MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS AND

ORGANISATIONALBEHAVIOUR

KMBN-101
UNIT 1
Management -Management is a process of planning ,organizing, staffing, directing and
controlling the available resources effectively and efficiently for achieving the goals of the
organisation .
Mary Parker Follett , “Management is the art of getting things done through others ”

Nature of Management
1. Goal Oriented- Management aims at achieving certain specified objectives
(goals) of the enterprise
2. Management is Pervasive- Management available everywhere like Hospital
School institution sports home etc.
3. Management is a Continuous Process- it is never ending process .It
involves planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling
4. Management is a Group Activity- it is not a single person who complete all the
action of the organisation but it is always a group of people
5. Management is a Dynamic Function- Management is flexible.It must be
adopted according to the changing needs of the organization.
6.Management is Intangible- we can not see or touch it but we can feel the result.
7.Utilization of resources- It is helpful for utilization of resources like
labour,capital,rawmaterial etc.
Management Practices from Past to Present

1910s-1940s: Management as Science-Focused on increasing productivity and

efficiency through standardization, division of labor, centralization and hierarchy.

1950s-1960s: Functional Organizations-.Managers began to understand the human

factor in production and productivity.

1970s: Strategic Planning- Strategic Planning (GE), Growth ShareMatrix (BCG)

and SWOT were used to strategic planning processes.

1980s: Competitive Advantage- In the 1980’s Tools like Total Quality

Management(TQM), Six Sigma were used to measure processes and improve
productivity.

1990s: Process Optimization- Benchmarking and business process

reengineeringbecame popular in the 1990’s, and by the middle of the decade.

2000s: Big Data- Organisations in the 2000’s started to focus on using technology
for growth and value creation.

The Levels of Management

The main levels of management are:

1. Top level management.

2. Middle level management.

3. Supervisory level, operational or lower level of management.

1. Top Level Management- The managers working at this level have maximum
authority. Top level managers are responsible for the overall management and
performance of the company. They formulate objectives, policies and strategies of
the company.

Main functions of top level management are: -

(a) Determining the objectives of the enterprise.

(b) Framing of plans and policies.

(c) Assembling all the resources

(d) Responsible for welfare and survival of the organization

2. Middle Level Management- People of this group are responsible for executing
the plans and policies made by top level. They act as a linking pin between top and
lower level management.
Main functions of middle level management are: -

(a) Interpretation of policies framed by top management to lower level.

(b) Organizing the activities of their department for executing the plans and policies.

(c) Motivating the persons to perform to their best ability.

(d) Controlling and instructing the employees, preparing their performance reports
etc.
3. Supervisory Level/Operational Level

Managers of this group actually perform the activities according to the plans of top
and middle level management. Their authority is limited. They are also called junior
managers or supervisors.
 Functions of lower level management are:

(a) Representing the problems or grievances of workers before the middle level
management.

(b)Maintaining good working conditions and developing healthy relations between

Superior and Subordinate.

(c) Looking to safety of workers.

Managerial skills-There are three types of managerial skills.

1) Technical skill – Technical skills refer to the ability and knowledge in using
the equipment, techniques and procedure involved in performing specific
tasks.
2) Human skill – It refer good communication,leadership,motivation. It is
concerned with understanding of people.
3) Conceptual skill–These skills refer to the ability to visualize the entire
picture. It helps the managers to analyze the environment and to
identify the opportunities.

Process of Decision Making

Step 1: Identify the decision-

Step 2: Gather relevant information-.”

Step 3: Identify the alternatives-

Step 4: Evaluate the alternatives-

Step 5: Choose among alternatives-

Step 6: Take action-

Step 7: Review your decision & its consequences

Managerial Roles.
Henry Mintzberg has identified ten roles common to the work of all managers.

The ten roles are divided into three groups:

1. Interpersonal

2. Informational

3. Decisional
 • Figure head- head of the oraganisation.
• Leader- incharge of the organisation/
Interpersonal department.
roles • Liasion - perform the function of
motivation, communication and
encouraging the teamspirit.

• Monitor- gets the information by scanning

his environment.
• Disseminator- collects the information
Informational fromdifferent sources and through various
roles means.
• Spokesman's- some insider and outsiders
control the department and organisation

• Entrepreneur- appreciates newideas and

initiated new developements.
• Disturbance Handler- present the manager
as the involuntarily responding to
pressures.
Decisional roles • Resource Allocator- allocates his
subordinates to express thir opinion and
share their experiences.
• Negotiators- manager negotiate with
subordinates for the improvement and
loyality.

Functions of management- Management are the process of planning,

organizing, staffing, directing and controlling the efforts of organization members in
utilizing all resources to achieve organizational goal and mission.

1. Planning- it is deciding in advance what should be done.

2. Organizing – it is the process of linking and arranging activities in sequence.
3. Staffing – select right person at the right place at the right time..
4. Directing – it involves leading, influencing and motivating the people to
perform their task.
5.Controlling– it is to make sure that the organization is moving towards its
mission and objective
 Planning

Controlling Organising

Directing Staffing

5. .

PLANNING
.Planning can be defined as “thinking in advance what is to be done, when it is
to be done, how it is to be done and by whom it should be done”.

Definition of Planning –
According to HENRY FAYOL, “Planning is deciding the best alternatives among
others to perform different managerial operations in order to achieve the pre –
determined goals.”

Nature of Planning-
 Planning is goal oriented.
 Planning is primary function.
 Planning is pervasive.
 Planning is flexible
Planning is continuous.
 Planning is futuristic.
 Planning involves choice.
 Planning is a mental exercise.
Process of Planning-
1) Recognizing Need of Action
2) Setting objectives and goals
3) Determining alternative courses
4) Evaluating alternative courses
5) Selecting a course
6) Formulating derivative plans
7)Implementing the plan
 Types of Planning-
(i) Operational Planning- This type of planning typically describes the day-to-day
running of the company. Operational plans are often described as single use plans
(like marketing campaign) or ongoing plans (step by step).

(ii) Strategic Planning- It starts at the highest level with defining a mission and
casting a vision.” It’s the foundational basis of the organization and will dictate long-
term decisions.

(iii) Tactical Planning- “Tactical plans are about what is going to happen,”.
“short-termplans, where the actual work is being done. “Tactical planning
supports strategic planning.

(iv) Contingency Planning- Contingency plans are made when something

unexpected happens or when something needs to be changed.(Backup Plan)

Types of Plans: Standing Plan and Single-use Plan

I. Standing Plans
Standing plans are those plan which is used again and again whenever a particular
situation arises.
II. Single-use Plans
Single-use plans are made to serve a specific objective. They exist once such an objective is achieved.
These plans are short-lived and they have to be reformulated after every use.

Management by Objectives
Management by objectives (MBO) – The term MBO was first used by Peter F.
Drucker in his 1954 book titled The Practice of Management.

It refers to the Process of setting goals for the employees so that they know
what they are supposed to do at the workplace.

Process of MBO

Define organizational goals

Define employee objective

 Monitor progress

Evaluate performance

Provide feedback

Performance appraisal

Decision Making
Decision making is the process of choosing best alternative from among
thealternative solutions under a given set of circumstances.

Types of Decision Making

1) Programmed and non-programmed decisions: -Programmed decisions are
concerned with the problems of repetitive nature or routine type matters.
Non-programmed decisions relate to difficult situations for which there
is noeasy solution.
2) Routine and strategic decisions: -Routine decisions are related to the
general functioning of the organisation. They do not require much evaluation
and analysis and can be taken quickly.
Strategic decisions are important which affect objectives, organizational
goals and other important policy matters. These decisions usually involve
huge investments or funds.
3) Tactical (Policy) and operational decisions: -Decisions pertaining to
various policy matters of the organisation are policy decisions. These are
taken by the top management and have long term impact on the functioning
ofthe concern.
4) Organizational and personal decisions: -When an individual takes decision
as an executive in the official capacity, it is known as organizational decision.
If decision is taken by the executive in the personal capacity (thereby
affectinghis personal life), it is known as personal decision.
5) Major and minor decisions: - Decision pertaining to purchase of new
factory premises is a major decision. Major decisions are taken by top
management.
Purchase of office stationery is a minor decision which can be taken by office
superintendent.
6) Individual and group decisions: -When the decision is taken by a single
individual, it is known as individual decision.
Group decisions are taken by group of individuals constituted in the form of a
standing committee..
 Techniques of Decision-Making
1. Marginal Analysis- This technique is used in decision-making to figure out how
much extra output will result if one more variable (e.g. raw material, machine, and
worker) is added..

2. Financial Analysis- This decision-making tool is used to estimate the profitability

of an investment, to calculate the payback period and to analyse cash inflows and
cash outflows.

3. Break-Even Analysis- This tool enables a decision-maker to evaluate the

available alternatives based on price, fixed cost and variable cost per unit.

4. Ratio Analysis.Ratios define the relationship between two variables. The

basic financial ratios compare costs and revenue for a particular period.

5. Operations Research Techniques-. An operation research (OR) involves the

practical application of quantitative methods in the process of decision- making.
Several ORtechniques have been developed over the years.Waiting-line Method,
Game Theory, Decision Tree.

UNIT -2

ORGANIZING AND STAFFING

Organisation- An Organization is a group of people who work together to achieve

a common goal.

Spriegel has described it as therelationship among persons, factors in the enterprise.

All factors of production are coordinated in order to achieve Organizational objectives.

Characteristics of an organisation:
 A purpose, goal or goals are the task of planning.
 A clear concept of the major duties or activities required to achieve the
purpose.
 Classification of activities into jobs.
 Establishment the relationship between the jobs in the order to ensure co-
ordination.

Organization Structure
An organizational structure is a system that outlines how certain activities are directed in
order to achieve the goals of an organization.

There are generally two types of organization-

1. Vertical/ tall organizations
2. Horizontal / flat organizations

Types of Organizational Structures

Types of common organizational structures are implemented in the real world.
 1. Line Organisation:
Line organisation is the simplest and oldest form of organisation structure. It is called as
military or departmental or scalar type of organization. Line organisation clearly
identifies authority, responsibility and accountability at each level.

2. Line and Staff Organization:

This type of organization structure is in large enterprises.Staff is basically advisory in
nature and usually does not possess any command authority over line managers.

3.Project Organization- This organisational structure are temporarily formed for specific
projects for a specific period of time, for achieving the goal of developing new product.
Specialists go back to their respective duties as soon as the project is completed.
4.Matrix Organisation: A matrix organisation, also referred to as the “multiple command
system”.It has two chains of command. One chain of command is functional in which the
flow of authority is vertical.
Definition of Decentralisation- Decentralisation is referred to as a form of
an organisational structure where there is the delegation of authority by the top
management to the middle and lower levels of management in an organisation.
Delegation refers to the assigning a portion of work and the associated
responsibility by a superior to a subordinate. In simple words, when delegation is
expanded on an organisational level, it is called decentralisation
Implications of Decentralization
1. There is fewer burdens on the Chief Executive as in the case of
centralization.
2. In decentralization, the subordinates get a chance to decide and act
independently which develops skills and capabilities.
3. In decentralization, diversification and horizontal can be easily implante
4.In decentralization structure, operations can be coordinated at divisional level
which is not possible in the centralization set up.
5.In the case of decentralization structure, there is greater motivation and
morale of the employees since they get more independence to act and decide.

STAFFING-The managerial function of staffing involves select right person at the

right place at the right time.
According to Theo Haimann, “Staffing pertains to recruitment, selection,
development and compensation of subordinates
Nature of Staffing-Staffing is an integral part of human resource management.
It facilitates procurementand placement of right people on the right jobs.
The nature of staffing function is discussed below:
(i) People Centred- Staffing is people centred and is relevant in all types of
organizations.
(ii) Responsibility of Every Manager-
It is the duty of every manager to perform the staffing activities such as selection,
training, performance appraisal and counselling of employees
(iii) Human Skills- Every manager should use human relations skill in providing
guidance and training to the subordinates.
iv)Continuous Function- Staffing function is to be performed continuously. It is
equally important in the established organizations and the new organizations
Importance of Staffing
It is most importance for the organization that right kinds of people are employed
1.Efficient Performance of Other Functions
2. Effective Use of Technology and Other Resources
3.Optimum Utilization of Human Resources
4.Development of Human Capital
5.Motivation of Human Resources
6. Building Higher Morale

DIRECTING AND CONTROLLING

Directing refers to a process or technique of instructing, guiding, inspiring,
counseling, overseeing and leading people towards the accomplishment of
organizational goals.
 Directing consists of the following four sub-functions:
1. Communication
2. Guiding
3. Inspiring.
4. Exercising supervision

8 Most Important Principles of Directing

(1) Principle of Maximum Individual Contribution:
management should adopt that directing policy through which the employees get
motivated and give their maximum individual contribution for the achievement of
organizational objective.
2Principle of Harmony of Objectives:
there must be full coordination between organizational and individual objectives.
Employees work in an organization with an objective to getbetter remuneration,
promotion, etc.

3Principle of Unity of Command:

According to this principle, a subordinate should get directions from one officer at a
time..

4Principle of Appropriateness of Direction Technique:

appropriate direction techniques should be used, e.g., to supervise effectively, to
provide able leadership, to adopt free communication and to motivate through right
medium.

5Principle of Managerial Communication:

it should be monitored by the management that the subordinates get the same
meaning for what has been said..

6Principle of Use of Informal Organization:

there must be a free flow of information between the seniors and the subordinates..

7Principle of Leadership:
while giving directions to the subordinates a good leadership must be provided by
the managers.
8-Principle of Follow Through:
it must be monitored by management the employees are following the management
or not.

Direction has following elements:

(i) Supervision– implies overseeing the work of subordinates by their superiors. It is
the act of watching & directing work & workers.
(ii) Motivation– means inspiring, stimulating or encouraging the sub-ordinates with
zeal to work. Positive, negative, monetary, non-monetary incentives may be used for
this purpose.
(iii) Leadership– may be defined as a process by which manager guides and
influences the work of subordinates in desired direction.
Communications– is the process of passing information, experience, opinion etc from
one person to another. It is a bridge of understanding
 Controlling
controlling function can be defined as ensuring that activities in an organization are
performed as per the plans. Controlling also ensures that an organization’s resources
are being used effectively & efficiently for the achievement of predetermined goals.

 Controlling is a goal-oriented function.

 It is a primary function of every manager.
 Controlling the function of a manager is a pervasive function

Importance of Controlling
A good control system helps an organization in the following ways:

1. Accomplishing Organizational Goals-

2. Judging Accuracy of Standards-.

3. Making Efficient use of Resources-

4. Improving Employee Motivation-
5. Ensuring Order & Discipline-

6. Facilitating Coordination in Action-.

Techniques of Controlling

1. Direct Supervision and Observation- The supervisor himself observes the

employees and their work. This brings him in direct contact with the workers
2. Financial Statements- Financial statements are used to control the
organisation. The figures of the current year can be compared with theprevious
year's figures.
3. Budgetary Control-Budgetary control is done for all aspects of a business such
as income, expenditure, production, capital and revenue. Budgetary control is done
bythe budget committee.

4. Break Even Analysis-The Break-even analysis acts as a control device. It helps

to find out the company's performance. So the company can take collective action to
improve its performance in the future..

5. Return on Investment (ROI)- If the ROI is high then the financial performance
of a business is good and vice-versa.
It helps to conduct inter-firm comparisons. It also shows the areas where corrective
actions are needed.

6-Management by Objectives (MBO)- unit 1.

7-Management Audit-Management auditing is conducted by a team of experts. They

collect data from pastrecords, members of management, clients and employees. The
data is analysed and conclusions are drawn about managerial performance and
efficiency.

8-Management Information System (MIS) -In order to control the organization

properly the management needs accurate information.. Information is collected
continuously to identify problems and find out solutions..
9-PERT and CPM Techniques- Programme Evaluation and Review Technique
(PERT) and Critical Path Method (CPM) techniques were developed in USA in the
late 50's.
CPM / PERT can be used to minimize the total time or the total cost required to
perform the total operations.
10-Self-Control- A person is given freedom to set his own targets, evaluate his own
performance and take correctivemeasures as and when required.

Controlling Process in Business Management

1-Setting Performance Standards-
. 2-Measurement of Actual Performance
3-.Comparing Actual Performance with Standards-
4-Analysing Deviations-.
5-Taking Corrective Action-.

Management by Exception

Management by exception is a concept that managers use to focus on key areas of

business performance instead of looking at the business as a whole.

Advantages of Management by Exception:

1. It saves time. Manager attends to real problems at a particular point of time.
2. Concentrated efforts are possible, as this system enables the manager to
decide when and where he should pay his attention. It identifies crisis and
critical problems.
3. Lesser number of decisions is required to be taken, which enables the
manager to go into detail.
4. This enables to increase span of control and increase the activities for a
manager.
5. Use of past trends, history and available data can be made fully.
6. It alarms the management about the good opportunities as well as difficulties.
7. Qualitative and quantitative yardsticks are provided for judging the current
position.
8. It prevents management from over managing.

How Management by Exception works

Management by exception consists of four steps:

1. Setting the objectives and defining what the norm should be

2. Assessing performance to see whether performance is on track
3. Analyzing work or records to determine where performance deviates from
objectives
Investigating and solving the exceptions to the norm.
 Coordination: The Essence of Management:
Coordination brings unity of action and integrates different activities of organization.

Coordination is considered as the essence of management because of following

reasons

1. Coordination is needed to perform all the functions of

management:
(i) In planning coordination is required between main plan and supportive plans of
different departments.
(ii) In organizing coordination is required between different resources of an
organization and also between authority responsibility and accountability.
(iii) In staffing coordination is required between skill of a person and job assigned to
him, between efficiency and compensation etc.
(iv) In directing function coordination is required between superior and subordinates,
between orders, instructions, guidelines and suggestions etc.
(v) In controlling function coordination is required between standards and actual
performance.

2. Coordination is required at all the levels:

(i) Top level requires coordination to integrate all the activities of organization and
lead the efforts of all the individuals in one common direction.
(ii) Coordination is required at middle level to balance the activities of different
departments so that these can work as a part of one organization only.

(iii) Lower level requires coordination to integrate the activities of workers towards
achievement of organizational objectives.

3. Coordination is the most important function of an organization:

Any company which fails to coordinate its activities cannot survive and run
successfully for a long period of time. For example, Allwyn Company, established in
1942, was the first company to produce a double-decker bus. It was running
successfully as a leading electronic industry, especially in refrigeration industry. By
the end of 1980 the company faced the problem of coordination. There was lack of
balance and integration of different activities; as a result the company started facing
huge losses and by 1993 company had an accumulated loss of Rs. 168 crore.
Company failed to balance its departmental activities and product folios.

So in short we can say without coordination no company can work efficiently and
earn profit.

Need of coordination
(i) Growth in size:
(ii) Functional differentiation:
(iii) Specialization:

Key differences between Centralization and

Decentralization

Aspect Centralization Decentralization

Decision-making Top-down Distributed

Authority Concentrated Shared

Autonomy Limited High

Speed of decision-making Slower Faster

Flexibility Low High

Local Knowledge Limited Utilized

Innovation Limited Encouraged

Risk Management Central oversight Localized

Feature of centralisation –
1.decision making authority 2. hierarchical structure 3.uniformity and consistency 4.control and
coordination 5.risk management 6.speed of decision making7. resource efficiency
Advantage of centralization
1. clarity of authority 2. consistency 3.risk management4.Speed
Disadvantage of centralization-1. Limited flexibility 2. innovation 3.employee
morale

Decentralization features -1.distribution of authority 2. autonomy and empowerment

3.flexibility and responsiveness 4.local knowledge utilisation 5.enhanced innovation 6.improved
motivation and morale 7. Quiker decision making
Advantage of decentralization -1.local Adaptation 2.innovation 3.employee
empowerment
Disadvantage of centralization- 1.coordination challenges 2. risk management
3.strategic alignment .

Delegation of Authority- Delegation of authority is fundamental Management

process that involves transferring the decision making power and responsibility from a
manager to subordinate. This process not only enhance the efficiency of an organisation
but also fosters employee development motivation and empowerment

Principle of delegation of authority-1. parity of authority and responsibility 2.

unity of command 3.scholar principle 4.principle of functional definition 5.principle of
absolute responsibility

Benefit of delegation of authority 1.enhance efficiency 2.employee

development 3.motivation and moral 4.better decision making5. improve time management
6. Innovation and flexibility
challenges of delegation of authority- inadequate training 2. resistance
from employee 3. poor communication 4.monitoring and feedback 5. risk of over delegation.

1-Job instruction training -in this instruction are given by experienced trainers. Giving instruction
step by step
2-Apprenticeship- experience person gives training and after completion traineee can apply for
permanent job.
3-job rotation - the employee will rotate around the different jobs within the organisation performing
various different task Unrelated to his original job
4-coaching a more experienced or skilled individual provides and employee with advice and
guidance
5-under study or training who is likely to assume the full duty and responsibilities of the position
currently held by his superior is called as and under study,
6-Mentoring-for providing support and feedback on the person in his shot s person is assigned to
act as an advisor training
(B) Off JOB TRAINING
1-lectures a direct method of instruction that involves a verbal presentation of information by an
instructor to a large audience
2-simulations a kind of training created to Mirror real life
situation. duplicate the actual work environment
3-case study a method which provide discriptive situation which team lead training to me decision
role play and active learning strategy that requires participants to perform realistic scenarios under
the supervision of a trainer or facilita in
4-basket training the employee are given information about an imaginary company it's activities
and products HR employed and all data related to the firm the training has to make notes delegate
task and previous schedules within a specific time
5-group discussion a type of discussion that involves people sharing ideas or activities full stop
people in the group discussions are connected with one basic idea
6-sensitive training is related to emotions psychological technique in which intensive group
discussion and interaction are used to increase individual Awareness of self and others i7--
Syndicate a participative method which basically consist of dividing up the participant in the
number of group for the purpose of discussion in exercise of work on a project
8-seminar conducted for academic purpose .usually conducted on a particular topic .people
gathered at a place and present and discuss their research finding or work. done for one or two
days
9-workshop a group of people are given training using tools and equipment .
done to development news kills learning by doing approach.
10-conference being bring people and ideas with common background .it is a formal meeting.
views are exchange on various topics. done for one or two day .Academy association to discuss
future plan and work

Difference between Recruitment and Selection

Basis Recruitment Selection

The process of identifying and

The process of searching for
choosing the best person out of a
appropriate employees and
Meaning number of prospective
encouraging them to apply for jobs is
candidates for a job is known as
known as Recruitment.
Selection.

It is a positive process as It is a negative process as

Nature it stimulates people to apply for a it eliminates more people than
job. selecting them.

It aims to create a pool of It aims to ensure that competent

Purpose
applicants. candidate is selected for a job.

It is a simple process as there It is a complex process as there

Process
are not many steps or hurdles. are many steps or hurdles.
 Basis Recruitment Selection

It starts before the selection It starts after the recruitment

Stage
process. process.

It is the second step towards the

It is the first step towards the
Step hiring process and comes after
hiring process.
recruitment.

Economical/
It is an economical process. It is an expensive process.
Expensive

BMB-101- UNIT 3
Organizational Behavior (OB) is the study of how people behave in a workplace and how that
behavior impacts the organization. It includes the study of individual and group performance, as well
as the processes and characteristics of the organization itself. .

Components of Organizational Behavior

Organizational Behavior encompasses several key components, Let’s explore these components:
1. Individual Behavior: It involves studying how employees’ personalities, attitudes,
perceptions, and motivations influence their actions and decisions within the organization.
2. Group Behavior: Group behavior examines the interactions and dynamics among employees
working together toward common goals..
3. Organizational Structure: The organizational structure defines the hierarchical arrangement
of roles, responsibilities, and reporting relationships within an organization.
4. Organizational Culture: Organizational culture refers to the shared values, beliefs, norms,
and customs that define the work environment.
5. Organizational Change. Studying how individuals and groups react to change helps
organizations implement successful change management strategies.
Models of Organizational Behavior
Several models have been developed to understand the complexities of OB better. Let’s explore
some prominent ones:
1. Autocratic Model: The Autocratic Model represents a top-down management approach,
where decision-making is centralized, and employees have limited autonomy.
2. Custodial Model: Organizations adopting this model offer financial rewards, job security,
and benefits to ensure employee loyalty and retention.
3. Supportive Model: Managers act as mentors and facilitators, encouraging employee growth
and fostering positive relationships.

4. Collegial Model: The Collegial Model promotes teamwork, collaboration, and employee
participation in decision-making. It assumes that employees are self-motivated and responsible.
 5. System Model: It considers the impact of internal and external factors on the organization’s
overall performance.

 Perception: refers to the process through which individuals select, organize, interpret, and
understand sensory information from their environment. (Create image in mind).

 Process of Perception:

 Stimulation

Receiving stimuli through our senses, such as sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell

 Selection

Choosing which stimuli to pay attention to, based on our motives, impulses, and
expectations

 Organization

Putting the stimuli into patterns and structures that already exist in our minds

 Interpretation

Using our previous experiences to make sense of the stimuli

 Behavioral applications of Perception

In organizational behavior and management, understanding the behavioral applications of perception
is vital for improving productivity, enhancing communication, and fostering a positive work culture.

1. Perception in Decision-Making-.

2. Perception in Interpersonal Relationships-

3. Perception and Leadership-

4. Perception in Conflict Management-.

5. Perception and Performance Evaluation-

6. Perception in Organizational Change-

Fundamentals of Individual Behaviour

Individual behavior is the way a person reacts in different situations and the way someone expresses
different emotions like anger, happiness, love, etc.

psychologist Kurt Lewin given formula-

using the formula.

B = F(P,E)
Where, B: Behavior, F: Be avior Function, P: Person, and E: Environment around
the person.

Say for example, a well p yed person who loses his job in recessi n may behave
differently when unemploy d.

Causes of Individual Behavior

Certain individual characteristics are responsible for the way a person behaves in daily life
situations as well as reacts to any emergency situations. These characteristics are categorized as
−

1. Inherited characteristics
2. Learned characteristics
Inherited Characteristics
The features individuals acquire from their parents or from our forefathers are the inherited
characteristics.
Following features are considered as inherited characteristics – Color of a
person’s eye.
 Religion/Race of a person.
 Shape of the nose.
 Shape of earlobes
Learned Characteristics
Nobody learns everything by birth. First our school is our home, then our society followed by our
educational institutions.
Perception: Result of different senses like feeling, hearing etc.
 Values: Influences perception of a situation, decision making process.
 Personality: Patterns of thinking, feeling, understanding and behaving.
 Attitude: Positive or negative attitude like expressing one’s thought.

Determinants of Personality
The term ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which means a mask. It is the
combination of an individual thoughts, characteristics, behaviors, attitude, idea and habits.
 Definition-
Raymond Bernard Cattell- Personality as the traits that predict a person’s
behaviour.
Personality Determinants

Personality is not determined by a single factor, but by an accumulation of many factors. Some
of those factors are psychological, while others are physical, biological, and hereditary.

Heredity- Heredity refers to acquiring from parents certain biological, physical and
psychological commonalities.
Environment-. It is commonly seen that a doctor’s son preferring his father’s profession and a
child of a soldier enters into Defence Services.
Situation- Individual has to interact with number of problems in a given situation, which does
not remain constant.. It can be social learning activity of personality.

Types of Personality- Three types of personality

1) Extrovert Personality: Those individuals are highly socialized and have contact with
outside people in the society.These types of people are drivers, excessive drinkers,
smokers, robbers, thieves, wicked persons etc.
2) Introvert Personality: Introvert is opposite to extrovert. Those people are always
live alone in their rooms and do not want to go outside. They have their own
imaginary world. They are teachers, scientists, thinkers and philosophers.
3) Ambivert Personality: People belonging to this type enjoy both the groups and attend
them. They want to live in both parties. Sometimes they join outside people but
sometimes they live in their own rooms.
4) Type A: People having Type A personality are always moving, walking and eating
rapidly. They are generally obsessed with work involved with numbers.
5) Type B:. They do not discuss achievement and leave it to the superiors to identify
it. People having B type of personality play for fun and relaxation rather than to
show off. These people have the tendency to relax without guilt

Personal Effectiveness

Personal effectiveness is a branch of the self-help movement dealing with success, goals, and
related concepts.

Here are some skills that will greatly increase the efficiency of any person who owns them:
1) Determination-.
2) Self-confidence-.
3) Managing Stress-
4) Problem-solving skills-
5) Creativity-
6) Generating ideas-

Seven principles of personal effectiveness- The path to personal effectiveness captured by

acronym- ADDRESS- (A)-Accecpt responsibility, (D)- Define Sucess (D)- Develop a system
you trust, (R)- Recruit your stake holder, (E)- Embade rutins & Rituals, (S)- Steer meeting &
Interaction, (S)- Stay on track under pressure
Attitudes Meaning and Types

An attitude may be defined as the way a person feels about somthing like person, place or
anything. An Attitude is a favourable or unfavourable

1) Stephen P. Robins- “ An attitude are evaluatify statememt either like or dislike

concerning object, people or event.”

Types of Attitude
1. Positive Attitude
It means that keeping a positive mindset and thinking about the greater good, no matter
whatever the circumstances are.

1)Confidence:.2 .Happiness: 3. Sincerity:4. Determination

2. Negative Attitude
Generally, people will negative attitude ignore the good things in life and only think about
whether they will fail.
1.Anger 2. Doubt 3.Frustration

3. Neutral Attitude
There is no doubt. Neither is there any kind of hope. The people generally tend to ignore the
problems in life. They wait for some other individual to take care of their problems. They
generally have a lazy life and they are often unemotional.

Components of Attitude: -3 components of attitude are:

 Cognitive Component.
 Affective Component.
 Behavioral Component.

1) Cognitive Component: It refers that part of attitude which is related in general

knowledge of a person. Typically these come to light in generalities or stereotypes,
such as ‘all babies are cute’, ‘smoking is harmful to health’ etc.
2) Affective Component:-It deals with feelings or emotions that are brought to the
surface about something, such as fear or hate.[I do not like Maya because she is not
hard working, or I like Mina because she is hard working.
3) Behavioral Component: Behavior component of an attitude consists of a person’s
tendencies to behave in a particular way toward an object.
Basically, the cognitive component is based on the information or knowledge, whereas
the affective component is based on the feelings. The behavioral component reflects
how the attitude affects the way we act or behave.

Theory of Attitude Formation and Attitude Change

Formation of Attitude- Formation of attitude depends on the following factors-

a) Psychological Factor- These are made up of person’s perception, ideas, beliefs,
values, information etc. It has a crucial role in determining a person’s attitudes.
 exm- all superiors are exploitative.
b) Family Factors- During childhood, a person spends a major part of his life time in
the family. Thus, he learns from the family members who provide him with ready-
made attitudes on a variety of issues such as education, work, health, religion,
politics economics etc.
c) Social Fators- Societies differ in terms of language, culture, norms, value beliefs
etc, all of which influance a person’s attitudes.

d)Organisational Factors- Such as nature of job, office layout, fellow workers, quality of
supervision, monetary rewards associated with the job, informal groups, paly an important role
in shaping the job attitudes of a person

e)Economic Factors- A person’s attitude towards a host of issues such as pleasure, work,
marriage, working women etc, influences by economic factors such as his economic status in
society
Theory of Attitude Formation

1. Cognitive Consistency Theories- Everyone wants consistency among their attitude and also
between attitude and behaviour.

Example I want to do singing not study or I want to do study not singing there is inconsistency
among attitude.

If there is inconsistency then efforts are made to remove this inconsistency and get back in the
consistent state.

2. Functional Theory- This theory is given by Daniel Katz. The functional theory considers how
attitudes and efforts are related to the motivational structure of the individual.This theory states that
people hold and express attitudeto serve a number of functions.

These functions are-

1.Utillitarian Function- Related to the basic principles of reward and punishment

2.Value Expressive Function-. attitude that Express the consumer’s Central values are self concept

3.Ego Defensive Function- formed to protect consumers from external threats or internal feeling

4.Knowledge- attitude formed as the result of a need for order,structure or meeting.

4.
 GROUP BEHAVIOUR

A group is collection of two or more individuals, working for a common goal and are
interdependent. They interact significantly to achieve a group objective.A group behaviour can
be stated as a course of action a group takes as a family. For example: Strike.
1) Marvin Shaw – a group comprises of two or more person who intract with one
another in such a manner that each person influences & is influenced by each other
person.
Types of Groups
There are two types of groups an individual forms. They are formal groups and informal groups.
A) Formal groups—. It is collection of employees who work together to contribute
towards achievement of organizational objective. They have to follow rule-
regulations & policy of the organization .

Informal Groups- Groups which are not formal are informal. In other words, these are groups
that are neither formally created nor controlled by the organization

Stages of Group Development

 1) Forming -It is an orientation stage. This stage is marked by a great deal of
caution, confusion & ucertainty about the group purpose, structure & leadership.
2) Storming- Members accept the existence of the group, but there is resistance to
constraints on individuality. Under this stage member comes to result who
control the group.
3) Norming-There is now a strong sense of group identity. Under this stage
member works together & developing close relationship.
4) Performing-This is thehighest level of the group maturity at this stage is
marked by team work,role clarity task accomplishment.
5) Adjourning- In this stage the group prepare for its disbandment. It may be either
after meeting their goal or members leave.

Interpersonal skill (IPS) – Interpersonal skill means those skill which helps to know others
easily with the help of these skills we can easily familiar to every personal of an any organisation
& it is also benificial to organization. It is finest way of communication.
IPS can be develop by following ways-
a) Developing positive thinking
b) Emphasis of developing healthy relationship
c) Adopt a problem solving approach
d) Involving subordinates in decision making process
e) Evaluating the result
f) Successfull implementation of decision.

Transactional Analysis-T.A. Was originally develoved by Eric Bern in 1950’s.

“Transactional analysis is a technique used to help people better understandtheir own
and other’s behaviour, especially in interpersonal relationship.”
Transactional Analysis is primarily concerned with the following-
1. Analysis of ego states
2. Analysis of transactions
3. Analysis of life positions
1) Analysis of ego states-. Sigmund Freud was the first to advocate that in every individual there
are three ego states residing within him i.e. parent ego, adult ego and child ego

Parent Ego- Parent Ego refers to the personality attributes like value, attitude and behaviour of
parent like people, inherited by a person when he was child.

Adult Ego- Adult Ego is based on reasoning, seeking from subordinates and providing
information. They behave rationally and think logically.

Child Ego- The child ego stats the characterised by very immature behaviour. The
characteristics of child ego states are creativity, conformaty, anxiety, dipression, fear,
dependance, joy, emotional and srntiments etc.

2)Analysis of transactions-. TA is a technique for examining he nature of interpersonal

communication between the two individuals and to analyse its effectiveness

. There are three types of transaction like- Complementary, Crossed and Ulterior Transaction.
(a) Complementary Transaction- Complementary transactions are those
communications where stimulus and response(S—R) is from identical ego state. Message from one
person gets almost predicted response and the transaction is parallel. There are nine such
complementary transactions
 (a) Crossed Transaction- It is also known as Non- complementary transaction. Non-
Complimentary transactions are those transactions which a sender sends the message on
the basis of his ego state, but the response is from an unexpected ego state on the part of
receiver. Such behaviour occur when stimulus and response is not parallel.

(b) Ulterior Transaction- Ulterior transactions are most complex transactions because if
involves more than two egos states working at the same time with double meaning in the
stimulus. This type of transaction is very commonly used by diplomates.

2) Analysis of life positions-. Harris identified life positions where individual knows about
himself and the perception of people about him. Transactional analysis constructs the
following four life positions.
(a) I am Okay you are Okay. (c) I am not Okay you are Okay
(b) I am Okay you are not Okay. (d) I am not Okay you are not Okay

Johari Window

Johari Window is a technique for improving self-awareness within an individual. It helps in

understanding your relationship with yourself and others. Johari Window model can be a useful
tool if you want to improve your communication skills.
It was developed by Joseph Luft & Harrington Ingham, they have develope a diagram known as
Johari Window. Johari Window comprising 4 quardants is shown in the following diadram-

Information known Information not

to self known to self

Information known 1 2
to other Open Self (Public Blind Self
Area) (Blind Area)
Information not 3 4
known to others Hidden Self Unknown Self
Private area) (Dark Area)

(a) The Open Self:- Open Self is known as Public area. This quadrant indicates
information about self is known to oneself and also to others.

(b) Blind Self: This quadrant is related to information is not known to self but known
to others, who interact with you, know more about you. This is known as blind area.

(c) Hidden Self: Self knows information but others do not know it. The area is also
called Private Area.

(d) Unknown Self: This area is characterized by facts unknown to the self and to others.
This is dark area, which is not pregnable (to be not aware to other).
 UNIT – 4
Motivation:

Motivation is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce
thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge.
The term "motivation" is frequently used to describe why a person does something. It is the
driving force behind human actions.
Types of Motivation

Different types of motivation are frequently described as being either extrinsic or intrinsic:

 Extrinsic motivations are those that arise from outside of the individual and
often involve rewards such as trophies, money, social recognition, or praise.
 Intrinsic motivations are those that arise from within the individual, such as
doing a complicated crossword puzzle purely for the personal gratification of
solving a problem.
Uses

There are many different uses for motivation. It serves as a guiding force for all human
behavior, but understanding how it works and the factors that may impact it can be
important in a number of ways.
Understanding motivation can:

 Help improve the efficiency of people as they work toward goals

 Help people take action
 Encourage people to engage in health-oriented behaviors
 Help people avoid unhealthy or maladaptive behaviors such as risk-taking and addiction
 Help people feel more in control of their lives
 Improve overall well-being and happiness

Theory of Motivation:

Maslow’s Theory of Motivation:

Maslow first introduced his concept of a hierarchy of needs in his 1943 paper "A Theory
of Human Motivation" and his subsequent book Motivation and Personality. This
hierarchy suggests that people are motivated to fulfill basic needs before moving on to
other, more advanced needs.
Physiological Needs

The basic physiological needs are probably fairly apparent—these include the things
that are vital to our survival. Some examples of physiological needs include:

 Food
 Water
 Breathing
 Homeostasis.

Security and Safety Needs

People want control and order in their lives. So, this need for safety and security
contributes largely to behaviors at this level. Some of the basic security and safety
needs include:

 Financial security
 Health and wellness
 Safety against accidents and injury

Social Needs

The social needs in Maslow’s hierarchy include such things as love, acceptance, and
belonging. At this level, the need for emotional relationships drives human behavior.
Some of the things that satisfy this need include:

 Friendships
 Romantic attachments
 Family
 Social groups
 Community groups
 Churches and religious organizations.

Esteem Needs

At the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy is the need for appreciation and respect. When
the needs at the bottom three levels have been satisfied, the esteem needs begin to
play a more prominent role in motivating behavior.

Self-Actualization Needs
Self-actualizing people are self-aware, concerned with personal growth, less
concerned with the opinions of others, and interested in fulfilling their potential.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation:

In 1959, Frederick Herzberg, a behavioural scientist proposed a two-

factor theory or the motivator-hygiene theory. According to
Herzberg, there are some job factors that result in satisfaction while
there are other job factors that prevent dissatisfaction.

FIGURE:

Herzberg’s view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

Herzberg classified these job factors into two categories-

a. Hygiene factors- Hygiene factors are those job factors which are
essential for existence of motivation at workplace. These do not
lead to positive satisfaction for long-term. But if these factors are
absent at workplace, then they lead to dissatisfaction.

 Pay - The pay or salary

structure should be
appropriate and
reasonable. It must be
equal and competitive to
those in the same industry
in the same domain.
 Company Policies and
administrative policies -
The company policies
should not be too rigid.
They should be fair and
clear. It should include
flexible working hours,
dress code, breaks,
vacation, etc.
 Fringe benefits - The
employees should be
offered health care plans
(mediclaim), benefits for
the family members,
employee help
programmes, etc.
 Physical Working
 conditions - The working
conditions should be safe,
clean and hygienic. The
work equipments should
be updated and well-
maintained.
 Status - The employees’
status within the
organization should be
familiar and retained.
 Interpersonal relations -
The relationship of the
employees with his peers,
superiors and
subordinates should be
appropriate and
acceptable. There should
be no conflict or
humiliation element
present.
 Job Security - The
organization must provide
job security to the
employees.

b. Motivational factors- According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors

cannot be regarded as motivators. The motivational factors yield
positive satisfaction. These factors are inherent to work. These
factors motivate the employees for a superior performance. These
factors are called satisfiers.:

Recognition - The employees should be praised and recognized for

their accomplishments by the managers.

 Sense of achievement - The employees must have a

sense of achievement. This depends on the job. There
must be a fruit of some sort in the job.
 Growth and promotional opportunities - There
must be growth and advancement opportunities in an
organization to motivate the employees to perform
well.
Responsibility - The employees must hold themselves responsible for the
work. The managers should give them ownership of the work

Limitations of Two-Factor Theory:

The two factor theory is not free from limitations:

1. The two-factor theory overlooks situational variables.

2. Herzberg assumed a correlation between satisfaction and
productivity.
3. The theory’s reliability is uncertain..
 4. No comprehensive measure of satisfaction was used.
5. The two factor theory is not free from bias as it is based on the
natural reaction of employees when they are enquired the sources
of satisfaction and dissatisfaction at work.
6. The theory ignores blue-collar workers. Despite these limitations,
Herzberg’s Two-Factor theory is acceptable broadly.

McClelland Theory of Motivation

Definition: McClelland’s Needs Theory was proposed by a psychologist David

McClelland, who believed that the specific needs of the individual are acquired
over a period of time and gets molded with one’s experience of the life.
McClelland’s Needs Theory is sometimes referred to as Three Need theory or
Learned Needs Theory.
Need for Power : What is Power? Power is the ability to induce or influence the
behavior of others. The people with high power needs seek high-level positions
in the organization, so as to exercise influence and control over others.

Need for Affiliation (n-affil): People with high need for affiliation derives
pleasure from being loved by all and tend to avoid the pain of being
rejected.

Need for Achievement (n-ach): McClelland found that some people

have an intense desire to achieve. He has identified the following
characteristics of high achievers:

>High achievers take the moderate risks,.

 High achievers seek to obtain the immediate feedback for the work done
by them, so as to know their progress towards the goal.
 Once the goal is set, the high achiever puts himself completely into the
job, until it gets completed successfully.
 he wants to earn money, but satisfaction in the accomplishment of work
itself gives him more pleasure than merely the cash reward.
Contemporary theories of Motivation:

Self Determination Theory

Self-determination theory grew out of the work of psychologists Edward

Deci and Richard Ryan, who first introduced their ideas in their 1985
book Self-Determination and Intrinsic Motivation in Human Behavior.
They developed a theory of motivation which suggested that people tend
to be driven by a need to grow and gain fulfillment.

Self Efficacy Theory:

Background

Albert Bandura developed the Self-Efficacy Theory of Motivation.

Bandura, born 1925, is a Canadian psychologist who described self-
efficacy in detail in his 1977 book, Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of
Control.

Self-Efficacy is the belief that you are capable of achieving a specific goal
or performing a particular task.

How We Determine Our Self-Efficacy

We use four factors to determine our self-efficacy and, in turn, our performance for a
task.
1. Experience

Experience refers to your past experience of completing similar tasks.

This is the most important factor in self-efficacy.
 2. Vicarious Experience-You can develop self-efficacy vicariously by watching
other people perform a task
3. Social Persuasion
You can increase your self-efficacy if others give you encouragement
that you can perform a task. Likewise, your self-efficacy will decrease if
you receive discouraging or disparaging remarks about your ability to
perform a task.

4. Physiological Feedback
When confronted with a task, you experience a sensation from your
body. How you interpret these signals will impact your self-efficacy.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory:

In 1964, Canadian professor of psychology Victor Vroom from the Yale

School of Management developed this theory.
Abraham Maslow and Frederick Herzberg also researched the
relation between people’s needs and the efforts they make.

What are the 3 components of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory :

Motivational force formula

Victor Vroom uses a formula to calculate the motivational force:

Motivational force = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

 Application of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
According to Vroom’s theory, you can expect employees will increase their
efforts at work when the reward has more personal value to them. It
means that both the organization and the employee have to be aware of
the following three processes:
1.Increased efforts will improve work performance
2.Increased performance will lead to bigger rewards
3.The offered reward will be appreciated by the employee.

Adams’ Equity Theory of Motivation- J. Stacey Adams’ equity theory is

a process model of motivation. Equity theory of motivation is a theory that states
that people are motivated by fairness. It suggests that people will compare their
contributions to an organization with what they receive in return, and that they will be
more motivated if they perceive that the ratio is fair.
Reinforcement Theory of Motivation- Reinforcement theory of motivation was
proposed by BF Skinner and his associates. It states that individual’s behaviour is
a function of its consequences.”, Individual’s behaviour with positive
consequences tends to be repeated, but individual’s behaviour with negative
consequences tends not to be repeated.

The managers use the following methods for controlling the behaviour of the
employees
Positive Reinforcement- This implies giving a positive response when an individual
shows positive and required behaviour. For example - Immediately praising an
employee for coming early for job. This will increase probability of outstanding
behaviour occurring again.
Negative Reinforcement- This implies rewarding an employee by removing
negative / undesirable consequences. Both positive and negative reinforcement can
be used for increasing desirable/required behaviour.
Punishment- It implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the
probability of repeating undesirable behaviour in future.
Extinction- It implies absence of reinforcements. For instance - if an employee no
longer receives praise and admiration for his good work, he may feel that his
behaviour is generating no fruitful consequence. Extinction may unintentionally lower
desirable behaviour.
 UNIT-5
What is leadership?
Leadership is the ability of an individual or a group of people to influence and guide
followers or members of an organization, society or team. Leadership often is an attribute
tied to a person's title, seniority or ranking in a hierarchyTYPES OF LEADER-

Type 1: Managerial Leader

They have the least influence. People only follow them because they have to. They are not in
the position to serve others. Their desire is to be served by others because they are in the
position. They see others as tools to use to complete the objective for the day. They prefer to
make decisions.

Type 2: Relational Leader

A relational leader builds relationships in order to influence others. People want to follow them
because of who they are, not what they know. They develop mutual respect with others and work
well with them..

Here’s a brief review of characteristics:

 Character is strong.

 Desire is to serve.

 They have an abundance mindset.

Type 3: Motivational Leader

A motivational leader seeks mutual benefit for themselves, others, and the organization. People
want to follow them because of who they are and what they know. They influence others from the
outside. They are process focused.
Here’s a brief review of characteristics:

 Character is strong.

 Desire is to serve.

 They have an abundance mindset.

 Competency is developed and specialized.

Type 4: Inspirational Leader

An inspirational leader inspires managerial and relational leaders to become motivational
leaders. Their focus is on growing themselves in order to inspire others to grow. They influence
others on the inside
Here’s a brief review of characteristics:

 Character is stronger.

 Desire is to serve and develop others.

 They have an abundance mindset.

 Competency is highly developed and specialized.

 Focus is on leading (influencing/releasing) people and developing motivational leaders.

 Values people more than the position.

Type 5: Transformational Leader

A transformational leader’s passion and purpose is to transform others. They are the most
influential of the five types of leaders and are highly respected. They are well known for
developing leaders..

Here’s a brief review of characteristics:

 Character is strongest.

 Desire is to serve and to develop others.

 They have an abundance mindset.

 Competency is highly developed and specialized.

 Focus is on leading (influencing/releasing) people and developing motivational and

inspirational leaders.

What is a Leadership Style?

A leadership style is a way in which a leader accomplishes their team’s objective by motivating
employees to work towards the common goal and focusing on their well-being. Understanding
leadership style is imperative for a team to work together and also keep growing while embracing
changes.

Different Types of Leadership

1. Democratic Leadership
A democratic leader makes decisions based on their team’s opinion and feedback. In simpler
words, they get everyone involved in the decision-making process.

2. Autocratic Leadership
This is precisely the opposite of democratic leadership. The opinions of team members are not
considered while making any business decision. Instead, leaders expect others to adhere to their
decisions, which is not sustainable in the long run.

3. Laissez-faire Leadership
Laissez-faire means “let them do”. This leadership style is the least intrusive and ensures that
the decision-making authority lies with the team members.
4. Strategic Leadership
Strategic leadership is when leaders use their skills and capabilities to help team members and
organisation achieve their long-term goals. Strategic leaders strive to get the best out of people
or situations.

5. Transformational Leadership

Transformational leaders inspire others to achieve the unexpected. They aim to transform and
improve team members’ and organisations’ functions and capabilities by motivating and
encouraging them.

6. Transactional Leadership

This type of leadership is task-oriented, which means team members who meet the leader’s
expectations will be rewarded, and others will be punished. It is a prevalent leadership style
based on the action-and-reward concept.

7. Coach-Style Leadership

This leadership style focuses on identifying and nurturing a team member’s strengths and
weaknesses. A coaching leader develops strategies that emphasise team members’ success.
Though this is similar to strategic and democratic leadership styles, the focus here is more on the
individual.

8. Bureaucratic Leadership
This kind of leadership style sticks to the rules. For example, they might listen to their team
members’ opinions while deciding

Situational Leadership Theory

Situational leadership theory is often referred to as the Hersey-Blanchard
Situational Leadership Theory, after its developers, Dr. Paul Hersey, author of
"The Situational Leader," and Kenneth Blanchard, author of "One-Minute
Manager."

Leadership Styles
Hersey and Blanchard suggested that there are four primary leadership styles:

 Telling (S1):(Low Competences Low Motivation)

In this leadership style, the leader tells people what to do and how to do it.
 Selling (S2): (Low Competences High Motivation)
Leaders "sell" their ideas and message to get group members to buy into
the process.
 Participating (S3): (High Competences Low Motivation)
 In this approach, the leader offers less direction and allows members of
the group to take a more active role in coming up with ideas and making
decisions.
 Delegating (S4):-(High Competences High Motivation)
 This style is characterized by a less involved, hands-off approach to
leadership. Group members tend to make most of the decisions and take
most of the responsibility for what happens.
Top 10 leadership traits and Qualities
To become an effective leader, you should strive to become an expert in your
field and aim to cultivate essential leadership qualities. Begin with these 10
examples of leadership traits.

1. Accountability
2. Adaptability
3. Creativity
4. Delegation
5. Innovation
6. Awareness
7. Communication
8. Empathy
9. Confidence
10 Visionry

.
Team Building

Definition: Team building is a management technique used for improving the

efficiency and performance of the workgroups through various activities. It involves a
lot of skills, analysis and observation for forming a strong and capable team.

The various steps involved in team building are as follows:

 What Is Tuckman’s Theory?

Tuckman’s theory was first proposed by psychologist Bruce Tuckman in 1965. It

stated that teams would go through 5 stages of development: forming, storming,
norming, performing and adjourning.
Tuckman’s Theory: Five Stages of Team Development
The 5 Stages
1. Forming
The first stage of team development is forming.The team has just been introduced to each
other and the task has been allocated.

During this stage of the team development, it’s common to discuss:

 Everyone’s skills, background and interests

 The project goals
 The timeline
 Any rules or regulations
 What individual roles each member will play

It’s important at this stage that the group starts to develop an understanding of the part
each person will play.

2. Storming
 This is the stage where egos may start to show themselves and tempers may flare.
The team may disagree on how to complete a particular task or voice any concerns.
At this stage, looking to a strong leader for guidance is vital.

3. Norming
This is the stage where things tend to settle down. Your team can get into the groove of
working together towards a common goal.
As new tasks appear, there may still be some incidents of conflict. However, as you’ve
already gone through the worst part these disagreements may be easier to address.

4. Performing
The performing stage is where your team can hit its stride. Each team member understands
everyone’s strengths and weaknesses and they are familiar enough with each other to help.

5.Adjourning
It was only in 1977 that Tuckman added the fifth and final stage.
When the project ends, the team will disband..

What is Organisational Change?

The term Change refers to any alternation which occurs in the overall work environment of an
oganisation.

Keith Davis
Organizational change occurs when an oganisation transforms its structure, strategies,
methods, culture and other elements to reorganize and restructure the organisation. It
implies alternation of structural relationship and role of people in an organization. In simple
words organizational change takes place when organisation makes a transition from its
current position.

Two Approaches to Organizational Change

As organizational change is a complex process, therefore managers must approach it
systematically and logically. Some organizational changes are planned whereas other changes
are reactive. Planned change is designed and implemented by an organization in an orderly and
timely fashion in the anticipation of future change.

Reactive change results from a reaction of an organization to unexpected events. In contrast

to planned change, it is a piece-meal response to circumstances as they develop. External
forces that the organization has failed to anticipate or interpret always bring about reactive
change. Since reactive change may have to be carried out hastily, it increases the likelihood of
a poorly conceived and poorly executed Program
Planned change is always preferable to reactive change. Managers who sit back and respond
 to change only when they can no longer avoid it are likely to waste a lot of time and money
trying to patch together a last-minute solution. The more effective approach is to anticipate
the significant forces for change working in an organization and plan ways to address them. To
accomplish this, managers must understand the steps needed for effective change

The Change Process: Kurt Lewin’s Model

This theory is one of the influential theory for understanding organisational change.
Lewin proposed following phases for systematically implementing the process of
change.
1.Unfreezing - preparing for a Desired change
2.Implementing change -implementing the desired change
3. Refreezing -solidifying and adopting the desired change
:
1. Unfreezing- In this phase organisation communicate about why the change has to occur?
individual are asked to leave their old ways and methods of behaviour.
address employee concern with honesty and transparency
.
Unfreezing involves several steps:
1. Recognising the Driving Forces: Managers must develop a keen awareness of major
environmental changes and internal issues that necessitate change. By understanding
the pressures for change, they can effectively identify the need for transformation.
2. Increasing the Driving Forces: Once the need for change is recognised, it is essential
to communicate this need to the people involved. By explaining the reasons behind
the change, individuals are more likely to embrace it willingly.

3. Managing the Resisting Forces: Resistance to change often arises when individuals
perceive potential harm or negative impact on their interests. It is crucial to address
these concerns and fears by highlighting the benefits of the proposed changes and
alleviating any misconceptions.
To achieve unfreezing, various techniques can be employed, such as:
 Education: Providing information and knowledge regarding the need for change and its
advantages.
 Communication: Engaging in open discussions to clarify the rationale behind the
change and address any uncertainties.
 Participation in decision-making: Involving employees in the change process by
encouraging their input and ideas.
 Negotiation through the exchange of rewards: Offering incentives or rewards to
motivate acceptance of the change.
 Persuasion: Shaping perceptions and attitudes through effective communication and
influence strategies.
 Encouragement and Support: Providing the necessary resources and assistance to
.
2. Changing or Moving- In this phase the person is asked to adopt the behaviour according to the
change which are proposed.Employees are encouraged to ADOPT THE CHANGES. Organise
Change management workshop and sessions for Change management exercise .
Communicate widely and clearly
This moving phase encompasses key elements that facilitate a successful transition:
 Encouraging Compliance: In some cases, change may be enforced through
incentives or consequences. However, true transformation requires more than
compliance; it requires internalisation and identification.
Internalisation: Change becomes meaningful when individuals experience situations that call
for new behaviours. Through firsthand encounters, they begin to understand the importance of
change and gradually internalise new ways of behaving.
 Identification: Individuals also identify suitable behavioural models within their
environment. They recognise role models whose actions align with the desired change
 and choose to emulate them.
, we should consider the following approaches:
1. Transparent Communication: Communicate the purpose, benefits, and expected
outcomes of the change to all members. This ensures a shared understanding and
aligns efforts toward a common goal.
2. Supportive Training and Resources: Provide comprehensive training programs and
resources to help individuals acquire the skills and competencies needed for new
behaviours. Offer guidance and assistance to address any challenges that emerge
along the way.
3. Continuous Feedback and Improvement: Establish feedback channels to gather
insights and suggestions from employees. This enables ongoing refinement of the
change implementation strategy based on real-time input, fostering a sense of
ownership and engagement.
4. Foster Adaptability: Cultivate a culture of adaptability and openness to change.
Encourage individuals to embrace new alternatives and behaviours, creating an
environment that supports growth and development.
5. Leadership Guidance: Effective leadership plays a vital role in guiding organisational
members through the change process. Leaders should provide clear direction, and
support, and serve as role models for the desired behaviours, inspiring others to
embrace the change.
.
3. Refreezing-In this phase, The employees are ask to stabilize the changed behaviour and
make it relatively permanent. Leader should offer training, support and communication for both
the short and long term and tie the new changes into the culture

We should consider the following approaches during the refreezing phase:

1. Integration and Alignment: Ensure that the new behaviours, beliefs, and attitudes
align with the overall organisational goals and values. Seamlessly integrate them into
existing systems and processes to foster consistency and coherence.
2.Ongoing Support: Provide continuous support and resources to reinforce newly
acquired behaviours. This may include training, coaching, and mentoring to assist
individuals in adapting to the changes. Supportive leadership and a positive organisational
climate are critical in maintaining the desired behaviours
3.Celebrate Success: Recognise and celebrate accomplishments related to the
change implementation. This helps reinforce positive outcomes and motivates
individuals to continue embracing new behaviours.
4.Feedback and Evaluation: Establish feedback mechanisms to monitor the
effectiveness of the change and gather insights for improvement. Regular
evaluation ensures the sustained adoption of desired behaviours and allows for
further refinement, if necessary.
5.Foster an Organisational Culture: Cultivate a culture that values and supports the
desired behaviours. This involves aligning performance management systems, rewards,
and recognition programs to reinforce the change and encourage its continuation