SECTION 2 Depth Studies

Russia, 1905–41
The Tsarist Regime Collapse
Key Themes:
• Political Structure: The Russian Empire was ruled by an autocrat, Tsar Nicholas II, who held absolute power.
His refusal to entertain political reforms, and his deep belief in autocracy, led to signi cant unrest.
• Social Divides: The majority of the population, including peasants, industrial workers, and nationalities, were
dissatis ed due to poor living conditions, lack of education, oppressive taxes, and limited rights.
• Economic Struggles: Industrialization led to overcrowded cities and poor working conditions. Agricultural issues,
such as outdated farming techniques and famine, exacerbated the suffering. Poor harvests and economic
depression sparked widespread protests.
• Repression and Control: The Tsarist government relied on a network of spies, the Okhrana, and the military,
including the Cossacks, to maintain control. Political opposition was crushed, and the police exercised extreme
repression.

Internal Struggles:
• Government Chaos: Tsar Nicholas II was ineffective in ruling, unable to make crucial decisions and often
embroiled in minor details, leading to disarray in governance.
• Corruption and Incompetence: Tsar Nicholas’s appointments were often based on favoritism, with family and
friends lling government roles regardless of competence. The inef ciency of these of cials contributed to the
system’s downfall.
• Revolutionary Movements: Growing dissatisfaction among industrial workers and peasants, along with the
in uence of radical political parties like the Socialist Revolutionaries and Social Democrats, fueled opposition to the
regime.

External Struggles:
• Economic Depression: After industrial growth stalled and economic depression hit, wages fell, factories closed,
and unemployment surged. Food shortages and high bread prices added to the discontent.
• Russo-Japanese War: The Tsar’s hope of uniting the nation through a successful war against Japan back red
as Russia faced humiliating defeats, leading to a loss of con dence in the government.

Revolution of 1905:
• Bloody Sunday: A peaceful protest led by Father Gapon ended in massacre when soldiers opened re on
protesters. This event severely damaged the Tsar’s image and marked the beginning of the 1905 revolution.
• Worker Strikes and Revolts: Strikes spread across the empire, with workers forming soviets (workers’ councils)
to organize protests. Mutinies and peasant uprisings also gained momentum.
• The October Manifesto: In response to mounting pressure, Tsar Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto,
promising political reforms such as an elected Duma and greater civil rights. However, this divided the opposition,
with liberals supporting the Tsar, and radical factions continuing their resistance.

Reasserting Control:
• Army Loyalty: The key to Tsarist survival was the loyalty of the army. After making concessions to soldiers, the
government used military force to suppress uprisings, ensuring the Tsar’s control.
• Crushing Rebellion: The Tsar’s forces crushed rebellions in cities and countryside through brutal military action,
including executions and imprisonment, to maintain order and subdue opposition.
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Consequences:
• Temporary Stability: Despite the unrest, the Tsarist regime managed to survive the 1905 revolution due to
divisions among the opposition, army loyalty, and temporary concessions like the Duma.
• Long-term Instability: The suppression of uprisings and the refusal to implement substantial reforms ultimately
led to growing dissatisfaction, culminating in the collapse of the Tsarist regime in 1917.

Conclusion: Reasons for the Collapse of the Tsarist Regime in 1917

1. Weak Leadership – The Tsar was indecisive and failed to govern effectively.
2. Loss of Public Support
• Workers resented poor living and working conditions despite industrial growth.
• Peasants wanted land ownership but remained in poverty despite reforms.
3. Middle-Class Opposition – Wanted political representation, but the Tsar refused to work with the Duma.
4. Military Failures – Heavy losses in WWI weakened morale, and the Tsar was blamed.
5. Rasputin and the Tsarina – Their in uence damaged the monarchy’s reputation and governance.
6. War-Induced Hardships – Food shortages and strikes in St. Petersburg fueled unrest.
7. Army Mutiny – Soldiers joined the revolution, leaving the Tsar without military support, making his rule
unsustainable.

Why did the Bolsheviks win the Civil War?

1. Leadership and Organization
•Lenin’s Strong Leadership:Lenin provided a clear vision&ruthless determination to keep the Bolsheviks in power
• Trotsky’s Military Genius: Trotsky turned the Red Army into a disciplined and effective ghting force, using
former Tsarist of cers under strict Bolshevik supervision.

2. Control of Key Areas

• The Reds controlled the heartland of Russia, including Petrograd and Moscow. This gave them access to
factories, communication networks (like railways), and a large population to recruit soldiers from.
• The Whites were spread out over vast areas, making communication and coordination dif cult.

3. Weaknesses of the Whites

• Lack of Unity: The Whites were made up of diverse groups (Tsarists, Socialists, Mensheviks, foreign troops,
etc.) who had con icting aims.
• Poor Coordination: White armies operated in different regions and failed to coordinate attacks effectively.
• Limited Support from the People: The Whites represented the old order, and their brutality alienated peasants
and workers.

4. Use of Terror and Propaganda

• The Red Terror: The Bolsheviks used the Cheka (secret police) to eliminate opposition through arrests,
executions, and repression.
• Effective Propaganda: The Bolsheviks used slogans like “Peace, Land, and Bread” to gain support, while
portraying the Whites as enemies of the revolution.

5. Foreign Intervention Back red

• Britain, France, the USA, and Japan sent troops to support the Whites, but their involvement was half-hearted
and unpopular among Russians, who saw it as foreign interference.
By 1920, the Bolsheviks had crushed the major White armies, and by 1922, they had secured total control over
Russia. The victory in the Civil War allowed Lenin and the Bolsheviks to consolidate their power and establish a
Communist state
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Bolshevik decrees, 1917
8 November:
• Land belonging to Tsar, Church and nobles handed over to peasants.
• Russia asked for peace with Germany.
12 November: Working day limited to eight hours; 48-hour week; rules made about overtime and holidays.
14 November: Workers to be insured against illness or accident.
1 December: All non-Bolshevik newspapers banned.
11 December: The opposition Constitutional Democratic Party (Kadets) banned; its leaders arrested.
20 December: Cheka (secret police) set up to deal with ‘spies and counter-revolutionaries’.
27 December:
• Factories put under control of workers’ committees.
• Banks put under Bolshevik government control.
31 December:
• Marriages could take place without a priest if desired.
• Divorce made easier.
Economic Policy
War Communism (1918–1921):
introduced by the Bolsheviks during the Civil War to help them survive. It had 2 main aims:
1. To apply communist theories by redistributing wealth among the people.
2. To support the Civil War effort by ensuring towns and the Red Army had food and weapons.

Key Features:
• All large factories were taken over by the government.
• Vesenkha (Supreme Economic Council) was established to control and plan production.
• Workers faced strict discipline, and striking could result in execution.
• Peasants were forced to hand over surplus food to the government, with refusal punishable by death.
• Food was rationed.
• Free enterprise was abolished; all trade and production were state-controlled.

Effects of War Communism:

• Helped the Bolsheviks win the Civil War.
• Industrial output fell to one-fifth of 1913 levels by 1921.
• Currency collapsed, leading to widespread bartering.
• 90% of wages were paid in goods rather than money.
• Peasants resisted food production, worsening food shortages.
• Famine in 1920–1921 led to around 7 million deaths, with reports of cannibalism.

Kronstadt Rising (1921)

The sailors of the Kronstadt naval base had supported the Bolsheviks during the revolution and Civil War but
became discontented with Bolshevik policies.
Demands:
• New elections.
• Freedom of speech.
• Equal rations.
• An end to grain requisitioning by militia units.
Response:
• Lenin labeled the rebellion a White Army conspiracy.
• The rebels refused to surrender, leading to a violent assault by Trotsky’s forces in March 1921.
• Thousands were killed, executed, or sent to labor camps.
Impact:
• Shocked Lenin, as Kronstadt sailors had been key Bolshevik supporters.
• Contributed to Lenin’s decision to introduce economic reforms.

New Economic Policy (NEP) (1921–1928)

In response to economic failure and opposition, Lenin introduced the NEP in March 1921, temporarily allowing
elements of capitalism.

Key Features:
• Peasants could sell surplus grain for profit and pay tax rather than surrendering grain.
• Small factories were returned to private ownership.
• Private trading of small goods was allowed.
• The Nepmen (private traders) emerged and profited from the policy.
• Heavy industries (coal, oil, iron, and steel) remained under state control.
Effects of NEP:
• Increased food production significantly.
• Helped economic recovery by 1925.
• Many Bolsheviks saw it as a betrayal of communism.
• Industrial workers saw little improvement in conditions.

Lenin’s Death and the USSR’s Creation (1924):

• Lenin suffered strokes in 1922 and 1923, dying in January 1924.
• He oversaw the creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1923.
• Soviet archives later revealed Lenin was more ruthless than previously believed.
Stalin’s Rise to Power (1924–1929)
When Lenin died, several leading Communists were contenders to succeed him. The key struggle was between
Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky.

Why did Stalin, not Trotsky, become leader?

1. Trotsky’s Weaknesses:
• Brilliant but arrogant and unpopular among party members.
• Failed to build a strong support base within the Communist Party.
• Advocated permanent revolution, worrying many that he would involve the USSR in conflicts.

2. Stalin’s Strengths:
• Presented himself as Lenin’s loyal follower.
• Avoided taking strong positions in debates, appearing as a neutral figure.
• Built alliances within the Communist Party.

3. Stalin’s Political Strategy:

• 1923: Lenin warned that Stalin should be removed, but party leaders ignored this.
• 1924: Lenin died. Stalin tricked Trotsky into missing the funeral and presented himself as Lenin’s heir.
• 1924: Stalin allied with Zinoviev and Kamenev, controlling the Politburo and sidelining Trotsky.
• 1925: Trotsky was removed as War Commissar.
• 1926: Stalin turned against Zinoviev and Kamenev, allying with Bukharin.
• 1927: Trotsky, Zinoviev, and Kamenev were expelled from the Communist Party.
• 1928: Trotsky was exiled to Siberia; Stalin turned on Bukharin.
• 1929: Trotsky was expelled from the USSR, and Bukharin was removed from the party.
By 1929, Stalin was the undisputed leader of the USSR.

Stalin’s Cunning
• Association with Lenin: Stalin carefully associated himself with Lenin, particularly at Lenin’s funeral, where he
tricked Trotsky into missing the event and appeared as Lenin’s closest comrade.
• Use of Party Positions: Took on administrative roles, such as General Secretary, to place his supporters in key
positions and remove potential rivals.
• Political Maneuvering:
• Allied with Zinoviev and Kamenev to expel Trotsky.
• Later allied with Bukharin to defeat Zinoviev and Kamenev.
• Finally, turned against Bukharin to become the undisputed leader by 1929.
• Popular Policies: His “Socialism in One Country” policy appealed to Russian nationalism.
• Image: Appeared as a relatable peasant rather than an intellectual, making him more appealing to the Soviet
people
Profile: Joseph Stalin
• Born: 1879 in Georgia to a shoemaker father.
• Name Change: Originally Iosif Dzhugashvili, changed to Stalin (“man of steel”).
• Exile: Twice exiled to Siberia by tsarist police but escaped both times.
• Early Communist Activities: Gained notoriety through violent bank raids.
• Revengeful Nature: Held grudges and ensured his enemies suffered.
• Civil War Role: Became a leading communist after defending Tsaritsyn (later Stalingrad).
• Rise to Power: Became undisputed Soviet leader by 1929.

Modernizing the USSR: 1 – Industrialisation

Why did Stalin want to modernise Soviet industry?
1. Security:
• The First World War showed that a strong industrial base was necessary for military strength.
• Essential resources like iron, steel, and coal were needed to equip an army.
• Many new industrial projects were located further east for protection against invasion.
2. Power and Control:
• Used industrialisation as a political tool, first siding with Bukharin, then switching to state control.
• Forced labour camps were used for major projects, discouraging opposition.
• Critics of his programme were accused of sabotaging the USSR’s progress.
3. Socialism in One Country:
• Stalin promoted self-sufficiency, reducing reliance on foreign imports.
• Wanted the USSR to compete with Western economies and export goods.
• Aimed to improve living standards through housing, education, and healthcare.
4. Ideology:
• Wanted to build a strong working-class base to support communism.
• Sought to eliminate NEPmen, seen as capitalists.
5. Personal Reputation:
• Aimed to surpass Lenin’s achievements.
• Used massive propaganda efforts to highlight industrial successes.

The Five-Year Plans

• Ended the NEP and focused on state-controlled industrialisation.
• Planned by GOSPLAN, which set ambitious targets for heavy industries (coal, iron, oil, electricity).
• Target System:
• Targets were set at different levels—from national to individual workers.

First Five-Year Plan (1928–32):

• Focused on heavy industries.
• Most targets were not met, but significant progress was made.
• Entire cities and factories were built from scratch in remote areas like Siberia.

Second Five-Year Plan (1933–37):

• Continued heavy industry growth.
• Expanded mining, transport, and communications.
• Built the Moscow Metro as a showcase project.

Third Five-Year Plan (1938–41):

• Shifted towards consumer goods, but was disrupted by World War II.
Impact of Industrialisation on the Soviet People
Targets, Hard Work, and Propaganda:
• Workers faced extreme pressure to meet strict targets.
• Heavy propaganda glorified industrial heroes like Alexei Stakhanov.

Slave Labour:
• Political prisoners, kulaks, and other groups were forced to work in harsh conditions.
• Example: 100,000 workers died building the Belomor Canal.

Wages and Living Conditions:

• Overcrowding: Most workers lived in small, state-provided housing.
• Declining Wages: A working couple in 1932 earned the same as one person had in 1928.
• Lack of Consumer Goods: Focus on heavy industry meant shortages of everyday items.

Women Workers:
• Labour shortages led to an increase in female workers.
• By 1937, women were:
• 40% of industrial workers.
• 21% of construction workers.
• 72% of health workers.

Control:
• Internal passports were introduced to prevent workers from moving between jobs.

Training and Education:

• State investment in training led to better-paid skilled jobs.
• Education became free and compulsory.
• By 1940, the USSR had more doctors per capita than Britain.

Repression:
• Religious Suppression: Islam was repressed in central Asia to modernise industry.

Punishments and Blame:

• Workers were punished for lateness or absence, sometimes losing housing.
• Mistakes were blamed on “sabotage,” leading to severe punishments.

Achievements of the Five-Year Plans

• Positive Outcomes:
• Transformed the USSR into a modern industrial state.
• Strengthened the economy before World War II.
• Negative Outcomes:
• Widespread inefficiency and waste.
• High human cost, with thousands dying in major projects.
• Poor-quality production due to unrealistic targets.
Modernizing the USSR: 2 – Collectivisation
Why did Stalin want to modernise Soviet agriculture?
1. Feeding the Workers:
• Industrialisation created a large workforce in towns, requiring more food.
• In 1928, the USSR imported food, despite vast agricultural resources.
2. Food Exports:
• Stalin wanted to sell surplus food abroad to fund industrialisation.
3. Building His Reputation:
• Used propaganda to glorify new agricultural methods and machinery.
4. Ending the NEP:
• Kulaks and NEPmen benefited from the NEP, making them natural enemies of Stalin.
• Removing kulaks allowed Stalin to replace them with loyal peasants.
5. Political Control:
• Collectivisation destroyed independent peasant farming, putting agriculture under state control.
• Kulaks and peasants who resisted were executed, imprisoned, or deported.

The Impact of Collectivisation on Russian People

The Plan
• Stalin’s goal was to modernise Soviet agriculture through collectivisation,forcing farmers to merge land/resources
• Most peasants used outdated farming methods, and collectivisation aimed to:
• Enable efficient use of modern equipment like tractors and fertilisers.
• Reduce the need for farm workers, freeing labour for industry.
• Simplify grain collection and taxation.
• Promote socialism by eliminating private farming and profit-making.

Resistance
• Peasants opposed collectivisation, preferring to farm independently.
• The kulaks (wealthier peasants) resisted strongly.
• The government used activists, propaganda, and the secret police to enforce compliance.
• Many peasants destroyed crops, killed livestock, and even fought back.

Dekulakisation
• Stalin blamed kulaks for opposition and declared, “We must liquidate the kulaks as a class.”
• In practice, anyone who resisted was labelled a kulak.
• In 1931 alone, 1.5 million peasants were sent to gulags, and many were executed.

Famine
• Collectivisation disrupted farming, leading to food shortages.
• A poor harvest in 1932 worsened the crisis, especially in Ukraine.
• The government continued grain requisitioning, causing a famine that killed up to 13 million people.

Impact
• By 1934, kulaks had been eliminated.
• By 1941, almost all farmland was collectivised.
• Grain production recovered, but livestock numbers did not return to pre-collectivisation levels until 1940.
• Stalin gained control of the food supply and secured labour for industry, but at a great human cost.
How Did Stalin Control the Soviet Union?
Terror
• Stalin expanded the use of terror to eliminate opposition.
• The NKVD (secret police) and gulags were used to enforce obedience.

The Purges
• Stalin eliminated opponents in the Communist Party.
• Sergei Kirov’s murder in 1934 led to show trials and mass purges.
• Leading Bolsheviks like Kamenev, Zinoviev, and Bukharin were executed.
• Around 500,000 Communist Party members were arrested.
• Purges extended beyond the Party—teachers, workers, managers, and even army officers were targeted.
• 25,000 army officers were removed, weakening the military.
• By 1937, 18 million people had been sent to labour camps, with 10 million deaths.

A New Constitution
• The 1936 Constitution promised free speech and elections but was a façade.
• Only Communist Party candidates were allowed to stand, and the media was strictly controlled.

Propaganda and the Cult of Personality

• Stalin used propaganda to maintain support.
• Censorship controlled newspapers, radio, and public messaging.
• A ‘cult of personality’ was built around Stalin, portraying him as a godlike leader.
• Statues, portraits, and street names honoured Stalin.
• History books were rewritten to glorify Stalin and erase opponents like Trotsky.

Society and Culture Under Stalin

Religion
• Religion was heavily repressed.
• Churches and mosques were closed, and religious leaders were persecuted.
• By 1939, only a small fraction of churches and mosques remained open.
• Despite this, millions of Russians continued to hold religious beliefs.

Music and Arts

• The NKVD controlled creative expression.
• Artists and writers were forced to follow Socialist Realism, depicting idealised workers and Soviet success.
• Composers like Shostakovich wrote music glorifying Stalin.

Education and Youth Organisations

• Schools were reformed to emphasise discipline, science, and socialist ideology.
• History books were rewritten to align with Stalin’s views.
• Youth groups like the Pioneers indoctrinated children with Communist beliefs.

Women in Stalin’s USSR

• Women gained access to education and jobs, making up 42% of the workforce by 1935.
• The government initially encouraged divorce and abortion but later reversed these policies.
The Great Retreat
• Traditional family values were reintroduced:
• Abortion was mostly banned.
• Divorce was made harder.
• Financial incentives were given to mothers.
• Parents were held accountable for their children’s behaviour.

Equality in the USSR

Living Standards
• Wages lost 50% of their buying power during the First Five-Year Plan.
• Food consumption, especially meat and fish, declined significantly.
• Housing and consumer goods were scarce.

Improvements
• Healthcare and education expanded.
• Public libraries and sports facilities improved.

Social Hierarchy
• Despite Communist ideals, a new class system emerged:
• Skilled workers had better opportunities.
• Managers had access to special goods and privileges.
• The nomenklatura (Communist elite) enjoyed luxury and influence.

The Nationalities in the USSR

• The USSR contained many ethnic groups.
• Stalin viewed non-Russian nationalities with suspicion.
• Citizens had to carry identity booklets specifying their nationality.
• Entire ethnic groups were deported—e.g., 142,000 Koreans were moved due to Japanese expansion.
• Jewish and Finnish populations suffered discrimination.

How Complete Was Stalin’s Control by 1941?

Strengths of Stalin’s Control:
• Stalin eliminated rivals through the Purges.
• The army, Communist Party, and intellectuals were subdued.
• The NKVD enforced obedience.
• Propaganda maintained his image as an all-powerful leader.
Limitations of His Control:
• Corruption and inefficiency were widespread.
• Regional officials often ignored Moscow’s orders.
• Industrial targets were met through deception.
• Mass migration made Soviet society unstable.
• Peasants remained resentful and unmotivated.

Stalin’s Personal Effort

• Stalin personally issued detailed orders.
• His frustration with officials suggests he did not always get full control.
How Did Stalin Gain and Hold on to Power?
Rise to Power
• Stalin outmanoeuvred rivals using political cunning and ruthlessness.
• He controlled Party appointments, placing loyalists in key positions.
• His policy of ‘Socialism in One Country’ appealed to Russian nationalism.

Methods of Control
• Terror: The NKVD and gulags suppressed opposition.
• Purges: Stalin removed rivals and intimidated Party members.
• Show Trials: High-profile Bolsheviks were executed.
• Army Purges: Disloyal officers were eliminated.
• General Repression: Intellectuals, workers, and ‘undesirable’ individuals were targeted.

Propaganda and Indoctrination

• Stalin’s image was glorified through media and education.
• The cult of personality made him appear infallible.
• Religion was suppressed, and culture was controlled.

Legacy
• By 1941, Stalin had unparalleled power.
• His rule was based on terror, propaganda, and economic control.
• However, corruption and resistance remained challenges.