CONCEPTS OF HEAT CAPACITY AND SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Heat is energy transferred from one substance to another by a temperature difference.

When a substance absorbs heat, the resulting temperature change depends on more than just the mass
of the substance. To quantify heat, we must specify the mass and kind of substance affected.
The amount of heat transferred can be determined by measuring the temperature change of a known
mass of a substance that absorbs the heat.

The transfer of energy, Q, into the body causes the internal energy to increase by ΔU, and the
temperature to rise by Δ.
The heat capacity, C, of a body is the amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of the
body by 1 C.

Q
C 


As heat capacity varies with the mass of the material, therefore we should also consider the heat
capacity per unit mass or specific heat capacity of the material.

The specific heat capacity, c, of a material is defined as the amount of thermal energy required to raise
the temperature if a unit mass of the material by 1 C.
Q
c 
m

NB
1. When two objects of the equal mass are heated at equal rates, the object with smaller specific heat
capacity will have a faster temperature increase.

2. When two objects of the equal mass are left to cool down, the temperature of the object with smaller
specific heat capacity will drop faster.

APPLICATIONS OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

1.Cooking pot:
Copper base: Low specific heat capacity. The pot becomes hot very quickly, enables quick cooking of
food.
Wooden handle: Large specific heat capacity. Poor heat conductor: handle will not become too hot
when heat is absorbed.
Aluminum body: Relatively low specific heat capacity. Pot becomes hot very quickly.
2. Land and sea breezes
Land has smaller specific heat capacity than the sea. In daytime, land has a faster increase in
temperature. Land is warmer than the sea. Air above the land is heated up and rises. Cooler air from the
sea moves towards the land as sea breeze.
At night, heat is lost from the land and sea. The sea has a larger specific heat capacity, release heat
slower, therefore the sea is warmer than the land. Warm air above the sea rises. Cooler air from the
land moves to the sea as land breeze.
3. Cooling system of car engine: Water has a much higher capacity for storing energy than most
common materials. Because of this, water is a very useful cooling agent, and is used in cooling systems
in automobiles and other engines.
For a liquid of lower specific heat capacity, temperature would rise higher for a comparable absorption
of heat.
Water also takes longer to cool.
4. Global climate differences are attributed to high spc of water and low spc of sand. Water has a greater
heat capacity than sand. Water is much slower to warm in the hot sun and slower to cool at night.
Sand’s low heat capacity, shown by how quickly it warms in the morning and how quickly it cools at
night, affects local climates
DIFFERENCES B/W MATERIALS WITH HIGH SHC AND LOW SPC

CALCULATIONS
1. When 3.0 kg of water is cooled from 80.0 C to 10.0 C, how much heat energy is lost?

2. How much heat is needed to raise a 0.30 kg piece of aluminum from 30. C to 150 C?

3. Calculate the temperature change when: a)10.0 kg of water loses 232 kJ of heat. b) 1.96 kJ of heat are
added to 500. g of copper.

4 How much heat (energy) is needed to supply to an iron rod of mass 5 kg to increase its temperature
from 25 C to 60 C? ( Specific heat capacity of iron = 452 J kg-1 C-1)

5. A pail contains 8 kg of hot water at 85 C. What is the temperature of the water after 1.68 106 J of
heat is released? (Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 C-1) (3) An electrical kettle of power 2400
W contains water of mass 4 kg and temperature 25 C. What is the time needed to heat the water until
its boiling point at 100 C? (Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 C-1)

6. 200 g of water at 100 C is poured into a cup made of glass. The initial temperature of the glass cup is
30 C and the mass of the glass cup is 150 g. What is the temperature of the water when thermal
equilibrium is achieved between the water and the glass cup? (Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J
kg-1 C-1; (Specific heat capacity of glass = 650 J kg-1 C-1)

7. A liquid of mass m kg is cooled from 70oC to 30oC. The total heat energy lost is 8400 J. What is the
value of m if the specific heat capacity of the liquid is 4200 J kg-1oC-1

8. An electric heater which has power 700 W, is used to heat up 2 kg of water. If the specific heat
capacity of the water is 4200 J kg-1oC-1, what is the time taken to raise the temperature from 28oC to
53oC

9. A cooler is connected to a container which holds 2.0 kg of water at 50oC. If the cooler absorbs heat
at a rate of 600 Js-1, what is the time taken to cool the water from 50oC to 0oC? [specific heat capacity
of the water is 4200 J kg-1oC-1]
10. An immersion heater which has a power of 300 W, is inserted into a metal block. The metal block has
a mass of 1.5 kg and its specific heat capacity is 420 J kg-1oC-1. what is increase temperature in every 5s
when the heater is on?
11. 800 g of liquid X at 30oC is mixed with the same liquid of mass M kg at 80oC . The final temperature
after mixing is 60oC. What is value of M?

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Heat is a form of energy transfer hence the law of energy transfer applies.
Heat gain equals heat lost.
There are various methods of determining specific heat capacity
i. Mixture method.
ii. Electrical method.
Iii Mechanical method
We shall look at the first two.
Electrical method
Apparatus: an aluminium block, heater, thermometer,
stopwatch, ammeter, voltmeter.

Method:
1. Record the mass of the aluminum block and its initial
temperature.
2. Start the heater and the stopwatch simultaneously.
3. Take the ammeter and voltmeter readings.
4. Record the final temperature of the block.
5. Use the formula given below to calculate the specific
heat capacity of the aluminum.

Formula:
C= VIt
mΔ
Where
V = voltage (V)
I = current (A)
t = time (s)
m =mass of the aluminium block (kg)
Δ = change in temperature (C)
c = specific heat capacity of aluminium (J/kg/K)

METHOD OF MIXTURE
Measure the weight of the calorimeter and the stirer.
Pour water to the calorimeter so that water fills about ⅓ of the calorimeter’s volume.
Measure the total weight of the objects to be about thrice the weight of the total volume of water
Heat the objects using a Nicholson’s heater and record their initial temperature.
Introduce the objects to the calorimeter + water system and stir the objects.
Record the final temperature of the system
Assuming that the heat loss to the environment as negligible,
Heat emitted by the objects = Heat gained by (water +
calorimeter)
Therefore,
m3C0(θ2 – θ ) = { m1C + (m2 – m1)CW}{θ – θ1}
Thus,
C0 = [{ m1C + (m2 – m1)CW}{θ – θ1}] / [m3 (θ2 – θ ) ]
By this relationship we can find the specific heat capacity of the objects.
mass of calorimeter + stirer = m1 ,
mass of calorimeter + stirer + water = m2,
initial temperature of the calorimeter = θ1 ,
Total mass of the objects = m3 ,
initial temperature of the objects = θ2 and
Final temperature of the system = θ

LATENT HEAT
Matter exists in three states, that is solid, liquid and gas.
During change of phase, the transfer of heat does not cause a change in the kinetic energy of the
molecules. During melting, the heat absorbed is used to break up the bonds between the particles. The
particles are freed from their fixed positions and are able to vibrate and move.
During boiling, heat absorbed is used to break the bonds between the particles and to work against the
atmospheric pressure when gaseous vapour expands into the atmosphere.
The heat released or absorbed at constant temperature during a change of state of matter is known as
latent heat.
The latent heat or energy needed to change a substance from a solid to liquid or from liquid to gas
depends on the mass of the substance. Hence we have
Specific Heat capacity which is amount of heat required to change the phase of a unit mass,1kg of a
substance at a constant temperature.

The specific latent heat of fusion (lf) of a substance is the amount of energy needed to change a unit
mass of the substance from solid to liquid without a change in temperature.
The specific latent heat of vaporisation (l) of a substance is the amount of energy needed to change a
unit mass of the substance from liquid to gas without a change in temperature.
When the heat added or removed changes the temperature of an object, heat is calculated using:

When the heat added or removed changes the phase of an object at CONSTANT TEMPERATURE, heat is
calculated using:

When heat is supplied electrically:

Q = Electrical energy = Pt
P = power of heater in Watt, W
t = time, in seconds, s

Applications of specific latent heat

!. Drinks can be cooled by adding ice cubes. When ice melts, a large amount of heat is absorbed, this
lowers the temperature of the drink.

2. Freshness of fish and meat is maintained by keeping them with ice. Ice absorbs heat from the fish as
it melts, thus food can be kept longer.

3. Cooking by steaming. Water has a large specific latent heat of vaporization. When steam condenses
on the food, latent heat is released directly onto the food, enabling food to be cooked at a faster rate.

4. Our bodies are cooled down after sweating. Latent heat of vaporization is absorbed from the body
when sweat evaporates. Heat is removed from the body.

5. When water is boiling in a pot, always be careful when opening the lid. Water has a large specific
latent heat of vaporization. When steam condenses on our skin, large amount of latent heat release
can cause serious burn.

DETERMING SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION OF A MATERIAL

There are various methods of determining specific latent heat of fusion of a material
1. Mixture Method
Heat lost by warm water + heat lost by calorimeter = heat gained by ice at 00 C to water at 00 C.
+ heat gained by water (00 C to final temperature)
2. ELECTRICAL METHOD
With electrical method the quantity of heat is calculated as follows.
Heat supplied by the heater = heat gained by the ice.
Q = mLf =VIt
Lf = VIt /m
CALCULATIONS
1. Calculate the quantity of heat required to melt 4 kg of ice and to raise the temperature of the
water formed to 50 0 C. take the specific latent heat of ice to be 3.4 x 105 J/kg and the specific heat
capacity of water to be 4200 J/kg K.
2. A beaker contains 200 g of water at 15 0 C. 25 g of ice at 00 C is added to the water which is stirred
until the ice is completely melted.
a) How much heat is needed to melt all the ice.
b) What is the mass of water produced by melting all the ice.
 c) Calculate the lowest temperature of all mixture, assuming that all the heat to melt the ice is
taken ice is taken from the water and no heat enters or leaves the system. ( specific latent
heat of fusion of ice 336 000 J / kg.
3. Dry steam is passed into a well-lagged copper can of mass 250 g containing 400 g of water and 50 g
of ice at 00 C. The mixture is well stirred and the steam supply cut off when the temperature of the can
and its content reaches 20 0 C. Neglect heat losses, find the mass of steam condensed. (specific heat
capacities: water 4200J/kg K; copper 400 J/kg K ; specific latent heats of fusion of steam 22.6 x 10 5
J/kg.)
4. A jet of dry steam at 1000Cis sprayed onto the surface of 100g of dried ice at 00C placed in a plastic
container of negligible heat capacity. The temperature of the mixture is 40 0C when the total mass of the
water in the container 120g. Given that the specific heat capacity of water is 4200J/ kg/K and latent
heat of fusion of ice is 336KJkg-1; determine the specific latent heat of vaporization of water.
5. What is the quantity of heat that is required to convert 4g of ice into steam at 100˚C?
[specific latent heat of vaporization of water is 2.26x106 J kg-1 ;
specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 33600 J kg-1 ;
specific heat capacity of water = 4.2x103 Jkg-1 ˚C-1]
6. An electric kettle contains 3kg of water. Calculate the amount of heat required to boil away all the
water after the boiling point has been reached. [Latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.26x10 6 J kg-1]
7. The specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 33600 J kg-1. What is the quantity of heat required to melt
2.5kg of ice at 0˚C?
8. A 460 W water heater is used to boil water. Assuming no thermal energy losses, what mass of steam
will it produce in 10 minutes?
9. What is the amount of energy released when 5 g of steam at 100 ⁰C changes to water at 80 ⁰C?
[Specific latent heat of vaporisation of steam = 2500 J/g; specific heat capacity of water = 4.2 J/(g.⁰C)]
10. What is the amount of energy required to change 10 g of ice at 0 ⁰C to water at 20 ⁰C? [Specific heat
latent heat of fusion of ice = 300 J/g, specific heat capacity of ice = 2.1 J/(g.⁰C)]

CHANGE OF STATE

Heat involved in change of state of a substance can either be heat loss or heat gain.This heat is ‘ latent’
means hidden or concealed because it does not show its presence by change in temperature as the
extra heat goes into change in state.
 1. Boiling:
Boiling is process whereby energy supplied changes the state of a substance from liquid state to gaseous
state without a change in temperature.The temperature at this change of state is called boiling point of
the substance.For a pure substance, boiling occurs at a definite temperature
When a liquid is boiling, latent heat of vaporization is absorbed but the temp remains constant at its
boiling point.
2. Melting:
Melting is the process whereby energy supplied changes the state of a substance from solid state to
liquid state, without a change in temperature.
This temperature is called the melting point of the substance. For a pure substance, melting occurs at a
definite temperatur
When a solid melts, latent heat of fusion is absorbed but the temp remains constant at its melting
point.On heating, a solid changes to a liquid. We call this change
of state ‘Melting’.During melting, heat energy is used to break the bonds
between the molecules of the solid.Melting will occur once these molecular bonds are broken
and they move away from their previously fixed positions.
There is no change in temperature of the body during melting, even when heat is continuously being
supplied to the body. Temperature of the body will increase when all the
bonds are broken.Heat that is absorbed to break these bonds without a change in temperature is called
latent heat of fusion.Applying pressure on ice will cause its melting point to drop

3. Condensation:
Condensation is the change of gas to liquid. Heat energy is given out as gas particles
slow down and move closer to one another
to form liquid.Whenvapour condenses back into liquid, latent of vapourization is released.
4. Solidification or Freeezing
For a liquid to solidify at its freezing point, latent heat of fusion has to be removed.The process by which
a liquid changes its state to become a solid when heat is removed from a body.
When a body undergoes solidification, heat is released as intermolecular bonds are formed. This results
in a body more rigid as compared to that of the liquid.Despite heat being given off during solidification,
there is no change in temperature. Temperature of the body will only start to drop when it is completely
solidified or has the same solid state throughout the entire body.
5. Sublimation is the change of solid to gas without melting.Heat is absorbed.EVAPORATION
6. Evaporation occurs on the surface of the liquid where molecules escape to air.Molecules at the
surface have higher kinetic energy than those ones below hence they break from their attractive forces
of the neighbouringmolecules.Evaporation takes place at all temperatures.

Factors affecting rate of evaporation

1. Temperature
Increase in temperature increases kinetic energy of molecules on the surface; these molecules move
faster hence many of them escape ; enhancing evaporation.
Increase in temperature increases the rate of evaporation.
2. Surface Area
Increasing surface area of the liquid exposes more liquid molecules hence faster molecules escapes to
the environment. Large surface area also clears the way for more molecules to enter the space.
3. Drought
Passing air over the liquid sweeps away escaping vapour molecules e.g. clothes dry faster on a windy
day, people take hot beverages by blowing over it
4. Humidity
Humidity is the concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere .
High humidity lowers the rate at which molecules enter the space hence lowers the rate of evaporation.
This is why clothes take longer time to dry on a humid day than on dry one.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EVAPORATION AND BOILING

Factors affecting melting and boiling points
Boiling point
 There are two factors affecting the boiling point of a liquid.
a) Pressure
b) Impurities
EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON BOILING POINT
 Increase in pressure increases the boiling point of a liquid.
 Application of this concept is the pressure cooker. It has tight fitting lid which prevents free
escape of steam thus making the pressure inside to build up. Increase in the boiling point to
high temperatures enables food to cook faster.
 Decrease in pressure lowers the boiling point of a liquid .
EFFECTS OF IMPURITIES ON BOILING POINT
The boiling point for of the salt solution is higher than that of the distilled water.
The presence of impurities in liquid raises its boiling points.
Melting Point
 There are two factors that affect the melting point of a substance.
a) Pressure
b) Impurities
APPLICATION OF THE EFFECTS OF PRESSURE ON MELTING POINT OF ICE.
i. Ice skating
Weight of the skater exerts pressure on the ice below causing melting at a lower temperatures.
The high pressure reduces melting hence melting them forming a thin film of water over which skater
slides.
ii. Joining ice cubes under pressure
By pressing ice cubes hard under pressure, the melting points between points of contact of the ice is
lowered; water recondenses and the two cubes are joined together.
EFFECTS OF IMPURITIES
 Application of impurities lowers the melting point the melting point of a substance.
 Salt is spread on roads during winter to prevent freezing of roads.