Part – A

2 Justifying the discussion “Morphological algorithms is

an effective tool to minimize the salt and pepper noise
through simple illustration.
Morphological algorithms are a type of image processing
technique that use the shape or structure of an image to analyze
and modify it. One common use of morphological algorithms is to
remove noise from an image, such as salt and pepper noise.

Salt and pepper noise is a type of random noise that consists of

white and black pixels scattered randomly throughout an image.
It is often caused by electrical interference or other types of noise
in the image capture process. Salt and pepper noise can
significantly degrade the quality of an image and make it difficult
to interpret.

Morphological algorithms are effective at minimizing salt and

pepper noise because they use mathematical operations based
on the shape or structure of an image to identify and remove the
noise. One common method for removing salt and pepper noise is
called "median filtering," which replaces each pixel in an image
with the median value of its surrounding pixels. This can
effectively remove the random noise pixels and restore the image
to its original form.

Overall, morphological algorithms are a useful tool for minimizing

salt and pepper noise because they use the shape and structure
of an image to effectively identify and remove the noise. They
can be used to improve the visual quality of an image and make it
easier to interpret.

,
MIN,MAX,MEDIAN FILTER - Digital Image processing
4 Compare image enhancement and image
restoration .
Image enhancement is the process of improving the visual
quality of an image, while image restoration is the process of
recovering a degraded or damaged image to its original form.

Image enhancement techniques are used to improve the

visual appearance of an image, such as increasing its contrast
or sharpness. These techniques are often used to make an
image more appealing or easier to view. Examples of image
enhancement techniques include adjusting the brightness,
contrast, and color balance of an image, sharpening blurry
images, and removing noise from an image.

Image restoration, on the other hand, involves the repair or

recovery of an image that has been damaged or degraded in
some way. This can include removing scratches, dust, or
other imperfections from an old photograph, or
reconstructing an image that has been partially destroyed or
erased objects from an image. Image restoration techniques
often involve using algorithms and techniques from fields
such as computer vision and image processing to analyze and
correct the image.

In general, image enhancement techniques are used to

improve the visual quality of an image, while image
restoration techniques are used to repair or recover a
damaged or degraded image.

Numerical on Spatial Filtering | Arithmetic Mean Filter | Image Processing Unit 3 I Image
Processing
6. Analyze the effect of the max, min filter for the given

image and interpret the results.

Max Filter :
The max(30,10,20,10,250,25,20,25,30)=250;

Therefore, the result will be

Min Filter:
The min(30,10,20,10,250,25,20,25,30)=10:
 Therefore, the result will be

7. Describe image segmentation technique for image

restoration and write active contour models in detail.
If an image has been pre-processed appropriately to remove
noise and artifacts, segmentation is often the key step in
interpreting the image. Image segmentation is a process in
which regions or features sharing similar characteristics are
identified and grouped together. Image segmentation may use
statistical classification, thresholding, edge detection, region
detection, or any combination of these techniques.
Active contour is a type of segmentation technique which can be
defined as use of energy forces and constraints for segregation
of the pixels of interest from the image for further processing
and analysis. Active contour is described as an active model for
the process of segmentation. Contours are boundaries designed
for the area of interest required in an image. Contour is a
collection of points that undergoes an interpolation process.
8. Derive transfer function of regional descriptors

approach for image restoration.

The transfer function of the regional descriptors approach

for image restoration is used to describe how the regional

descriptor of an image is transformed by the image

restoration process. In general, the transfer function can be

written as:

T(g) = g'

where g is the original regional descriptor and g' is the

restored regional descriptor.

The specific form of the transfer function will depend on the

particular regional descriptor being used and the restoration

method being applied. For example, if the regional descriptor

is a histogram of oriented gradients (HOG) and the

restoration method is a median filter, the transfer function

might be written as:

T(g) = median(g)

This transfer function describes how the HOG descriptor is

transformed by the median filter, with the median of the

descriptor being taken as the restored descriptor.

Other restoration methods and regional descriptors will have

different transfer functions. It is important to carefully

choose the appropriate transfer function based on the

characteristics of the image and the restoration method

being used in order to achieve the best possible results.

9. Summarize the drawback image representation and

analysis with suitable examples.

There are several drawbacks to using images for representation

and analysis.

One issue is that images can be very large in terms of file size,

making them difficult to store and transmit. This can be

particularly problematic when working with large datasets or

when attempting to analyze images in real-time.

Another issue is that images can be difficult to analyze and

interpret, especially for people who are not trained in image

analysis. For example, a person might be able to easily identify a

cat in a photograph, but it would be much more difficult for them

to accurately describe the characteristics of the cat (e.g., fur

color, size, breed) in a way that a computer could understand.

 Finally, images can be highly subjective and open to

interpretation, which can make it difficult to draw concrete

conclusions from image-based analysis. For example, a person

might see a landscape photograph and interpret it as peaceful

and calming, while another person might see the same

photograph and interpret it as bleak and depressing. This

subjectivity can make it difficult to use images as a reliable

source of data for research or other applications.

------ End of Part-A -----

Part - B

1 Illustrate the different causes of image degradation

1. Image degradation is said to occur when a certain image
undergoes loss of stored information either due to digitization or
conversion, decreasing visual quality.
The initial image (source, f(x,y)) undergoes degradation due to various
operations, conversions and losses. This introduces Noise. This Noisy
Image is further restored via restoration filters to make it visually
acceptable for users.
Degraded Image = Degradation Function * Source + Noise
g(x,y) = h(x,y) * f(x,y) + n(x,y)
Noise is a random variation of image Intensity and visible as a part of
grains in the image. Noise is introduced in the image at the time of
image acquisition or transmission.
The principal sources of noise in the digital image are:
a) The imaging sensor may be affected by environmental conditions
during image acquisition.
b) Insufficient Light levels and sensor temperature may introduce the
noise in the image.
c) Interference in the transmission channel may also corrupt the image.
If an image is being sent electronically from one place to another via
satellite or wireless transmission or through networked cables, we may
expect errors to occur in the image signal.
d) If dust particles are present on the scanner screen, they can also
introduce noise in the image.

2 Summarize the power density function of uniform noise, salt & pepper
noise and Gaussian noise and sketch it.

The power density function of a noise signal describes the amount of power present at
different frequencies.
2. Uniform Noise :
This noise caused by quantizing the pixels of a sensed image to a
number of discrete levels is known as quantization noise.
The PDF of uniform noise is given by
The mean of this density function is
given by
μ = a + b /2 σ2 = (b – a ) 2 / 12
Salt and Pepper Noise :
Salt and pepper noise is sometimes called impulse noise or spike noise
or random noise or independent noise. In salt and pepper noise (sparse
light and dark disturbances), pixels in the image are very different in
colour or intensity unlike their surrounding pixels. Salt and pepper
degradation can be caused by sharp and sudden disturbance in the
image signal. Generally, this type of noise will only affect a small
number of image pixels. When viewed, the image contains dark and
white dots, hence the term salt and pepper noise
The PDF of (bipolar) impulse noise is given by

Gaussian noise
In Gaussian noise, each pixel in the image will be changed from its
original value by a (usually) small amount.
Because of its mathematical tractability in both the spatial and
frequency domains, Gaussian (also called normal) noise models are
used frequently in practice.
In fact, this tractability is so convenient that it often results in Gaussian
models being used in situations in which they are marginally applicable
at best.
The PDF of a Gaussian random variable, z, is given by
where,
z represents gray level
μ is the mean of the average
value of z and σ is its standard deviation.
The standard deviation squared, σ2, is called the variance of z.

A plot of this function is shown below.

When z is described by Eq. (1),
approximately 70% of its values will be in
the range [(μ - σ), (μ +σ)], and about 95%
will be in the range [(μ - 2σ), (μ + 2σ)].

3 Explain mean and geometric mean filters for image restoration.

3. Mean filtering is a simple, intuitive and easy to implement method
of smoothing images, i.e., reducing the amount of intensity
variation between one pixel and the next. It is often used to
reduce noise in images.
The idea of mean filtering is simply to replace each
pixel value in an image with the mean (`average')
value of its neighbors, including itself.
It is based around a kernel, which represents the shape and size of the
neighborhood to be sampled when calculating the mean. Often a 3×3
square kernel is used, although larger kernels ( e.g., 5×5 squares) can
be used for more severe smoothing.

The geometric mean filter is an image filtering process meant to

smooth and reduce noise of an image. [1] It is based on the mathematic
geometric mean. The output image G(x,y) of a geometric mean is given
by
Where S(x,y) is the original image, and the
filter mask is m by n pixels.

Each pixel of the output image at point (x,y) is given by the product of
the pixels within the geometric mean mask raised to the power of
1/mn. For example, using a mask size of 3 by 3, the pixel (x,y) in the
output image will be the product of S(x,y) and all 8 of its surrounding
pixels raised to the 1/9th power.
Using the following original image with pixel (x,y)
at the center:
Gives the result of:
(5*16*22*6*3*18*12*3*15)^(1/9) = 8.77.

4 Explain erosion and dilation for image restoration

Erosion and dilation are morphological image processing techniques that
are used to modify the shape of features in an image. They are often used
in image restoration tasks to remove noise or to extract features from an
image.

Erosion is a process that reduces the size of features in an image by

applying a structuring element (a small matrix of pixels) to the image and
setting the output pixel to the minimum value within the structuring
element. This effectively erodes or shrinks the features in the image.

Dilation is the opposite of erosion and is used to increase the size of

features in an image. It works by applying a structuring element to the
image and setting the output pixel to the maximum value within the
structuring element. This effectively dilates or expands the features in the
image.

Both erosion and dilation can be useful for image restoration tasks because
they can help to remove noise or to extract features from an image. They
can also be used in combination with other image processing techniques to
improve the overall quality of an image.

4. Gaussian noise PDF is commonly used in image processing.

In Gaussian noise, each pixel in the image will be changed from its
original value by a (usually) small amount.
Because of its mathematical tractability in both the spatial and
frequency domains, Gaussian (also called normal) noise models are
used frequently in practice.
In fact, this tractability is so convenient that it often results in Gaussian
models being used in situations in which they are marginally applicable
at best.
The PDF of a Gaussian random variable, z, is given by
Where,
z represents gray level
μ is the mean of the average value of z and σ is its standard deviation.
The standard deviation squared, σ2, is called the variance of z.

A plot of this function is shown below.

When z is described by Eq. (1),
approximately 70% of its values will be in
the range [(μ - σ), (μ +σ)], and about 95%
will be in the range [(μ - 2σ), (μ + 2σ)].

5 Demonstrate the most commonly used noise probability density

functions in image processing applications and explain with its plot.
5. Spatial Filtering technique is used directly on pixels of an image.
Mask is usually considered to be added in size so that it has a
specific center pixel. This mask is moved on the image such that
the center of the mask traverses all image pixels.

Mean filtering is a simple, intuitive and easy to implement method of

smoothing images, i.e. reducing the amount of intensity variation
between one pixel and the next. It is often used to reduce noise in
images.
The idea of mean filtering is simply to replace each pixel value in an
image with the mean (`average') value of its neighbors, including itself.
It is based around a kernel, which represents the
shape and size of the neighborhood to be sampled
when calculating the mean. Often a 3×3 square
kernel is used, although larger kernels
(e.g. 5×5 squares) can be used for more severe
smoothing.

The two main problems with mean filtering are:

● A single pixel with a very unrepresentative value can significantly

affect the mean value of all the pixels in its neighborhood.
● When the filter neighborhood straddles an edge, the filter will
interpolate new values for pixels on the edge and so will blur that
edge. This may be a problem if sharp edges are required in the
output.

6 Explain the process of restoration in the presence of noise only using

spatial filters for various mean filters?

6. There are three principal ways to estimate the degradation function

for use in image restoration:

• Observation

• Experimentation

• Mathematical modeling

Estimation by image observation

Suppose we are given a degraded image without any knowledge about

the degradation function H. One way to estimate this function is to gather
information from the image itself.

For example if the image is blurred, we can look at a small section of the
image containing simple structures, like part of an object and the
background. In order to reduce the effect of noise in our observation, we
would look for areas of strong signal content. Using sample gray levels of
the object and the background, we can construct an unblurred image of
the same size and characteristics as the observed sub image.

Estimation by Experimentation

If equipment similar to that used to acquire the degraded image is

available, it is possible to obtain an accurate estimate of the degradation.
Images similar to the degraded image can be acquired with various
system settings until they are degraded as closely as possible to the
image we wish to restore. Then the idea is to obtain the impulse
response of the degradation by imaging an impulse (small dose of light)
using the same system settings.

An impulse is simulated by a bright dot of light as bright as possible to

reduce the effect of noise.

Estimation by Modeling

A physical model is often used to obtain in many situations, the point-

spread function h (x, y) is known explicitly prior to the image restoration
process. In these cases, the recovery of f(x, y) is known as the classical
linear image restoration problem. This problem has been thoroughly
studied and a long list of restoration methods for this situation includes
numerous well- known techniques, such as inverse filtering, Wiener
filtering, least-squares filtering, etc.

7. Not Sure if it is related to 2D or 3D Image processing, if 2D then the

question is irrelevant.
7 Discuss the three principal ways to estimate the degradation
function for use in image restoration and explain it.

8. There are three principal ways to estimate the degradation function

for use in image restoration:

• Observation
• Experimentation

• Mathematical modeling

Estimation by image observation

Suppose we are given a degraded image without any knowledge about

the degradation function H. One way to estimate this function is to gather
information from the image itself.

For example if the image is blurred, we can look at a small section of the
image containing simple structures, like part of an object and the
background. In order to reduce the effect of noise in our observation, we
would look for areas of strong signal content. Using sample gray levels of
the object and the background, we can construct an unblurred image of
the same size and characteristics as the observed sub image.

Estimation by Modeling

A physical model is often used to obtain in many situations, the point-

spread function h (x, y) is known explicitly prior to the image restoration
process. In these cases, the recovery of f(x, y) is known as the classical
linear image restoration problem. This problem has been thoroughly
studied and a long list of restoration methods for this situation includes
numerous well- known techniques, such as inverse filtering, Wiener
filtering, least-squares filtering, etc.

10 Summarize Image degradation and restoration process? Explain

various Noise filters in detail.

9. Image Restoration deals with improving the appearance of an

image. It is an objective approach, in the sense that restoration
techniques tend to be based on mathematical or probabilistic
models of image processing. Enhancement, on the other hand, is
based on human subjective preferences regarding what constitutes
a “good” enhancement result.
The main objective of restoration is to improve the quality of a digital
image which has been degraded due to Various phenomena like:

● Motion

● Improper focusing of Camera during image acquisition.

● Noise

The purpose of image restoration is to restore a degraded/distorted

image to its original content and quality.

● Restoration involves following process:

● Modeling of Degradation

● Applying the inverse process to recover the original image.

We will assume that a degradation function exists, which, together

with additive noise, operates on the input image f(x,y) to produce a
degraded image g(x,y).
The objective of restoration is to obtain an estimate for the original
image from its degraded version g(x,y) while having some knowledge
about the degradation function H and the noise.
The degraded image in the spatial domain is:

Therefore, in the frequency domain , it is :

11. Explain alpha trimmed filters for image restoration.

Alpha trimmed filters are a type of image restoration filter that
are used to remove noise or other unwanted artifacts from
images. They work by replacing each pixel in the image with the
average of a subset of the surrounding pixels, with the goal of
preserving the important features of the image while removing
the noise.

To create an alpha trimmed filter, the following steps are

typically followed:

● Select a window size: The window size is the number of

surrounding pixels that will be used to compute the average
for each pixel. A larger window size will result in a more
smoothed image, but may also blur important features.
● Select an alpha value: The alpha value determines how many
of the surrounding pixels will be included in the average. A
larger alpha value will result in a more smoothed image, but
may also blur important features.
● Sort the surrounding pixels: The surrounding pixels are sorted
in ascending order according to their intensity values.
● Trim the pixels: The alpha number of highest and lowest
intensity pixels are removed from the list of surrounding
pixels.
● Compute the average: The average of the remaining pixels is
computed and used to replace the intensity value of the
center pixel.

Alpha-trimmed filters are often used in image processing

because they are relatively simple to implement and can
effectively remove noise while preserving important image
features.

Old Answer:
Alpha-trimmed filter is a windowed filter of nonlinear class, by
its nature is hybrid of the median filters. The basic idea behind
the filter is for any element of the signal (image) look at its
neighborhood, discard the most atypical elements and calculate
mean value using the rest of them. Alpha you can see in the
name of the filter is indeed the parameter responsible for the
number of trimmed elements.
Now let us see how to get alpha-trimmed value in practice. The
basic idea here is to order elements, discard elements at the
beginning and at the end of the ordered set and then calculate
average value using the rest. For instance, let us calculate
alpha-trimmed for the case,
 Alpha-trimmed filter algorithm:
1. Place a window over element;
2. Pick up elements;
3. Order elements;
4. Discard elements at the beginning and at the end of the got
ordered set;
5. Take an average sum up the remaining elements and divide
the sum by their number.

12. Discuss inverse filtering for image restoration.

The simplest approach to restoration is direct inverse filtering

Compute an estimate, F(u, v), of the transform of the original image by

dividing the transform of the degraded image, G(u, v), by the degradation
transfer function:

Now even if we know the degradation function, we cannot

recover the original image.
If the degradation function has zero or very small values, then
the ratio
N(u, v)/H(u, v) could easily dominate the term F(u, v).

13. Demonstrate the model for image degradation.

Degradation comes in many forms such as motion blur, noise, and
camera misfocus. In cases like motion blur, it is possible to
come up with an very good estimate of the actual blurring
function and "undo" the blur to restore the original image. In
cases where the image is corrupted by noise, the best we may
hope to do is to compensate for the degradation it caused.
The degradation process is modelled as a degradation function
that, together with an additive noise term, operates on an input
image f(x, y) to produce a degraded image g(x, y). Given g(x, y),
some knowledge about the degradation function H, and some
knowledge about the additive noise term η(x, y), the objective of
restoration is to obtain an estimate f(x, y) of the original image.
the estimate should be as close as possible to the original input
image and, in general, the more we know about H and η, the
closer f(x, y) will be to f(x, y).
The degraded image is given in the spatial domain by
g (x, y) = h (x, y) * f (x, y) + η (x, y)
where h (x, y) is the spatial representation of the degradation
function and, the symbol * indicates convolution.
Convolution in the spatial domain is equal to multiplication in
the frequency domain, hence
G (u, v) = H (u, v) F (u, v) + N (u, v)
where the terms in capital letters are the Fourier transforms of
the corresponding terms in above equation.

14. Discuss constrained least square filtering method

for restoration in details.
Constrained least squares filter is an extension of the Wiener filter
where the deconvolution does not require information of the
noise. Its frequency domain solution is given by the following
transfer function:

 is a parameter that has to be manually adjusted to get best

visual results and P (u, v) is the Fourier transform of the
Laplacian operator p (x, y):
Constrained least squares filter provides
better results
while comparing with Wiener filter for high
and
medium noise, and for low noise, results are almost
equal.

15. Discuss about exponential, Rayleigh noise and

how it can be removed.

Rayleigh Noise
 This noise exists in range images like remote

sensing applications. >>Write the image

degradation model Wala question here.

Exponential noise is a type of noise that has an exponential distribution. It is often found in
images that have been captured under low light conditions or in images that have been
subjected to high levels of noise during acquisition.

Rayleigh noise is a type of noise that has a Rayleigh distribution. It is often found in images
that have been captured using a CCD (charge-coupled device) camera, and it is characterized
by a low level of noise at low frequencies and a high level of noise at high frequencies.

There are several techniques that can be used to remove exponential and Rayleigh noise from
images. One common approach is to use image filters, such as median filters or Gaussian
filters, to smooth out the noise and reduce its impact on the image. Other techniques, such as
wavelet denoising or total variation denoising, can also be effective at removing exponential
and Rayleigh noise from images.

It is worth noting that while these techniques can be effective at reducing the level of noise in
an image, they may also introduce some blur or loss of detail. As such, it is important to
choose the appropriate technique and filter parameters to strike a balance between noise
reduction and image quality.

16. Describe inverse filtering for removal of blur caused by

any motion and describe how it restores the image.
Inverse Filtering is the process of receiving the input of a
system from its output. It is the simplest approach to restore
the original image once the degradation function is known. It
can be defined as:
H'(u, v) = 1 / H(u, v)

Let,
F'(u, v) -> Fourier transform of the restored image
G(u, v) -> Fourier transform of the degraded image
H(u, v) -> Estimated or derived or known degradation function
then F'(u, v) = G(u, v)/H(u, v)
where, G(u, v) = F(u, v).H(u, v) + N(u, v)
and F'(u, v) = f(u, v) - N(u, v)/H(u, v)

17. Explain the following filtering techniques

(1)Noise models by mean of filter
(2) Constrained models by mean of filter
(3)Homomorphic filters

(1) Noise Models by mean of filter

Uniform Noise :
This noise caused by quantizing the pixels of a sensed image to
a number of discrete levels is known
as quantization noise.
The PDF of uniform noise is
given by
The mean of this density function is given by
 μ = a + b /2 σ2 = (b – a ) 2 / 12

Salt and Pepper Noise :

Salt and pepper noise is sometimes called impulse noise or
spike noise or random noise or independent noise. In salt and
pepper noise (sparse light and dark disturbances), pixels in the
image are very different in colour or intensity unlike their
surrounding pixels. Salt and pepper degradation can be caused
by sharp and sudden disturbance in the image signal. Generally,
this type of noise will only affect a small number of image
pixels. When viewed, the image contains dark and white dots,
hence the term salt and pepper noise
The PDF of (bipolar) impulse noise is given by

Gaussian noise
In Gaussian noise, each pixel in the image will be changed from
its original value by a (usually) small amount.
Because of its mathematical tractability in both the spatial and
frequency domains, Gaussian (also called normal) noise models
are used frequently in practice.
In fact, this tractability is so convenient that it often results in
Gaussian models being used in situations in which they are
marginally applicable at best.
 The PDF of a Gaussian random variable, z,
is given by
where,
z represents gray level
μ is the mean of average value of z and σ
is its standard deviation.
The standard deviation squared, σ2, is called the variance of z.

A plot of this function is shown below. When

z is
described by Eq. (1), approximately 70% of
its
values will be in the range [(μ - σ), (μ +σ)],
and
about 95% will be in the range [(μ - 2σ), (μ +
2σ)].

(2) Constrained models by mean filter.

Constrained least squares filter is an extension of Wiener filter
where the deconvolution does not require information of the
noise. Its frequency domain solution is given by the following
transfer function:

 is a parameter that has to be manually adjusted to get best

 visual results and P (u, v) is the Fourier transform of the
Laplacian operator p (x, y):
Constrained least squares filter provides
better results
while comparing with Wiener filter for high
and
medium noise, and for low noise, results are almost
equal.

(3) Homomorphic filtering.

Homomorphic filtering is sometimes used for image
enhancement. It simultaneously normalizes the brightness
across an image and increases contrast. Here homomorphic
filtering is used to remove multiplicative noise. Illumination and
reflectance are not separable, but their approximate locations
in the frequency domain may be located.
18. Summarize minimum mean square error filtering for image.
(Minimum Mean Square Error Filter). Wiener filter executes and
optimal trade off between filtering and noise smoothing. IT
removes the addition noise and inputs in the blurring
simultaneously. Weiner filter is real and even. It minimizes the
overall mean square error by:
e^2 = F{(f-f')^2}
where, f -> original image
f' -> restored image
E{.} -> mean value of arguments

H(u, v) = H'(u, v)/(|H(u, v)|^2 + (Sn(u, v)/Sf(u, v))

where H(u, v) -> Transform of degradation function
Sn(u, v) -> Power spectrum of the noise
 Sf(u, v) -> Power spectrum of the undegraded original image

19. Discuss about erlang noise and how it can be removed.

Gamma noise or Erlang noise is very similar to Rayleigh noise
regarding the shape of the distribution curve. In essence, it begins
with a steep slope and ends smoothly, much like Gaussian does.
We can see what we just described in the following graph.
Firstly, the z axis represents the intensity values along which we
distribute the noise pixel values. Secondly, a and b parameters
are for shaping the curve. Now that we know what’s what, we can
take a look at the function.

20. What is Image restoration? Draw and explain the basic block
diagram of the restoration process. Give two areas where the
restoration process can be applied.
Image Restoration deals with improving the appearance of an
image. It is an objective approach, in the sense that restoration
techniques tend to be based on mathematical or probabilistic
models of image processing. Enhancement, on the other hand, is
based on human subjective preferences regarding what
constitutes a “good” enhancement result.
The main objective of restoration is to improve the quality of a
digital image which has been degraded due to Various
phenomena like:
 Motion
 Improper focusing of Camera during image acquisition.
 Noise
The purpose of image restoration is to restore a
degraded/distorted image to its original content and quality.
 Restoration involves following process:
 Modelling of Degradation
 Applying the inverse process to recover the original image.

The initial image (source, f(x,y)) undergoes degradation due to

various operations, conversions and losses. This introduces
Noise. This Noisy Image is further restored via restoration filters
to make it visually acceptable for users.
Degraded Image = Degradation Function * Source + Noise
 g(x,y) = h(x,y) * f(x,y) + n(x,y)

We will assume that a degradation function exists, which, together

with additive noise, operates on the input image f(XXY) to
produce a degraded image g(x,y).
The objective of restoration is to obtain an estimate for the
original image from its degraded version g(x,y) while having some
knowledge about the degradation function H and the noise.
The degraded image in the spatial domain is:

------ End of Part-B -----