standards in the world setting.

Changes in the system of education

An important change in primary education was the abolition of old four-year primary and
intermediate courses in favour of a straight through seven years course in primary education. The
Competitive Entrance Examination which was originally taken in the fourth grade was scrapped.
With the removal of this examination, upper primary school numbers shot up. This ensured that a
fairly high number of primary pupils completed the seventh grade. The removal of this
examination opened gates in all pupils to continue to the upper primary stream.

The increased numbers of pupils in upper primary school contributed to the increased social
demand for secondary schools’ places. Allied with it was the youthfulness of primary school
leaver. The average primary school-leaving age was 13 years, an age unsuitable for placement in
the labour force. The demand for further schooling became all greater as everyone began to
realize that the Kenya Preliminary Examination Certificate was no longer the key to personal
advancement. The government, in line with major expansion in secondary education. Over the
period 1964-1968, form One intake rose by24%

Another change was the wave of voluntary self-help schemes to build Harambee secondary
schools. The first of such schools was Chavakali in Vihiga District, Western Province. These
schools sprung up in large numbers; 50 opened in 1964, and 30 more in the first half of 1965.
Vocational and technical secondary schools also developed in response to manpower demands.

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Explain the following changes in education

i. The Gachathi Education Report

ii. The Kamunge education report

iii. Mackay education report

iv. The Koech education report

v. The new CBC(Competency based Curriculum)

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