ELEMENTS OF SEISMOLOGY

Seismology
• It is the scientific study of earthquakes and the
propagation of elastic waves through the Earth.
• The field also includes studies of earthquake
environmental effects such as tsunamis as well as diverse
seismic sources such as volcanic, tectonic, oceanic,
atmospheric, and artificial processes such as explosions.
• A related field that uses geology to infer information
regarding past earthquakes is paleoseismology.

Engineering Seismology is the study and application of

seismology for engineering purposes. It generally applied to the
branch of seismology that deals with the assessment of the
seismic hazard of a site or region for the purposes of earthquake Plate Boundaries Movement
engineering. • The lateral movement of the plates is mainly at the speeds
of 50-100 mm annually.
Elements of Engineering Seismology • Earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain and oceanic trench
1. Studying earthquake history and tectonics to assess the formation normally occur along these boundaries.
earthquakes that could occur in a region and their
characteristics and frequency of occurrence.
2. Studying strong ground motions generated by
earthquakes to assess the expected shaking from future
earthquakes with similar characteristics. These strong
ground motions could either be observations from
accelerometers or seismometers or those simulated by
computers using various techniques.

The theory of plate tectonics derives from the theory of

continental drift and floor spreading.

Divergent Convergent

This sudden slip, termed Elastic Rebound by Reid (1910) based

on his studies of regional deformation following the 1906 San Transform
Francisco Earthquake, releases large amounts of energy, which
constitutes or is the earthquake.
 This refers to the plunging of one plate Types of Earthquake Fault
(e.g., the Pacific) beneath another, 1. Strike-slip Faultb
into the mantle, due to convergent
motion
• A fault on which the two blocks
slide past one another.
Typically characterized by volcanism, • The San Andreas Fault is an
as a portion of the plate (melting in the example of right lateral fault.
lower mantle) remerges as volcanic
lava

Subduction occurs along the following: 2. Normal Fault

• west coast of South America at the boundary of the Nazca • A dip-slip fault in which the block above the fault has
and South American Plate moved downward relative to the block below.
• Central America (boundary of the Cocos and Caribbean • observed in the Western United States Basin and Range
plates), Province and along oceanic ridge system.
• Taiwan and Japan (boundary of the Philippines and
Eurasian plates),
• North American Pacific Northwest (boundary of the Juan
de Fuca and North American Plates)

3. Thrust or Reverse Fault

• A dip-slip fault in which the upper block, above the fault
plane, moves up and over the lower block.
• Common in areas of compression, such as regions where
one plate is being subducted under another as Japan.

• Stretching 40,000 km (24,000 miles) around the

circumference of the Pacific Ocean
• Plates that make up the Pacific basin are generally
subducting beneath continental plates, causing
subduction-zones volcanism in the surface.
• Nearly 80% of the earth’s volcanoes are found near the
tectonic plate boundaries of the Pacific Ocean.
• Tectonic Plates move relatively slowly (5 cm per year is
relatively fast) and irregularly, with relatively frequent
small and only occasional large earthquakes.
• violent motions produce the shaking that is felt as an
earthquake

Faulting
• A FAULT is a zone of the earth’s crust within which the two
sides have moved. Faults may be hundreds of miles long,
from one to over one hundred miles deep, and are
sometimes not readily apparent on the ground zone.
Oblique-slip fault - a fault in which the displacements of the MAJOR EARTHQUAKE ZONE IN THE PHILIPPINES: PHIVOLCS
strike-slip and dip-slip components have very similar INFORMATION
magnitudes; fault movement occurs obliquely across the fault Philippine Fault Zone (PFZ)
surface. • 1,200-km-long m
• major tectonic that transects the whole Philippine
• Generally, earthquakes will be concentrated in the vicinity archipelago from southeastern Mindanao to northwestern
of faults. Luzon
• Faults that are moving more rapidly than others will tend o Nueva Ecija up to the Ilocos region in northwest
to have a higher rates of seismicity, Luzon
• Larger faults are more likely to produce a large events than o Quezon province in eastern Luzon
others. o Caraga region at the Agusan River basin, crosses to
• However, earthquakes continue to occur on "unknown" or Leyte and Masbate islands,
"inactive" faults. o Davao Gulfin the south
• This arc-parallel, left-lateral strike slip fault is divided into
several segments and has been the source of large-
magnitude earthquakes in recent years, such as:
o 1968
Casiguran earthquake in Aurora, Quezon (Mw 7.6)
o 1976
Moro Gulf earthquake in Sulu and Mindanao Islands
(Mw 8.0)
o 1990
Luzon earthquake (Mw 7.7)
o 1994
several earthquakes in the 1980's, none of which were Mindoro earthquake (Mw 7.1)
accompanied by surface faulting (Stein and Yeats 1989). o 2002
Blind Thrust Faults Mindanao earthquake (Mw 7.5)
• Hidden o 2013
• associated with folded topography in general, including Bohol earthquake (Mw 7.2)
areas of lower and infrequent seismicity
1990 Luzon Earthquake
• potential for an earthquake exists in any area even if there
are few or no earthquakes in the historic record.
Faults in the Philippines
• The Philippines is located in latitude 5o to 19°45′ N. and MARIKINA VALLEY FAULT SYSTEM
longitude 116° to 128° E. • The Marikina Valley Fault System or Valley Fault System
• Metropolitan Manila is located in the center of Luzon (VFS) is a dominantly dextral strike-slip fault system in
Island, between Manila Bay, which extends to the South Luzon.
China Sea, and Laguna de Bay. • It extends from Dingalan,
• Many earthquake generators are distributed all over the Aurora in the north and runs
country. through the provinces of Nueva
Ecija, Bulacan and Rizal, and the
THE CENTRAL PHILIPPINE FAULT ZONE: LOCATION OF Metro Manila Cities of Quezon,
GREAT EARTHQUAKES, SLOW EVENTS, AND CREEP Marikina, Pasig, Makati,
ACTIVITY Parañaque, Taguig and Muntinlupa,
• The central Philippine Fault Zone is found to be the locus and the provinces of Cavite and
of great earthquakes, a transition zone with slow slip and Laguna that ends in Canlubang.
creep activity. • The West Valley Fault is a 100-km long fault that moves in
• Guinyangan fault - northern locked portion with a dominantly dextral strike-slip motion which is capable of
recurrence interval of as short as 65 years. producing large scale earthquakes on its active phases
• Masbate fault - central part with large and medium with a magnitude of 7 or higher.
earthquakes accompanied by unusually large ground • The East Valley Fault is a 10-km long fault that moves in
rupture. an oblique dextral motion which is capable of producing
• North Central Leyte fault - a seismic creep earthquakes with a magnitude of about 6.
• Central Leyte fault - • The West Valley Fault transects portions of:
medium-sized event with o Quezon City
clusters of foreshocks o Marikina
• Masbate fault and o Makati
Central Leyte - slow o Pasig
events and creep activity o Parañaque
• Guinyangan fault - larger o Taguig
damaging events, impact o Muntinlupa
of slow events and creep o Rizal (Rodriguez)
on the adjoining active o Laguna (San Pedro City, Biñan, Sta. Rosa, Cabuyao,
structures Calamba)
o Cavite (Carmona, General Mariano Alvarez, Silang)
• The East Valley Fault transects portions of:
o Rodriguez, Rizal
o San Mateo, Rizal

ground rupture as gashes and fissures from 2003 Masbate

Earthquake

• Since 2003, Kyoto University and PHIVOLCS-DOST have

been mapping the Philippine Fault.
• At present, approximately 90% of on-land-stretch of the
PFZ has been mapped.
• This delineation is based on interpretation of available
large-scale (at least 1:30,000) aerial photographs.
• In areas where there are no available aerial photographs,
various satellite images are used to map the fault zone.

THE BIG ONE

• an earthquake of no less than 7.2 in the Richter scale may
be experienced in our lifetime (DOST-PHILVOCS).
• 4 major earthquakes have taken place in the last 1400
years with recurrence interval of 400 to 500 years.
• Last major earthquake - 1658 or 357 years ago
• The areas traversed by the West Valley Fault may
experience earthquakes of up to magnitude 7.2 while
areas in the East Valley Fault with 6.2 magnitude.
EARTHQUAKE RECORDS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS The best-known example is the Parkfield Experiment which
Seismograph involved a massive set of strong motion instrumentation which
• Instrument used to record and records:
measure these vibrations 1. Peak Ground Acceleration (PGA)
• Traditional seismographs consist 2. Peak Ground Velocity (PGV)
of a sensing element, called a 3. Peak Ground Displacement (PGD)
seismometer, an amplifier, and a 4. Spectral Intensity (SI)
hardcopy display unit often using
photographic or heat- sensitive paper.
• The visual record produced by a
seismograph is called a seismogram.
• Modern day seismographs are mostly electronic, they
have a heavy magnet as the seismometer, and wires
around the magnet are put up as a part of the sensor.
• Horizontal Seismograph:

Seismoscope
• Earliest instrument, used to detect seismic events
• Recording only the time or fact of occurrence of
earthquakes
• Vertical Seismograph:
• Displayed in 132 A.D., a Chinese inventor Zhang Heng at
the court of the Han Dynasty.
• Giant bronze vessel, resembling a samovar almost 6 feet
in diameter

• Homemade Seismograph:

• Eight dragons snaked face-down along the outside of the

barrel, marking the primary compass directions.
• In each dragon's mouth was a small bronze ball.
• Beneath the dragons sat eight bronze toads, with their
broad mouths gaping to receive the balls.
• This would give a rough indication of the earthquake's
direction of origin, but it did not provide any information
about the intensity of the tremors.

Accelerograph
• A strong motion seismograph, or simply as an earthquake
accelerometer
• Constructed as a self-contained box and connected
directly to the Internet
• useful for when the earthquake ground motion is so strong
that it causes the more sensitive seismometers to go off-
scale
• placing in the vicinity
of major faults
• Information gathered:
rupture velocity
(standard
seismometer)
EARTHQUAKE P-WAVE & S-WAVE TRAVEL TIME Example 3: How long does it take a P-wave to travel 8,000 km?

1) If you are asked the travel time of a P-wave or S-wave for a

given epicenter distance:
a) Go to the epicenter distance on the x-axis and go up to the
correct curve,
b) Go over to the y-axis and determine the travel
time.

Example 1: How long does it take a P-wave to travel 4,000 km?

Answer: 11 min 20 sec

Example 4: How long does it take an S-wave to travel 8,000 km?

Answer: 7 minutes

Example 2: How long does it take an S-wave to travel 4,000 km?

Answer: 20 min 40 sec

Answer: 12 min 40 sec

2) If you are asked for the epicenter distance a P-wave or S- Example 7: How far can an S-wave travel in 6 minutes 40
wave traveled for a given travel time: seconds?
a) Go to the travel time on the y-axis and go over to
the correct curve,
b) Go down to the x-axis to determine the epicenter distance.

Example 5: How far can an S-wave travel in 9 minutes?

Answer: 1,800 km

Example 8: How far can a P-wave travel in 6 minutes 40

seconds?

Answer: 2,600 km

Example 6: How far can an P-wave travel in 9 minutes?

Answer: 3,700 km

Answer: 5,600 km
3) If you are asked for the arrival time of an earthquake wave 4) If you are asked for the origin time (the time an earthquake
and given an epicenter distance and origin time: occurred):
a) Determine travel time of the wave (see #1) a) Determine the travel time of the given wave (see #1)
b) Add travel time to the origin time given. b) Subtract arrival time you were given minus the travel time.

Example 9: If an earthquake occurs at 08:50:40, what time did Example 11: If a Pwave arrives at a station 8,000 km away at
the P-wave arrive at a seismic station 2,600 km away? 12:15:00, what time did the earthquake originate?

08 : 50 : 40
12 : 15 : 00
+ 00 : 05 : 00
- 00 : 11 : 20
Answer: 08 : 55 : 40
Answer: 12 : 03 : 40

Example 10: If an earthquake occurs at 02:11:20, what time did

Example 12: If an Swave arrives at a station 4,400 km away at
the S-wave arrive at a seismic station 9,000 km away?
07:45:00, what time did the earthquake originate?

02 : 11 : 20
07 : 45 : 00
+ 00 : 22 : 20
- 00 : 13 : 40
Answer: 02 : 33 : 40
Answer: 07 : 31 : 20
5) If you are asked to determine the difference in arrival time 6) If you are asked to determine the arrival time of the S-wave
between P-waves and S-waves: and given a clock time for the arrival of the P-wave:
a) Line up a piece of scrap paper vertically on the epicenter a) Find difference in arrival time between P-wave and S-wave at
distance given. the given epicenter distance.
b) Mark the locations where the P-wave and S-wave intersect b) Add the difference in arrival time to the clock time of the P-
your scrap paper. wave
c) Line up the scrap paper on the y-axis with one point on the 0
minute mark. Example 15: A P-wave arrived at a seismic station 3,200 km
d) The second mark will indicate the difference in arrival time. away at 06:10:00. What time did the first S-wave arrive at this
station?

Example 13: An epicenter station is 5,000 km away. How long

after the first Pwave did the first Swave arrive?

06 : 10 : 00
+ 00 : 04 : 40
Answer: 06 : 14 : 40

Example 16: A P-wave arrived at a seismic station 4,000 km

away at 01:25:00. What time did the first S-wave arrive at this
station?

Answer: 6 min 40 sec

Example 14: An epicenter station is 7,600 km away. How long

after the first Pwave did the first Swave arrive?

01 : 25 : 00
+ 00 : 05 : 40
Answer: 01 : 30 : 40

Answer: 9 min 0 sec

7) If you are asked to determine the arrival time of the P-wave find the location that the interval is touching both P-wave and S-
and given a clock time for the arrival of the S-wave: wave line.
a) Find difference in arrival time between P-wave and S-wave at d) Determine the epicenter distance of this location using the X
the given epicenter distance, axis.
b) Subtract the difference in arrival time from the clock time of
the Swave.

Example 17: An S-wave arrived at a seismic station 6,200 km

away at 04:48:00. What time did the first P-wave arrive at this
station?

Example 19: The first P-wave arrived at a seismic station at

10:00:00. The first S-wave arrived at the same seismic station at
10:08:40. How far is this seismic station from the epicenter?
10 : 08 : 40
- 10 : 00 : 00
00 : 08 : 40

04 : 48 : 00
- 00 : 07 : 40
Answer: 04 : 40 : 20

Example 18: An Swave arrived at a seismic station 1,400 km

away at 09:20:40. What time did the first P-wave arrive at this
station?

Answer: 7,200 km

Example 20: The first P-wave arrived at a seismic station at

06:32:20. The first S-wave arrived at the same seismic station at
06:34:20. How far is this seismic station from the epicenter?
06 : 34 : 20
- 06 : 32 : 20
00 : 02 : 00

09 : 20 : 40
- 00 : 02 : 30
Answer: 09 : 18 : 20

8) If you are asked to determine the epicenter distance using

the difference in arrival time of P-wave and S-wave:
a) Find the difference in clock time between the P-wave and S
wave by subtracting the given times.
b) Use the Y-axis (time travel) and use a piece of scrap paper to
mark the time difference.
c) Place the marked scrap paper between the P-wave and S
wave line on the graph. Slide the scrap paper along the graph to Answer: 1,200 km
DETERMINATION OF MAGNITUDE Seismic Moment, M0
Sample Problem: Estimate the seismic
moment of the 1906 San Francisco,
Different Kinds of Magnitudes
California, earthquake considering that
• Richter Magnitude
the fault’s ruptured length was 400km, the
o most famous. Simple logarithm of the amplitude of the
ruptured depth 15km, and the average
seismogram.
fault offset of 5m. Use the acquired value
• Surface Wave Magnitude
to determine the seismic moment of the
o uses the logarithm of the amplitude of surface waves.
earthquake.
Suitable for shallow earthquakes.
• Body Wave Magnitude Ruptured Length = 400 km
o used the logarithm of the amplitude of P-waves. Suitable Ruptured Depth = 15 km
for deep earthquakes. Average fault offset, D = 5 m
• Moment Magnitude 𝑵
o logarithm of seismic moments in order to circumvent 𝝁 = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟎 1N = 100000 dyne
𝒎𝟐
“saturation effect”
Equations 𝑁 100000𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒 1𝑚 2 𝒅𝒚𝒏𝒆
• Surface Wave Magnitude 𝜇 = 3 × 1010 × × ( ) = 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟏
𝑚2 1𝑁 100𝑐𝑚 𝒄𝒎𝟐
𝑴𝒔 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑨 + 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔 𝐥𝐨𝐠 ∆ + 𝟐. 𝟎
o Where: 𝑨 = Surface Wave amplitude in microns ̅
𝑀0 = 𝜇𝐴𝐷
∆ = Angular Epicentral distance in degrees 𝑀0 = (3 × 1011
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑒
) [(400𝑘𝑚 ×
100000𝑐𝑚
) (15𝑘𝑚 ×
100000𝑐𝑚
)] (5𝑚 ×
100𝑐𝑚
)
𝑐𝑚2 1𝑘𝑚 1𝑘𝑚 1𝑚
• Bodu Wave Magnitude
𝒎𝒃 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑨 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑻 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏∆ + 𝟓. 𝟗 𝑴𝟎 = 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟕 𝒅𝒚𝒏𝒆 ∙ 𝒄𝒎
o Where: 𝑨 = P - Wave amplitude in microns
∆ = Angular Epicentral distance in degrees Moment Magnitude, MW
𝑻 = Period of P-wave in seconds log 𝑀0 log 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟕
• Moment Magnitude 𝑀𝑤 = − 10.7 = − 10.7 = 𝟕. 𝟗𝟒
1.5 1.5
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝑴𝟎
𝑴𝒘 = − 𝟏𝟎. 𝟕 Estimation of Focal Depth, FD
𝟏. 𝟓
o Where: 𝑴𝟎 = Seismic moment in dyne - cm
• Seismic Moment 1° of Latitude = 111 km
̅
𝑴𝟎 = 𝝁𝑨𝑫 1° of Longitude = (111 cos L) km
o Where: 𝝁 = Rupture Strength Where L = corresponding Latitude
𝑨 = Rupture Area
𝑫 = Average amount of slip
Source Location
𝑳𝒂𝒕𝟏 − 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝟐 𝟐
𝑫, 𝒌𝒎 = √[(𝑳𝒂𝒕𝟏 − 𝑳𝒂𝒕𝟐)(𝟏𝟏𝟏)]𝟐 + [(𝑳𝒐𝒏𝟏 − 𝑳𝒐𝒏𝟐) (𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 )]
𝟐

Sample Problem: Based on the information from several seismographic

stations, it is established that the epicenter of an earthquake is located
at 39°N and 119.8°W. A station nearby the earthquake epicenter is
located at 38.5°N and 120°W. The calculated hypo-central distance
from this nearby station 86.4km. Find the earthquake’s focal depth.
RICHTER MAGNITUDE or LOCAL MAGNITUDE, ML
The seismogram from an earthquake recorded by a seismograph
located exactly at 100km from the earthquake epicenter exhibits a peak 39 − 38.5 2
𝐷, 𝑘𝑚 = √[(39 − 38.5)(111)]2 + [(120 − 38.5) (111 cos )]
amplitude of 1000μm. Determine the magnitude of the earthquake. 2
𝐴 1 𝑚𝑚 𝑫, 𝒌𝒎 = 𝟓𝟖. 𝟏𝟑𝟕𝟖 𝒌𝒎
𝑀 = log = log = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎
𝐴0 0.001 𝑚𝑚
𝐹𝐷 = √𝐻 2 + 𝐷2 = √86.42 + 58.13782 = 𝟔𝟑. 𝟗𝟏𝟑𝟕
Surface Wave Magnituse, Ms
Sample Problem: The peak displacement of the Rayleigh wave in a
seismogram from a seismographic station located at a 28° from the
earthquake’s epicenter is 4.3μm. Determine using this information the
earthquake’s surfacewave magnitude.
𝑀𝑠 = log 𝐴 + 1.66 log ∆ + 2.0
𝑀𝑠 = 4.3 + 1.66 log 28 + 2.0
𝑴𝒔 = 𝟓. 𝟎𝟎

Body Wave Magnitude, mb

Sample Problem: The peak surface-wave amplitude recorded by a
seismograph at 120° angular epicentral distance is 400microns, while
the maximum P-wave amplitude is 20microns at a period of 0.2sec. By
the available information, determine the earthquake’s body wave
magnitude.
𝑚𝑏 = log 𝐴 − log 𝑇 + 0.01∆ + 5.9
𝑚𝑏 = log 20 − log 0.2 + 0.01(120) + 5.9
𝒎𝒃 = 𝟗. 𝟏
EARTHQUAKE MEASUREMENT 2. Record the epicenter distance using S-P interval time. Then, record
the P-wave and S-wave travel time. The origin time can be also
determined.

S-P interval time = 35:

Sample Problem
The seismograms coming from three seismic stations of Southern
California region from an earthquake event were given. Complete the
table below to determine the earthquake’s origin time with respect to
each seismic station.

P-Wave S-Wave P-Wave S-Wave

Seismic Lag Epicenter Origin
Arrival Arrival Travel Travel
Station Time Distance Time
Time Time Time Time
Fresno, 9:00:00
CA AM
Las
9:00:00
Vegas,
AM
NV
Phoenix, 9:00:00
AZ AM

Estimate the Richter Magnitude (ML) recorded for each station and
locate the earthquake’s epicenter on the Southern California map given.
Checking:
1. Record the S-P interval time and highest S-wave amplitude. Then
S-wave travel time – P-wave travel time =
solve S-wave arrival time.
S-P interval time = 81 – 46 = 35 sec

S-P interval time = 39:

Checking:
S-wave travel time – P-wave travel time =
S-P interval time = 90 – 51 = 39 sec

S-P interval time = 61:

P-Wave S-Wave P-Wave S-Wave

Seismic Lag Epicenter Origin
Arrival Arrival Travel Travel
Station Time Distance Time
Time Time Time Time
Fresno, 9:00:00 9:00:35
35
CA AM AM
Las
9:00:00 9:00:39
Vegas, 39
AM AM
NV
Phoenix, 9:00:00 9:01:01
61
AZ AM AM
 P-Wave S-Wave P-Wave S-Wave
Seismic Lag Epicenter Origin
Arrival Arrival Travel Travel
Station Time Distance Time
Time Time Time Time
Fresno, 9:00:00 9:00:35
CA
35 345 46 81 8:59:14
AM AM
Las
9:00:00 9:00:39
Vegas, 39 384 51 90 8:59:09
NV AM AM
Phoenix, 9:00:00 9:01:01
AZ
61 594 80 141 8:58:40
AM AM

Fresno, CA:
P-wave arrival time – P-wave travel time = 9:00:00 – 00:00:46 = 8:59:14
S-wave arrival time – S-wave travel time = 9:00:00 – 00:00:46 = 8:59:14

Las Vegas, NV:

P-wave arrival time – P-wave travel time = 9:00:00 – 00:00:51 = 8:59:09
S-wave arrival time – S-wave travel time = 9:00:39 – 00:01:30 = 8:59:09

Phoenix, AZ:
P-wave arrival time – P-wave travel time = 9:00:00 – 00:01:20 = 8:58:40
S-wave arrival time – S-wave travel time = 9:01:01 – 00:02:21 = 8:58:40

Note: the origin time should be same in all station. However, the
discrepancy happens in measurements. And for lecture purposes, the
author is not sure if the P-wave and S-wave travel time graph is
appropriate for this earthquake.

3. Calculate the magnitude from Richter Magnitude Scale using

epicenter distance and highest S- wave amplitude.

4. Locate the Epicenter on the map using the epicenter distance

Fresno, CA: 345 km
Laz vegas, NV: 384 km
Phoenix, AZ: 594 km

EARTHQUAKE EPICENTER
Name: Activity 2
Section: CEELX230

Problem 1
a) How long does it take a P-wave to travel 2,000 miles?

b) How long does it take a S-wave to travel 2,000 miles?

c) How far can a P-wave travel in 5 minutes and 30 seconds?

d) How far can a S-wave travel in 12 minutes and 40 seconds?

e) If an earthquake occurs at 03:11:20, what time did the S-wave arrive at a

seismic station 3,000 miles away?

f) If a P-wave arrives at a station 1,500 miles away at 8:10:00, what time did
the earthquake originate?

g) A P-wave arrived at a seismic station 3,200 miles away at 06:30:55. What

time did the first S-wave arrive at this station?

Problem 2. The seismograms coming from three seismic stations of Japan from an earthquake event were given. Complete
the table to determine the earthquake's Richter Magnitude (ML) recorded for each station and locate the earthquake's
epicenter on the Japan map given.
Recording P-wave S-wave S-P Interval Epicenter
Station Arrival Time Arrival Time Time Distance
Pusan 11:30:00 PM
Tokyo 11:30:00 PM
Akita 11:30:00 PM