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THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

M
 MANUAL

OF

MINERALOGY,
INOLUDING

OBSERVATIONS ON MINES, ROCKS,

REDUCTION OF ORES,
AND THE

APPLICATIONS OF THE SCIENCE TO THE ARTS.

WITH 260 ILLUSTRATIONS.

DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES .

BY JAMES D. DANA, A. М.,

Member of the Soc. Cæs. Nat. Cur. of Moscow, the Soc. Philomathique et Paris ,
theAmericanAcademy of Arts and Sciences at Boston, etc .;
Author of a" System of Mineralogy."

SEVENTH EDITION.

NEW HAVEN :

PUBLISHED BY DURRIE & PECK.

PHILADELPHIA : PECK & BLISS.

1855.

Earth -Atmos - Sol

549
D19M
1855
Entered according to Act ofCongress, in the year 1848, by
DURRIE & PECK
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Connecticut.
 PREFACE .

In the preparation of this Manual, the author has endeavored to meet

a demand often urged, by making it,as far as possible, practical and
American in character.
Prominence has been given to the more common species, while others
are but briefly noticed in a smaller type, or are mentioned only by name.
The uses of minerals and their modes of application in the arts have
been especially dwelt upon. The value of ores in mining, their modes
of reduction, the yield of mines in different countries, and the various
applications of the metals, have been described as minutely as was con-
sistent with the extent of the work . The various rocks are in like
manner included.

At the same time, the subject has been presented with all the strict-
ness ofa scientific system. The classification adopted throws together
ores of the same metals,and associates the earthy species as far as
possible in natural groups. This order is preferred by very many
teachers of the science, and has advantages which for many purposes
counterbalance those of a more perfectly natural system. The account
of the ores of each metal is preceded by a brief statement of their
distinctive characters ; and after the descriptions, there follow general
remarks on mines, metallurgical processes,and other useful information.
As the rarer mineral species are not altogether excluded, but are
briefly mentioned each in its proper place in the system, the student,
should he meet withthem, will be guided by the Manual to some knowl-
edge of their general characters,and aided in arranging them in his
1465880

cabinet.
iv PREFACE .

The list of American localities appended to the work, the descriptions

of mineralogical implements, and the notice of foreign weights, mea-
sures and coins, will be found convenient to the student.
The author must refer tohis larger work for more minute information
on the localities ofminerals and the associations of species for full lists
of synonyms for tables for the determination of minerals a more
complete account of crystallography and its details-chemical formulas
of species, and more numerous analyses, with their authorities and a
list of mineralogical works and journals. He has there expressed his
indebtedness to the various Geological Reports of the different States,
and also to the scientific journals of the country, for information on
American minerals. In addition to these acknowledgments, he would
mentionhis obligations to Prof. C. B. ADAMS, ofAmherst, Mass., and
Prof. M. TUOMEY, ofAlabama, authors of Reports, the former on the
Geology of Vermont, and the latter on that of South Carolina. Aid
has been received in various ways from Prof. B. SILLIMAN, Jr., and
much valuable information from Mr. A. A. HAYES of Lowel, Mass.,
H. KING of St. Louis, and S. S. HALDEMAN ofColumbia,Pennsylvania .
Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines, has been a work
of frequent reference, and the figures of a zinc furnace are from that
volume.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS .

13
CHAP. I. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS,
CHAP. II.- CRYSTALLOGRAPHY : OR THE STRUCTURE OF MINERALS, 19
23
Fundamental forms ofcrystals, •

33
• •

Cleavage, • 34
•
Secondary forms, •

42
• •
• •

Compoundcrystals, •

•
44
Dimorphism, •

45
Irregularities ofcrystals, •

47
Measuring angles of crystals, •

52
Massive minerals, •
•

52
Columnar structure,
53
Lamellar and granular structure, •

54
Pseudomorphous crystals. •

CHAP . III. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS.

Luster, • 55
Color, • • 56
58
Diaphaneity, Refraction, and Polarization,
Phosphorescence, • 61
Electricity and Magnetism,. • • 62
Specific gravity, • 63
Hardness, • 64
State ofaggregation-Fracture, • 65
Taste-Odor. • 66

CHAP. IV. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS, 66

Action of acids, • 66
Blowpipe, 67
CHAP . V.-CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS, 71
CHAP. VI. DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS, • 76
1. Gases, 76
2. Water, • 78
3. Carbon and compounds ofcarbon, • 80
4. Sulphur, •
• 97
5. Haloid minerals, • 100
1. Ammonia, •
100
2. Potassa, 101
3. Soda, •
102
4. Baryta, 108
5. Strontia, •
110
6. Lime, • 112
7. Magnesia , • 123
8. Alumina, • 1.27
1*
vi CONTENTS .

6. Earthy. minerals, (silicates or aluminates,) • 132

1. Silica, • 133
2. Lime, •
141
3. Magnesia, •
• • • 143
1. Hydrous silicates, • • • 143
2. Anhydrous silicates, 150
.
4. Alumina, • 158
1. Uncombined, 160
2. Combined, as aluminates, 160
3. Hydrous combinations with silica, 161
4. Anhydrous combinations with silica, • 172
5. Combinations of a silicate and fluorid,. • 194
6. Combination ofa silicate and sulphate, • 196
7. Silicate with a chlorid.
5. Glucina.
6. Zirconia.
7. Thoria.
7. Metallic ores.
1. Easily oxydizable metals, • • • 202
1, 2. Cerium and Yttrium, • • 206
3. Uranium, • 209
4. Iron, • : • • • 211
5. Manganese, • • • 233
6, 7. Chromium, Nickel, • • .. 243
8. Cobalt, • • 247
9. Zinc, .. • • 250
10, 11. Cadmium, Bismuth, • 257
12. Lead, • • 259
13. Mercury, • • • 270
14. Copper, 273
15. Titanium, • • 290
16. Tin, 294
17. Molybdenum, . • • 298
18. Tungsten, • • 299
19, 20. Vanadium, Tellurium, • 300
21. Antimony, • •
301
22. Arsenic,. • 304
2. Noble Metals.
1. Platinum, Iridium, Palladium, • 307
2. Gold, • • 311
3. Silver, • 319
8. Supplement to the description of minerals, 329

CHAP. VII .-ROCKS OR MINERAL AGGREGATES, • 335

CHAP. VIII. CATALOGUE OF AMERICAN LOCALITIES OF MINERALS, 358

CHAP. IX. BRIEF NOTICE OF FOREIGN MINING REGIONS, • 377

CHAP. X.-MINERALOGICAL IMPLEMENTS, . • • • 382

СПАР. XI. -WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND COINS, • • • 384

'
TABLES FOR THE DETERMINATION OF MINERALS, • • • 388

INDEX, • • • 415
 GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF TERMS . *

ACICULAR, [ Lat. acus, a needle,] 53. Assay. The material under chem-
Adamantine, 56. ical or blowpipe examination.
Adit. [Lat. aditus, an entrance.) Astringent, 66.
The horizontal entrance to a Asteriated. [Gr. aster, star.] Hav-
mine. ing the appearance of a star
Alkali. An oxyd having an acrid within.
taste, and caustic; as potash, Augitic. Containing augite.
soda. Auriferous. [Lat. aurum, gold.)
Alkaline. Like an alkali. Containing gold.
Alliaceous, (Lat. allium, garlic,] 66. Axes, 24 ; of double refraction, 59.
Alloy. Amixture ofdifferent met-
als(excludingmercury) by fusion Basaltic, 339.
together. Also, the metal used Bathstone. Aspecies oflimestone ;
to deteriorate another metal by called also Bath oolite ; named
mixture with it. from the locality, in England.
Alluvial. [Lat. alluo, to wash over.) Bevelment, beveled, 35.
Ofriver or fresh-water origin. Bitter, 66.
Amalgam. [Gr. malagma, a sof- Bittern, 106.
tened substance.) A compound Bituminous. Containing bitumen ;
ofmercury and another metal. like bitumen.
Amalgamation, 326. Bladed . Thin blade-like.
Amorphous, [Gr. a,not,and morphe, Blast furnace, 233.
shape,] 54. Blowpipe, 67 ; tests, 69, 70 : imple-
Amygdaloidal, 339. ments, 68, 69.
Anhydrous. [Lat. a, not, and Blue-john. Name for fluor spar,
hudor, water.] Containing no used in Derbyshire, where it often
water. has a bluish-purple color.
Arborescent. [Lat. arbor, tree.) Botryoidal, [Gr. botrus, a bunch of
Branching like a tree. grapes,] 53.
Arenaceous. [Lat. arena, sand.) Boulder, bowlder. Loose rounded
Consisting of, orhaving the gritty mass of stone.
nature of, sand. Breccia.
Argentiferous. (Lat. argentum, Brittle, 53, 65.
silver. ) Containing silver.
Argillaceous. [Lat. argilla, clay.) Calcine. (Lat. calx, burnt lime-
Like clay ; containing clay. stone.] To heat, in order todrive
Arsenical odor, 66. offvolatile ingredients, andmake
Asparagus green. Palegreen, with easy to be broken or pounded.
much yellow. Calcination. The process of cal-
Assay. [Same etymology as essay.] cining.
To testoresby chemical orblow- Carat, 82.
pipe examination ; said to be in Carbon. Pure charcoal.
thedryway,whendonebymeans Carbonate. Asalt containing car-
ofheat, (as in a crucible,) and in bonic acid. Carbonated; con-
the wet way, when by means of taining carbonic acid, as carbo-
acids and liquid tests. nated springs.
*The number after a word signifies the page where it is explained.
The etymology is given in brackets, wherever it wasdeemed important.
viii GLOSSARY AND INEEX OF TERMS .

Carbonize. To convert into char-| Delicate delineations branching

coal. like a tree ; due to infiltration of
Carburet. A compound of an ele. oxyd of iron or manganese.
ment with carbon, not acid. Density. Specific gravity.
Catalan forge, 237. Desiccate. To dry, to exhaust of
Celandine green. Green with blue moisture.
and gray; from the plant called Diaphaneity, 58.
celandine. Dichroisın , 57.
Cementation,238. Dimetric system, 32.
Chalybeate. Impregnated with Dimorphism, 44.
iron,80. Divergent, 53.
Chert. A siliceous stone containing
Disintegrate. To fall to pieces ; a
some lime; also, hornstone. result of exposure and partial de-
Chlorid. Combination of an ele- composition.
ment with chlorine . Disseminated. Scattered through
Chloritic. Containing chlorite. a rock or gangue.
Chromate. A salt containing chro- Dodecahedron, rhombic, 25 ; isos-
mic acid. celes,39, fig. 65 ; pentagonal 37 ;
Cinereous. [Lat. cinis, ashes.) scalene, 40.
Resembling ashes. Dolomitic. Pertaining todolomite.
Cleavage 33. Dressing ofores. The picking and
Coke, 90. sorting of ores, and washing pre-
Columnar, 52. paratory to reduction.
Compound crystals, 42. Drusy, 54.
Conchoidal, 65. Dull, 56.
Coralloidal. Havinga resemblance
to coral. Earthy. Soft like earth, and with-
Cretaceous. [Lat. creta, chalk.) out luster.
Pertaining to chalk. Ebullition. The state ofboiling.
Cropping out. The rising of layers Effervescence, 67.
of rock to the surface. Effloresce. To change to a state
Crucible. [Lat. crux, a cross.] A of powder, by exposure ; arises
pot made of earth or clay for from the escape ofwater.
melting, or reduction. Elastic, 53, 65. Electricity ofmin-
Cruciform, [ Lat. crux, a cross,) erals, etc., 62.
43. Elements, 72.
Crystal, [Greek krustallos, ice,] 19 ; Ellipsoid, 42.
systems of crystallization, 24, Elutriation. [Lat. elutrio, to pour
32
. from one vessel to another.]
Cube, 25. Mixing a powdered substance
Cupel, cupellation, 317, 328. (as powdered flint) with water,
Cupreous. (Lat. cuprum, copper.] and then after the coarser parti-
Containing copper. cles have subsided, carefully de-
Curved crystals,42. canting the liquid and putting it
Decrepitate. To crackle and fly away to settle, in order to obtain
apart when heated. the impalpable powder which is
Deflagrate. To burn with vivid finally deposited.
combustion. Elvan. In Cornwall, the granite
Deliquesce. To change to a liquid, masses forming broad veins in
on exposure ; arising from the the killas, and containing the
attraction of moisture. stockwerks.
Dendrites. [Gr. dendron, tree.) Enamel. A glass having an ap-
 GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF TERMS . ix.

pearance like porcelain, or like Granular. Consisting of grains.

the surface of a tooth . Granulate; to reduce tograins.
Evaporate. To become a vapor;
to cause to become a vapor. Hackly, 65.
Even fracture, 65. Hardness, scale of, 64.
Exfoliate. To separate into thin Hemihedral forms, 37.
leaves, or to scale off. Hepatic. [Gr. hepar, liver.) Hav-
ing an external resemblance to
Fault. Dislocation along a fissure, liver.
as often in coal beds, 87. Hexagonal prism, 27.
Feldspathic. Containing feldspar Hexagonal system, 33.
as a principal ingredient ; con- Homogeneous. Of the same tex-
sisting of feldspar. ture and nature throughout.
Ferruginous. [Lat. ferrum, iron.) Hyacinth red. Red with yellow
Containing iron. and some brown.
Fetid, 66. Hyaline. [Gr. hualos, glass.] Re-
Fibrous, 52. sembling glass in transparency
Filament. A thread-like fiber. and luster.
Finery furnace. A furnace used Hydrated. [Gr. hudor, water.]
in the conversion of cast iron into Containing water.
bar iron.
Filiforım , [ Lat. filum, a thread,) 53. Ignition. (Lat. ignis, fire.] The
Flexible, 53, 65. stateofbeing so heated as to give
Fluate. Containing fluoric acid. out light; at a red or white heat.
Flux, (Lat. fluo, to flow,] 69 . Impalpable, 53.
Foliaceous, 53. Implanted crystals. Attached by
Forceps, Platinum, 69. one extremity.
Fracture of minerals, 65. Incandescence. White heat.
Friable. Easily crumbling in the Incrustation. A coating of mineral
fingers. matter.
Fundamental forms, 23. Indurated . Hardened or solidified .
Furnace, blast, 233 ; reverberatory, Infiltrate. To enter gradually, as
327; Catalan, 237. water, through pores.
Infusible. In mineralogy, not fusi-
Gallery. A horizontal passage in bleby means ofthe simple blow-
mining. pipe.
Gangue,204. Inspissate. To thicken.
Gelatinize, 67. Intumesce . To froth .
Geniculate. [Lat. genu, knee.) Investing. Coating or covering, as
Bent at an angle, 43. when one mineral forms a coat-
Geode. [Gr. gæodes, earth-like.) ing on another.
A cavity studded around with Irised. [Lat. iris, rainbow.) Hav-
crystals or mineral matter, or a ing the colors ofthe spectrum.
rounded stone containing such a Iridescence, 57.
cavity. Isomorphism, isomorphous, 74.
Glance. [Germ. glanz, luster.]
Certain lustrous metallic sulphu- Juxtapose. To place contiguous.
rets of dark shades of color.
Glimmering. Glistening, 56. Killas. In Cornwall, the schistose
Globular, 53. rock in which the lodes occur.
Goniometer, common, 47 ; reflect-
ing, 50. Lamellar,53.
X GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF TERMS.

Lapidification. [Lat.lapis,a stone.) Massive. Compact, and having no

The process ofchanging to stone. regular form.
Lapilla. Small volcanic cinders. Matrix. [Lat. matrix, from mater,
Lavender-blue. Blue with some mother. The rock or earthy
red and much gray. material, containing a mineral or
Leek-green. The color of the metallic ore.
leaves ofgarlic. Metallic, 55, 56. Metallic-pearly,
Lenticular. Thin, with acute edges 55. Metallic-adamantine, 56.
something like alens, except that Metalliferous. Yielding metal.
the surface is not curved. Metallurgy. [Gr. metallon, and
Leucitic. Containing leucite. ergon, work .] The science of
Levigation. (Lat. levis,light.) The the reduction ofores,
process of reducing to a fine Micaceous, 53.
powder. Mineralized. Changed to mineral
Liquation. [Lat. liquo, to melt ) by impregnation with mineral
The slow fusion of an alloy, by matter. Also being disguised in
which the more fusible flows out character by combination with
and leaves the rest behind,328. other substances; thus used with
Lithographic stone. A compact regard to metals when in combi-
grayish or yellowish-gray lime- nation with sulphur, arsenic, car-
stone of very even texture and bonicacid, or anything thataffects
conchoidal fracture; used in lith- their malleability and other qual-
ography. That of Solenhofen, ities.
near Munich, is most noted. Molecules,42.
Lithology. [Gr. lithos, stone, and Molybdate. A salt containing
logos, adiscourse.) Mineralogy. molybdic acid.
Lixiviate. [Lat. lixivium, lye.) Monoclinate, 33.
To form a lye, by allowing water Monometric, 32.
to stand upon earthy or alkaline | Mountain limestone. A limestone
material, anddraining it off be- of the lower part of the coal se-
low, after it has dissolved the sol- ries; called also carboniferous
uble ingredients present. limestone.
Lode. [Sax. lædan, to lead.] In Muffle, 317.
mining, a vein of mineral sub-
stance ; usuallya vein of metallic Nacreous. Like pearl.
ore. The lode issaid tobe dead Native metal, 202.
when the material affords no Nitrate. A salt containing nitric
metal. acid.
Lodestone, 217. Nitriary, 102.
Nucleus. The center particle or
Macle. Acompound crystal, or one mass around which matter isag-
having a tesselated structure. gregated.
Magnesian. Containing magnesia.
Magnetism ofminerals, 63. Ochreous. Like ocher.
Malleable, [Lat. malleus, a ham- Octahedron, pp. 23, 25, 26.
mer,] 65. Octahedral. Having the form ofan
Mammillary, (Lat. mammilla, a octahedron.
littleteat,] 53. Odor of minerals, p. 66.
Manganesian. Containing man- Oolite. [Gr. oon, egg,] p. 349.
ganese. Opalescence, p. 57.
Marly. Having the nature of marl; Opaline.
ine. Like opal.
Opaline.
containing marl. Opalized. Changedto opal.
 GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF TERMS. xi

Opaque, p. 58. Quartzose. Containing quartz as

Ore, 202. Also, by miners, a dis- a principal ingredient.
seminated ore and the including
stone together ; the term met- Radiated, 53.
al is oftenused for the pure ore. Rake-vein. A perpendicular min-
Oxyd, 73. eral fissure.
Oxydizable. Capable ofcombining Rectangle, 24.
with oxygen. Reduction of ores, 204.
Oxydating flame, 68. Reduction flame, 68.
Refraction, 58.
Pearly 55. Refractory. Resisting the action
Percolate. To pass gradually of heat ; infusible.
through pores. Refrigerate. To cool.
Phosphorescence, 61. Regulus. The pure state of a
Pisolitic, (Lat. pisum, a pea,] com- metal, as regulus of antimony.
posed of large round grains or Reniform. (Lat.ren,kidney,] 53 .
kernels, ofthe size ofpeas. Replacement, 35. Resinous, 55.
Pistachio-green. Green with yel- Resplendent. Having a brilliant
low, and some brown. luster.
Plastic. Adhesive, and capable of Reticulated. [Lat. rete, a net,]
being moulded in the hands. 52,54.
Plumose. Having the shape of a Reverberatory furnace, 327.
plume, or feather. Rhombohedron, 27.
Polarisation, 60. Riddling or sifting of ores. Put-
Polarity, 62. ting the broken or pulverized ore
Polychroism, 57. in a seive, and plunging the seive
Play of colors, 57. into water, by which, the whole
Plutonic rocks. Granite and allied powdered material is raised by
crystalline rocks. the water and the metallic part
Polyhedral. [Gr. polus,many,and sinking first, may be separated
hedraface.) Havingmany sides. to a great extent from the rest.
Polymorphism, 44. Roasting. Exposing to heat in
Porous. Having minute vacuities, piles, or in a furnace, and thus
visible or invisible to the naked driving offany volatile ingredient.
eye ; a loose texture, allowing
water to filtrate through . Saccharoid. [Gr. sakchar, sugar.]
Porphyritic. Like porphyry, 340. Having a texture like loaf sugar.
Prisms, 23. Saline, (Lat. sal, salt.) Salt like ;
Pseudomorphous, 54. containing common salt.
Puddling Furnace. A reverbera- Salt. In chemistry, any combina-
tory furnace, used in converting tion of an acid with a base, 74.
cast into bar iron, after the finery Scale of hardness, 64.
furnace. Schlich. The finely pulverized ore
Pulverize. (Lat. pulvis, dust,] to and gangue.
reduce to powder. Schistose. Havinga slaty structure.
Pulverulent. Like a fine powder Scopiform, (Lat. scopa, a broom.)
slightly compacted. Like a broom in form.
Pyritous. Having the nature of Scoria, (L. scoria, dross,) 205, 341 .
pyrites, 212. Secondary forms, 34. Sectile, 65.
Pyro-electric, 62. Semitransparent, 58.
Shaft. A vertical or much in-
Quartation, 318. clined pit, cylindrical in form.
xii. GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF TERMS .

Shale, 341. Shining, 56. Tertiary strata. Strata more re-

Silicate, 74. cent in age than the chalk, and
Siliceous. Consisting of, or con- antecedent to the recent epoch.
taining silex, or quartz. Tesselated, (Lat. tesselatus, che-
Silky, 56. quered.) Chequered.
Silurian. A term applied to the Tesseral system, (Lat. tessera, a
fossiliferous rocks, older than four square tile, or dice,) 32.
the coal series. Tetrahedron, (Gr. tetra, four, he-
Slag,205. dra,face,) 37.
Smelting of iron ores, 233. Titaniferous. Containing titanium.
Spathic,(Germ. spath.) Like spar. Transition rocks. The older silu-
Spar. Any earthy mineral having rian, which were formerly sup-
a distinct cleavable structure and posed to contain no trace of fos-
some luster, as calcareous spar. sils.
Stalactitic, (Gr. stalazo, to drop or Translucent, 58.
distil,) 54, 116. Transparent, 58.
Stalagmite, 116. Triclinate, 33.
Specific gravity, 63. Trimetric, 33.
Splendent, 56. Trimorphism, 44.
Splintery. Having splinters on a Truncation, truncated, 35.
surface of fracture. Tufaceous. Like tufa, 347.
Stamping. Reducing to coarse Tuyeres, or twiers, 234.
fragments in a stamping mill. Twin crystals, 42.
Stellated, (Lat. stella, star, 52.
Strata. A series of beds of rock. Unctuous. Adhesive, like grease.
Streak, streak-powder, 56. Ustulation. [ L. ustulatus, scorch-
Striated. Lined or marked with ed, or partly burnt.) Roasting
parallel grooves, more or less of ores.
regular.
Stockwerks. In Cornwall, works Veins. In miner's use, small lodes.
in beds and veins of ore. The In geology, any seams of rock
works in alluvial deposits are dis- material, intersecting stratacross-
tinguished as stream-works. wise.
Sub. In composition, signifies be- Vein-stone. The gangue ofamet-
neath ; also,somewhat, or imper- al or mineral.
fectly, as submetallic, means im- Verdigris-green. Green inclining
perfectly metallic. toblue ; the color of verdigris.
Sublimation, (Lat. sublimis, high.) Vesicular. Containing small va-
Rising in vapor, by heat, to be cuities.
again condensed. Viscous, 65.
Submetallic, 55. Vitreous, (Lat. vitrum, glass,) 55.
Subtranslucent, 58. Vitrification. Conversion to glass.
Subtransparent, 58. Volatile. Capable ofpassing easi-
Subterbrand. A name given to ly to a state of vapor.
Bovey coal, or brown coal. Washing of ores. Exposing the...
Subvitreous, 55. after stamping, (or before if in
Sulphate. A salt containing sul- fragments,) to running water,
phuric acid. which carries off the earthy ma-
Sulphureous, 66. terial, it being lighter than the
Sulphuret. Combination ofa met- ore.

al with sulphur.
Zeolitic. Having the nature of a
Tarnish, 57. zeolite, 163.
 MINERALOGY .

CHAPTER I.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS .

Relations of the threcDepar'men'sof Nature. Viewing

the world around us, we observe that it consists of rocks,
earth or soil, and water ; that it is covered with a large va-
riety of plants, and tenanted by myriads of animals. These
three familiar facts lie at the basis ofthree primary branches
of knowledge. The animals, of whatever kind, from the
animalcule to man, give origin to that branch of science
which is called Zoology; the various plants, to the sci-
ence of Botany; and the rocks or minerals, to Mineral-
ogy. The first two of these departments embrace all natu-
ral objects that have life, and treat of their kinds, their vari.
ties of structure, their habits, and relations.
The third branch of knowledge, Mineralogy, relates to
inanimate nature. It describes the kinds of mineral material
forming the surface of our planet, points out the various
methods of distinguishing minerals, makes known their uses,
and explains their modes of occurrence in the earth.
Importance of the Science of Mineralogy. To the un-
practiced eye, the costly gem, as it is found in the rocks,
often seems but a rude bit of stone ; and the most valuable
ores may appear worthless, for the metals are generally so
disguisedthat nothing of their real nature is seen. There is
an ore of lead which has nearly the color and luster of Glau-
ber salt; an ore of iron that looks like sparry limestone ;
an ore of silver that might be taken for lead ore, and an-
other that resembles wax. These are common cases, and
What classes of natural objects exist ? Of whatdoes Zoology treat ?
What Botany ? Of what does Mineralogy treat? What advantages
result from the study of minerals ?
2
14 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS.

consequentlymuch careful attention is required ofthe student

to make progress in the science. Moreover, a great pro-
portion of the mineral species are of no special value, and
they occur under so many forms and colors that close study
is absolutely necessary in order to be able to distinguish the
useless, and avoid being deceived by them; for such decep-
tions are common and often lead to disastrous consequen-
ces inmining.
The science of Mineralogy is, therefore, eminently prac-
tical. Moreover, the very existence of many of the arts of
civilized life, depends upon the materials which the rocks
afford. Besides the metals and metallic ores, we here find
the ingredients for many common pigments, and for various
preparations used in medicine ; also the enduring material so
valuable for buildings and numberless other purposes : more-
over, froin the rocks comes the soil upon which we are de-
pendent for food. At the same time, the student of Miner-
alogy who is interested in observing the impress of Infinite
wisdom in nature around him, finds abundant pleasure in
examining the forms and varieties of structure whichminer-
als assume, and intracing out the principles or lawswhich
Creative power has established even throughout lifeless mat-
ter, giving it an organization, though simple, no less perfect
thanthat characterizing animate beings.
What is a Mineral ? It has been remarked that Miner-
alogy, the third branch of Natural History, embraces every
thing in nature that has not life. Is, then, every different
thing not resulting from life, a mineral ? Are earth, clay,
and all stones, minerals ? Is water a mineral ?
All the materials here alluded to properly belong to the
mineral series. The minute grains which make up a
bank of clay or earth, are all minerals, and if their charac-
ters could be accurately ascertained, each might be referred
to some mineral species. It is evident, however, that the
clay itself, unless the grains are all of one kind, is not a dis-
tinct species, though mineral in composition : it is a com-
pound mass or an aggregate ofdifferent mineral grains ; and
this is true ofall ordinary soil and earth. In the same manner
very many rocks are aggregates of two or more minerals in
intimate union. Mineralogy distinguishes the species, and
enables us to point out the ingredients which are mixed in the
constitution of such rocks. It searches for specimens that
Is clay a mineral ? What is the nature of many rocks ?
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS . 15

are pure and undisguised, ascertains their qualities and their

varieties, and thus prepares the mind to recognize them
under whatever circumstances they may occur.
Water has no qualities which should separate it from the
mineral kingdom. All bodies have their temperature of fu-
sion; lead melts at 612° F.; sulphur at 226° F.; water at
32° ; mercury at -39°. No difference therefore of this
kind can limit the mineraldepartments.Ice is as properly a
rock as limestone ; and re the temperature of our globe
but a little lower than it is, we should rarely see water
except in solid crystal-like masses or layers. Our atmos-
phere, and all gases occurring in nature, belongfor the same
reason to the mineral kingdom. Several of the gases have
been solidified, and we can not doubt that at some specific
temperature eachmight be made solid. We cannot, there-
fore, exclude any substance from the class of minerals be-
cause at the ordinary temperature it is a gas or liquid.
Quicksilver with such a rule would be excluded as well as
water.

A mineral, then, is any substance in nature not organized

by vitality, andhaving a homogeneous structure. Thefirst
limitation here stated-not organized by vitality-excludes
all living structures, or such as have resulted from vital pow-
ers; and the second a homogeneous structure-excludes
all mixtures or aggregates. The different spars, gems, and
ores are minerals, while granite rock, slate, clay and the
like, are mineral aggregates. This compound character is
apparent to the eye in granite, for there is no difficulty in
picking out from the mass a shining scaly mineral, (mica,)
andwith more attention, semi-opaque whitish or reddish par-
ticles (feldspar) will be easily distinguished from others
(quartz) that have aglassy appearance.
It is a popular belief, that stones grow. Yet the absence
of any proper growth is the main point distinguishing min-
erals from objects that have life. Plants and animals are
nourished by the circulation of a fluid through their interior ;
inplants, we call the fluid sap ; in animals, blood ; and in-
crease or growth takes place by means of material secreted
from this circulating fluid. The living being commences
with the mere germ, and grows through youth to maturity ;
Why should water and gases rank with minerals. What is a min-
eral ? What limitations are here implied ? What is the nature of
granite ?
16 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS .

and when this fluid finally ceases to circulate, it dies and

soondecays.
Minerals, on the contrary, have no such nourishing fluid.
The smallest particle is as perfect as the mountain mass.
They increase in size only by additions to the surface from
some external source. The deposit of salt forming in an
evaporating brine, has layer after layer of particles added to
it, and by this mode of accumulation, its thickness is at-
tained.
Beds of an ore of iron, called bog iron-ore, are some-
times said to grow. They do in fact increase in extent.
Rills of water running from the hills wash out the iron in
the rocks they pass over, decomposing and altering the condi-
tionofthe ore, and carry itto low marshygrounds. Here the
water becomes stagnant, and gradually the iron isdeposited.
This bog ore, as the name implies, is found mostly in low
marshy places, and often contains nuts, leaves, and sticks,
changed to iron ore. The increase here is obviously by ex-
ternal additions.
In limestone caverns, and about certain lakes and streams.
the water contains much carbonate of lime. As it evapo
rates, layer after layer of the lime is deposited, till thick
beds are sometimes formed. In caverns, the water comes
dripping through the roof, drop by drop, and each drop
as it dries, deposits a little carbonate of lime. At first it
forms but a mere wart on the surface ; but it gradually
lengthens, till it becomes a long tapering cylinder, and
sometimes the pendant cylinder, or stalactite, as it is called,
reaches the floor of the cave, and forms a column several
feet in diameter.
It thus appears that minerals increase, or enlarge, by ac-
cretion, or additions to the surface only. They decrease,
or the surface is worn away, by the action of running water
and other agents. When they decay, as sometimes happens
from contact with air and moisture, or some other cause, the
change begins with the surface, and results in producing
one or more different minerals. The line of demarkation,
therefore, between living beings, and minerals or inorganic
matter, is strongly drawn.
Characters of Minerals. In pursuing the subject ofmin-
What are the different modes of increase in the animate and mineral
kingdoms ? Mention examples of increase in mineral substances, and
explainthe mode.
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS . 17

erals, there are various qualities presented for our study.

We observe that stones or minerals have color ; they have
hardness in different degrees, from being soft and impressi-
ble by the nail, to the extreme hardness of the diamond ;
they have weight ; they have luster, from almost a total ab-
sence of the power of reflecting light to the brilliancy ofa
mirror. Some are as transparent as glass and others are
opaque. A few have taste. These are the most obvious
characters, and characters to which the mind would at once
appeal in distinguishing species.
Other characters of equal importance are found in the
internal and external structure of minerals. On examining
a piece of coarse granite, we find that each scale of mica
may be split by the point of a knife into thinner leaves.
Here is evidence of a peculiar structure, called cleavage;
and wherever mica is found, this peculiarity is constant.
The feldspar in the same rock, if examined with care, will
be found to break in certain directions with a smooth, or
nearly smooth plain surface, showing a luster approaching
that ofglass, though somewhat pearly. It is true of feldspar
also, that this cleavage is a constant character for the spe-
cies, as regards direction and facility. In nearly all miner-
als, this kind of structure, more or less perfect
erfect in quality,
may be distinguished. In a broken bar of iron the irregu-
larity of the grains proceeds from this cause. In granular
marble, although the mass as a whole has no such structure,
the several grains if attentively examined will be seen to
present a distinct cleavage structure and consequent angu-
lar forms. In finer varieties, the grains may be so small
that the characters cannot be observed ; or again the tex-
ture of the mass maybe so compact that not even grains
canbe distinguished.
This cleavage, then, is a peculiarity of internal structure.
It is intimately connected with another fact, that these same
minerals often occur under the form of some regular solid
with neat plane surfaces ; and are finished with a symmetry
and perfection which art would fail to imitate. These forms
are their natural forms, and every mineral has its own dis-
tinct system of forms. The beauty of a cabinet of min-
erals arises to a great extent from the variety of forms and
What physical characters are to be observed in the study of min-
erals? What character depends on internal structure? Mention ex-
ainples and explain. What other character depends on structure ?
2
*
18 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS.

high finish of these gems of nature's workmanship. The

mineral quartz sometimes occurs incrystals consisting of two
pyramids united by a short six-sided prism, and they have
generally the transparency and almost the brilliancy of the
diamond, whose name they bearincommon language. The
" diamonds" of central New York, and many other localities,
are of this kind. In other cases a large surface of rock
sparkles with a splendid grouping of the pyramidal glassy
crystals. We might draw other illustrations from almost all
the mineral species. But this will suffice to show that inad.
dition to the physical characters above mentioned, there are
others dependent on structure, which afford distinctions of
species, apparent both in external form and internal clea
vage.
Still other characters are derived from subjecting species
to the action of heat, and to acids or other re-agents. One
mineral, when heated, melts ; another is infusible, or fuses
only on the edges ; another evaporates. By such trials, and
others hereafter to be described, we study minerals in a dif-
ferent way, and ascertain their chemical characters. This
mode of investigation more minutely pursued, leads to a
knowledge of the constitution ofminerals, abranch ofstudy
which belongs properly toAnalytical Chemistry : the results
are of the highest importance to the mineralogist.
It is perceived, therefore, that the learner may (1) exam-
ine into the peculiarities of structure among minerals ; (2)
he mayattend to the physical characters depending on light,
hardness, and gravity; (3) he may acquaint himself with
the effects of heat and chemical re-agents-the chemical char-
acters. These are three sources ofdistinctions giving mu-
tual aid, and aknowledge of all is necessary to the miner-
alogist. To learn to distinguish minerals by their color,
weight, and luster, is so far very well ; but the accomplishment
is of a low degree of merit, and when most perfect, makes but
apoor mineralogist. But when the science is viewed in the
light of Chemistry and Crystallography, it becomes a branch
of knowledge, perfect in itself, and surprisingly beautiful in
its exhibitions of truth. We are no longer dealing with
pebbles of pretty shapes and tints, but with objects modeled
by a Divine hand; and every additional fact becomes to the
mind a new revelation of His wisdom.
Mention examples. What other characters are there ? Enumerate
the kinds of characters presented by minerals.
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY . 19

In the study of this science, the learner will be introduced

first to the structure of minerals. The subject is treated of
under its usual name, crystallography.

CHAPTER II ,

CRYSTALLOGRAPHY : OR THE STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

Crystals : Crystallization. The regular forms which

minerals assume are called crystals, and the process by
which their formation takes place, is termed crystallization.
Crystallization is the same as solidification. Whenever
a liquid becomes solid there is actual crystallization. Under
favorable circumstances regular crystals may form ; but
very commonly the solid is a mass of crystalline grains, as
is the case in statuary marble, or a loaf of white sugar. In
the case of the marble, crystallization commenced at myri-
ads of points at the same instant, and there was no room for
any to expand to a large size and regular outline. When
on the contrary, the process is slow, simple crystals often
increase to a large size.
We may understand this subject of crystallization by
watching a solution of salt, as it evaporates over a fire. Af-
ter a while, if the process is not too rapid, minute points of
salt appear at the surface, and these continue enlarging.
They are minute cubes when they begin, andthey increase
regularly by additions to their sides, till finally they become
so heavy as to sink. In other cases, if the brine is boiled
away too rapidly, a mass of salt may be formed at the bot-
tom of the vessel, in which no regular crystals (cubes) can
be seen. Yet it is obvious that the same power of crystal-
lization was at work, and failed of yielding symmetrical
solids, because of the rapidity of the evaporation. Crystals
of salt have been found in the beds of this mineral a foot
or more inbreadth, which had beenformed by natural evapo-
ration ; and the whole bed is in all cases crystalline in the
structure of the salt. However finely the salt may be ground
Explain the terms crystal and crystallization. Are solidification and
crystallization the same process ? Explainthe different results of crys-
tallization by the example of salt. Is every grain, however minute,
crystalline?
20 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS .

up, as that for our tables, still the grains were crystalline in
their origin and are crystalline in structure.
This subject may be farther illustrated by many other sub-
stances. A hot solution of sugar set away to cool, will form
crystals upon the bottom, or upon any thread or stick in the
vessel; and, these crystals will continue increasing till a
large part of the sugar has become crystals. It is a com-
mon and instructive experiment to place a delicate frame-
work of a basket or some other object, in a solution of su-
gar or alum ; after a while it becomes a basket of finished
gems, the crystals glistening with their many polished facets.
Again, if a quantity of sulphur be melted, it will crystallize
on cooling. To obtain distinct crystals, the surface crust
should be broken as soon as formed, and the liquid part
within be poured out ; the cavity, when cold, will be found
to be studded with delicate needles. The crust in this case
is as truly crystallized as the needles, although but faint tra-
ces of a crystalline texture are apparent on breaking it.
This was owing to too rapid cooling. Melted lead and bis-
muth will crystallize inthe same manner. There is a sub-
stance, iodine, which when heated passes into the state of a
vapor ; on cooling again, the glass vessel containing the
vapor is covered with complex crystals, as brilliant as pol-
ished steel. During the cold of winter, the vapors constitu-
ting clouds, often become changed to snow; this is a similar
process of crystallization, for every flake of snow is a con
geries of crystals, and often they present the forms of regu-
lar six-sided stars. So also, our streams become covered
with ice ; and this is another form of the crystallization of
water.

The power which solidifies, and the power which crystal-

lizes, are thus one and the same. Crystallography, there-
fore, is not merely a science treating of certain regular so-
lids in Mineralogy; it is the science of solidification in
general.
Modes of Crystallization. In the above examples we
have presented three different modes of crystallization. In
one case, the substance is in solution in water, (or some sol-
vent;) the particles are thus free to move, andas the solvent
passes off by evaporation, they unite and form the crystal-
Explain the case ofsulphur. Give instances of crystals forming from
vapor. What does the science of crystallography embrace? What
are the modes of crystallization alluded to in the examples given ?
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY . 21

lizing solid. In a second case, the substance is fused by

heat; here again the particles are free to move as long as
the heat remains ; and when it passes off solidification com-
mences, under the power of crystallization. In a third case,
the substance is reduced to a vapor by heat ; and from this
state-also one of freedom of motion among the particles-
it crystallizes as the heated condition is removed.
In the hardening of steel, it is well known that the coarse-
ness of the grains varies with the temperature used, and the
manner in which the process is conducted. An increased
coarseness of structure, implies that certain of the crystal-
line grains were enlarged at the expense of others. It
teaches us that in some cases the powers of crystallization
may act at certain temperatures, even without fusion or so-
lution. The long continued vibration of iron, especially
when under pressure, produces a similar change from a fine
to a coarse texture ; and this fact has been the cause of ac-
cidents in machinery, by rendering the iron brittle : it has
led to the fracture of the axles of rail cars and of grind-
stones, and even the iron rails of a road may thus become
weak and useless.
By these several processes, the various minerals and very
many of the widely extended rocks of our globe, have been
brought to their present state.
Perfect crystals are usually ofmoderate size, and gems of
the finest water are quite small. As they enlarge they be-
come less clear, or even opaque, and the faces lose their
smoothness and much of their luster. The emerald, suffi-
ciently pure for jewelry, seldom exceeds an inch in length,
and is rarely as large as this ; but a crystal of this species
(of the variety beryl) was obtained a few years since at
Acworth, New Hampshire, which measured 4 feet in length
and 2 feet in circumference ; it was regular in its form, yet,
except at the edges, opaque. The clear garnets, fit for set-
ting, are seldom half an inch through ; but coarse crystals
have been found 6 inches in diameter. Transparent sap-
phires also, over an inch in length, are of extreme rarity ;
but opaque crystals occur a foot or more long.
Quartz crystals attain at times extraordinary dimensions.
There is one at Milan which is 34 feet long and 5t in cir-
cumference, and it weighs 870 pounds. From a single cav-
Is fluidity essential to the process of crystallization ? What is said
of steel and iron? What is said of the size and perfection of crystals ?
22 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

ity at Zinken, in Germany, 1000 cwt. of crystals of quartz

were taken above a century since. These facts indicate im-
perfectly the scale of operations in the laboratory of nature.
The same processbywhichasingle group, likethatjust alluded
to, has been formed, has filled numberless similar cavities over
various regions, and distributed the quartz material through
vast deposits in the earth's structure. The same power
presides alike over the solidification of liquid lavas, and the
formation of a cube of salt, producing the crystalline grains
constituting the former, and the structure and symmetrical
faces of the latter.
Constancy of Crystalline Forms. Each mineral may be
properly said to have as much a distinct shape of its own, as
each plant or each animal, and may be as readily distin-
guished by the characters presented to the eye. Crystals
are, therefore, the perfect individuals of the mineral kingdom.
The mineral quartz has a specific form and structure, as much
as a dog, or an elm, and is as distinct and unvarying as re-
gards essential characters, although, owing to counteracting
causes during formation, these forms are not always assumed.
In whatever part of the world crystals of quartz may be col-
lected, they are fundamentally identical. Not an angle will
be found to differ from those of crystals obtained in any part
of this country. The sizes of the faces vary, and also the
number of faces, according to certain simple laws hereafter
to be explained; but the corresponding angles of inclina-
tion are essentially the same, whatever the variations or dis-
tortions.
Other minerals have a like constancy in their crystals, and
each has some peculiarity, somedifference of angle, or some
difference of cleavage structure, which distinguishes it from
every other mineral. In many cases, therefore, we have only
to measure an angle todetermine the species. Both quartz and
carbonate of lime crystallize at times in similar six-sided
prisms with terminal pyramids; but the likeness here ceases ;
for the angles of the pyramids are quite different, and also
the internal structure. Idocrase and tin ore crystallize in
similar square prisms, with terminal pyramidal planes ; but
though similar in general form, each has its own character-
istic angles of inclination between its planes, which angles
What is said of the generality of the power of crystallization ? What
issaid of the constancy ofthe crystalline forms and structure ofminerals ?
Explain by the mineral quartz, as an example.
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. 23

admit of no essential variation. Upon this character, the

constancy of crystalline forms, depends the importance of
crystallography to the mineralogist.
FUNDAMENTAL FORMS OF CRYSTALS.

The forms of crystallized minerals are very various. To

the eye there often seems to be no relation between different
crystals of the same mineral. Yet it is true that all the va-
rious shapes are modifications according to simple laws of
a few fundamental forms. There is perhaps no mineral
which presents a greater variety of form than calc spar.
Dog-tooth spar is one of its forms ; nail-head spar, as it is
sometimes called, is another ; the one, a tapering pyrimadal
crystal, well described in its name, the other broad and thin,
and shaped much likethe head ofa wrought-nail. Yet both of
these crystals and manyothers are derived from the same fun-
damental form. After a few trials with a knife, the student
will find that slices maybe readily chipped off from the crys-
tals of this mineral in three directions ; and the process will
obtain a solid from each, the one identical with the other in
its angles. They consequently have the same nucleus or
fundamental form .
Thefundamentalforms are those from which allthe other
forms of crystals are derived. The derivative forms, are
called secondary forms, and their planes, secondary planes.
The number of fundamental forms indicated by cleavage,
is thirteen. They are either prisms,* octahedrons or dode-
cahedrons .
The prisms are either four-sided or six-sided. The prisms
are denominated right prisms, when they stand erect, and
oblique prisms, when they are inclined. Figures 4, 5, 7, 8,
are right prisins, and figures 12, 14, are oblique prisms.
The sides in each case are called lateral planes, and the
extremities bases.
An octahedront has eight sides, and consists of two equal
How do the crystals of different minerals differ ? Mention exam-
ples. What is said of the forms of crystals of the same mineral ?
What is understood by fundamental forms ? What by secondary forms
or planes? How inany fundamental forms are there ? What kinds of
prisms are there ? Explain the terins lateral planes and bases.

* Any column, however many sides it may have, is called a prism.

† From the Greek okto, eight, and hedra, face.
24 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

four-sided pyramids placed base tobase. (Figs. 2, 6, 9 ) The

plane in which the pyramids meet is called the base of the
octahedron ; (bb, fig. 6 ;) the edges of the base are called
the basal edges, and the other edges the pyramidal.
The dodecahedron* has twelve sides (fig. 3.)
The axes of these solids are imaginary lines connecting
the centers of opposite faces, of opposite edges, or of oppo-
site angles. The inclination of two planes upon one another
is called an interfacial angle.†
The figures here added represent the forms of the bases
andAfaces referred
B
to inCthe following
D
paragraphs.
E F

A, a square, having the 4 sides equal ; B, a rectangle, dif-

fering from A, in having only the opposite sides equal ; C, a
rhomb, having the angles oblique and the sides equal ; D, a
rhomboid, differing from the rhomb in the opposite sides only
being equal ; E, an equilateral triangle, having all the sides
equal ; F, an isosceles triangle, having two sides equal.
The lines crossing from one angle to an opposite are called
diagonals.
The fundamental forms ofcrystals, though thirteen in num-
ber, constitute but six systems of crystallization, as follows :-
What is an octahedron ? What is its base ? How are the basal and
pyramidal edges distinguished ? What is a dodecahedron ? What are
axes ? What are interfacialangles ? Explain the terms square ; rect-
angle ; rhomb ; rhomboid ; equilateral triangle ; isosceles triangle ;
diagonal. How many systems of crystallization are there ?
*From the Greek dodeka, twelve, and hedra, face.
†An angle is the amount of divergence of two straight lines from a
givenpoint, or of two planes from a given edge. In the annexed figure,
D
ACB is an angle formed by the divergence of two
A lines from C. If a circle be described with the
angular point C as the center, and the circumference
C B DABFE be divided into 360 equal parts,the number
E
of these parts included between A and B will be the
number of degrees in the angle ACB ; that is, if 40
of these parts are included between A and B, the
F
angle ACB equals 40 degrees (40°) . DF being
perpendicular to EB, these two lines divide the whole into 4 equal parts,
and consequently the angle DCB equals 360° ÷4 equals 90°. This is
termed a right angle. An angle more or less than 90° is called an
oblique angle ; if less, as ACB, an acute angle ; if more, as ACE, an
obtuse angle.
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMS OF CRYSTALS . 25

I. The first system includes the cube (fig. 1 or la, the lat-
ter in outline ;) regular octahedron
la
(fig. 2;) and the rhombic
1 2
P

P P

3 За

dodecahedron (fig. 3 or 3a.) They are symmetrical solids

throughout, in all positions, being alike inhavingthe height,
breadth andthickness equal ; their three axes, representedby
the dotted lines in the figures, are at right angles with one
another and equal. In the cube, the axes connect the cen-
ters of opposite faces ; in the octahedron and dodecahedron,
they connect the apices of solid angles. This is more fully
explained ona following page.
The cube has its faces equal squares, and its angles all
right angles.
The octahedronhas its 8 faces equal equilateral triangles :
its edges are equal ; its plane angles are 60° ; its interfacial
angles (angles between adjacent faces) 109° 28' .
The dodecahedron has its 12 faces equal rhombs ; the
edges are equal; the plane angles of the faces are 109° 28′
and 70° 32' ; its interfacial angles are 120°.
II. The
4
second system includes
5
the right square
6
prism
P

P A A
M M M
b b
A A

(figs. 4 and 5,) and square octahedron (fig. 6.) They have
two equal lateral axes, and a vertical axis unequal to the
What forms does the first system include ? How are these forms
related ? Describe the forms. What forms does the second system
include, and how are they related ? Describe the forins.
3
26 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

lateral : that is, the width and breadth are equal, but the
height is varying. All the axes are at right angles with one
another. Fig. 4 is a square prism higher than its breadth,
and fig. 5 is one shorter than its breadth.
The right square prism and square octahedron maybe of
anyheight, either greater or less than the breadth ; but the
dimensions are fundamentally constant for the same mineral
species. The square prism has its base a square. The
square octahedron has its base (bb) a square, and its 8 faces
equal isosceles triangles. The lateral edges of the prism
differ in length from the basal ; and the terminal or pyra-
midal edges ofthe octahedrondiffer in length fromthe basal.
III. The third system includes the rectangular prism
(fig. 7,) the
7
rhombicprism(fig.8,) and the rhombic9 octahe-
P P

M T
A
MM

dron (fig. 9.) They are similar in having the three dimen-
sions, or the three axes, unequal ; and the axes at right an-
gles with one another.
The rectangular prism has a rectangular base,and the
axes connect the centers of opposite faces. The rhombic
prism and rhombic octahedron have each a rhombic base,
the angle ofwhich differs for different species. The lateral
axes of the prism connect the centers of opposite edges,
and in the octahedron they connect the apices of opposite
angles.
IV. 10
Thefourth system includes the right rhomboidal prisın
11 12 13
P
M P
M
M M
T P
M M

(figs. 10, 11,) and the oblique rhombic prism (figs. 12, 13.)
The lateral axes are unequal, and at right angles as in the
What forms are included inthe third system and how are they rela-
ted? Describe the forms. What forms does the fourth system include
andhow are they related ?.
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMS OF CRYSTALS. 27

last system; but they are oblique to the vertical axes. Their
positions are shown in the figures .
The right rhomboidal prism stands erect when on its rhom-
boidal base, as in fig. 11 ; but is oblique when placed on
either of the other sides, as in fig. 10. The oblique rhombic
prism is shown in a lateral view in fig. 12, and a front view
in fig. 13.
V. Thefifth system includes the oblique rhomboidal15prism
which has the three axes unequal, 14
.
and all are oblique in their intersec- P

tions. Fig. 14 represents a side

view of this form, and fig. 15 a TM
M T
front view.
VI. The sixth system includes
the rhombohedron and hexagonal prism, in which there are
16 16a 17 17a 18
P
R
RR
R

three equal lateral axes and a vertical axis at right angles

with the three. Fig. 16 is an obtuse rhombohedron, and 16a
is the same in outline, showing the axes. Figs. 17, 174,
represent an acute rhombohedron. Fig. 18 is a hexagonal
prism ; it is bounded by six equal lateral planes ; the lateral
axes either connect the centers of opposite faces, as in the
figure, or of opposite lateral edges.
To understand the rhombohedron, the student should have
amodel before him. On examining it he will find one solid
angle made up of three equal plane angles, and another op-
posite one of the same kind; all the other solid angles are
different from these. These two solid angles are called the
vertical solid angles, and a line drawn from one to the other
is the vertical axis of the rhombohedron. The rhombohe-
dron should be held with this line vertical; it is then said to
be in position. Thus placed, it will be seen to have six lat-
eral angles, six equal lateral edges, and also six equal termi-
nal edges, three of the terminal above and three below.
What forms does the fifth system include, and how does this system
differ from the preceding ? What does the sixth system include ?
What is said of the rhombohedron? of its position ? its solid angles ?
 28 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

The lateral edges in figure 17a, are distinguished from

the terminal by being made heavier. Figure 19 repre-
sents a vertical view of fig. 16 ; 19 19a
the three edges meeting at center
are the terminaledges of one ex-
tremity : the exterior six are the
lateral edges ; and the six lateral
angles are seen at their intersec-
tions. In fig. 19a, the same is
seen in outline, and the dotted lines represent the three late-
ral or transverse axes, connecting the centers of opposite
lateral edges. The lateral and terminal edges differ in one
set being acute and the other obtuse ; in the obtuse rhombo-
hedron (fig. 16) the terminals are obtuse, and in the acute
rhombohedron (fig. 17) they are acute.
Several of the primary forms are easily cut from wood or
chalk. Cut out a square stick, and then saw off a piece
from one end as long as the breadth of the stick : this is the
cube. Saw off other pieces longer or shorter than this, and
they are different right square prisms. Shave off a piece
ofmore or less thickness from one side of the square stick,
and it then becomes a rectangular stick. From it, pieces
may be sawn off, ofdifferent lengths, and they will be right
rectangular prisms. Next cut a stick of a rhombic shape,
(asection having the shape in figure C, page 26,) from it
right rhombic prisms maybe cut, of any length. Shave off
more or less from one side of the rhombic stick, and it is
changed to a rhomboidal form,(section as in fig. D, page 26,)
and rhomboidal prisms may be sawn from it of any length.
Take a rhombic stick again; and instead of sawing it off
straight across, as before, saw off the end obliquely from one
side-edge to the opposite; the base thus formed is oblique
to the sides : then saw the stick again in parallel oblique di-
rections, (accuratelyparallel,) and an oblique rhombic prism
will be obtained. If the oblique direction is such that the
basal plane equals the lateral, the solid is a rhombohedron.
Proceeding in the same way with a rhomboidal stick, oblique
rhomboidal prisms maybe made. The student is advised to
make these solids, either from wood,rawpotatoes, or chalk,*
in order to become familiar with them.

What is said of the lateral edges and angles of the rhombohedron ?

* Models made of chalk become quite hard if washed over with a
strong solution of gum Arabic, or varnish.
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMS OF CRYSTALS . 29

By means of such models, the student may trace out im-

portant relations between the fundamental forms.
Take a cube, and cut off each angle evenly, inclining the
kniſe alike to the adjacent faces; this produces figure 20.
Continue taking slice after slice equally from each angle,
and the solid takes the form in fig. 20a, (called a cubo-octahe-
dron ;) still continue taking off regular slices from each angle
alike, and it finally comes out a regular octahedron, the form
represented in fig. 206. The lastdiminishing point in each
20 20a 20b
P P
a

P P
F
P
R

face of the cube is the apex of each solid angle of the octa-
hedron. It is hence apparent why the axes of the cube con-
nect the opposite solid angles of the octahedron.
Take another cube (one of large size is preferable) and
pursue the same process with each of the edges, keeping the
knife, in cutting, equally inclined to the faces of the cube,
and we obtain,
21
in succession, the forms represented in figs.
21a 216
0
e

P eP P

21 and 21a ; and finally as the plane P disappears, it comes

out the rhombic dodecahedron, (fig. 216.) Hence the same
axes which connect the centers of opposite faces in the cube,
connect opposite acute solid angles in the dodecahedron.
So the cube, by reversing the process, may be made from
an octahedron by cutting offits solid angles, passing in suc-
cession through the forms represented in figures 206, 20a,
20, to figure 1. The dodecahedron also yields a cube in a
similar manner, giving as the process goes on, the forms rep-
resented in figures 216, 21a, 21, 1. -
Moreover, the octahedron anddodecahedron are easily de-
How can you make an octahedron from a cube ? How make a do-
decahedron from a cube ? How the cube from an octahedron ? the
cube from a dodecahedron? What relation hence exists between the
solids of thefirst system ?
3*
30 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

rived from one another. Figure 22 represents an octahedron

22 22a
with the edges truncated. On
C
continuing this truncation, the
I
A A
a planes A are reduced in size,
0 E and the form in figure 22a is
A4
E obtained; and another step be-
yond, wehave the dodecahedron,
(fig. 216.) Figure 22a repre-
sents a dodecahedron with the obtuse solid angles replaced;
and this replacement continued, produces finally an octahe-
dron, the reverse of the preceding.
These solids are, then, so related that they are all deriva-
ble from one another ; and the three actually are often pre-
sented by the same mineral. All the figures above referred
to, occur as forms of galena, fluor-spar, and several other
species. Instead, therefore, of considering the three solids,
the cube, regular octahedron, and dodecahedron, as indepen-
dent forms, we properly speak of them as constituting to-
gether one system, or as belonging to the same series of
forms.
Again : pursue the same mode ofdissection on the angles
ofa square prism, taking care to move the knife parallel to a
23 23a
diagonal of the prism; the form in
P
a
figure 23 is first obtained, and final-
A A ly a square octahedron, figure 23a.
b
M M The square prism and square octa-
A
hedron (like the cube and regular
octahedron) belong to one and the
same system. The two often oc-
cur in the same mineral.
Again:
24
removewith a knife the basal edges of a rhombic
240
prism, moving the knife parallel to a
P
e
diagonal plane of the prism, figure 24
is at first obtained, and then a rhombic
M M octahedron, (fig. 24a.) Remove the
A four lateral edges of arhombic prism,
e (see fig. 26a,) keeping the knife paral-
lel to a vertical diagonal plane : the
form in figure 25 will first be obtained, and then a right rectan-
gularprism, (fig. 25a); and converselycut offthe lateral edges
How can you make a square octahedron from asquare prism ? How
a rhombic octahedron from a rhombic prism ? How a rectangular prism
from a rhombic ?
 FUNDAMENTAL FORMS OF CRYSTALS . 31

aright rectangular prism, with

25a
the knife parallel26to the ver.
25
P
P P

M T

MaM

26a 266
tical diagonal planes of this prism,
P (as is seen in fig. 26,) and a right
rhombic
sult.
prism (fig. 26a) is the re-
The relations of these two
M M
prisms is shown in figure 266,
which represents a rhombic prism
within a rectangular prism. It is
obvious on comparing these figures, that the lateral axes
which connect the centers of opposite faces in the rectangu-
lar prism, connect the centers of opposite lateral edges in
the rhombic prism.
These three forms, the right rhombic prism, rhombic oc-
tahedron, and rectangular prism, are so closely related, that
one may give origin to the other, and all may occur in the
same mineral. This is often the case, as in the minerals
celestine and heavy spar.
Again : set the right rhomboidal prism on one of its lat-
eral faces, and then slice off each lateral edge, (lateral, as so
27
situated,) keeping the knife parallel with the diago-
nal plane, and an oblique rhombic prism is obtained.
Figure 27 represents the process begun, and figure
13, as well as the interior of figure 27, the com-
pleted oblique rhombic prism.
Lastly : take a rhombohedron, and after placing
it in position, fig. 16,) look down upon it from above, (fig.
19;) the six lateral edges are seento form a regular six-sided
figure around the axis. If these edges be cut off parallel
to the axis, a six-sided prism (having a three-sided pyra-
mid at each extremity) must, therefore, result. This pro-
cess is shown begun in figure 28, and completed in figure
How is a rhombic prism derived from a rectangular ? What relation
hence between these prisms? How can yon make an oblique rhom-
bic prism from a right rhomboidal ? How a right rhomboidal from an
oblique rhombic ? Explain the relation betw en the rhombohedron and
hexagonal prism, andhow one is reduced to he other.
32 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

28a. Looking down again on the model as before, the lat-

eral angles are seen toform six equi-distant points around the
axis; and if these angles are removed in the same manner,
another six-sided prism is obtained, differing, however, from
the former in having the faces of the pyramid at each end,
five-sided, instead of rhombic. Figures 29, 30, illustrate the
process. Conversely, we maymake arhombohedron out of
28 284 29 30 31

R R R
R
a a
R R
R

R R

B R

ahexagonal prism, by cutting offthree alternate basal edges

at one extremity ofthe prism, and similarly, three at the
other extremity alternate with these,as in figure 31. In fig-
ure30, the process is farther continued,andthe rombohedron
is shown as a nucleus to the prism. By cutting off slices
parallel with R, the rhombohedron is at last obtained. The
close relation of the rhombohedron and hexagonal prism is
hence obvious. Calcareous spar has the rhombohedron as its
primary, and very often occurs in hexagonal forms. The
same is true of quartz and many other species.
From the above transformations, the study of which, with
the aid ofa knife and a few raw potatoes or lumps of chalk,
may afford some amusement as well as instruction, the stu-
dent will understand more fully the six systems of crystalli-
zation.* These six systems have received the following
names :

1. Monometric or tesseral system, (from the Greek monos,

one, and metron, measure, alluding to the three axes being
equal in length.) Includes the cube, octahedron and dode-
cahedron, (figs. 1, 2, 3.)
2. Dimetric system, (from dis, two times, and metron, al-
luding to the vertical axis being unequal to the other two.)
Give the names of the systems of crystallization,and mention the
forms each includes.

* Insome textbooks, the student may read about certain integral

forms, the cube, the three-sided pyramid and three-sided prism, from
which it is stated all the other forms may be made. The idea of such
forms has nothing to do with crystallography, or the actual constitu-
tionof crystals.
 CLEAVAGE . 33

Includes the square prism and square octahedron, (figs. 4,

5, 6.)
3. Trimetric system, (from tris, three times, and metron,
alluding to the three axes being unequal.) Includes the right
rhombic prism, right rectangular prism and rhombic octahe-
dron, (figs. 7, 8, 9.)
4. Monoclinate system, (from monos, one, and klino, to
incline, one axis being inclined to the other two which are
at right angles.) Includes the right rhomboidal prism and
oblique rhombic prism, (figs. 10, 11, 12, 13.)
5. Triclinate system, (from tris and klino, the three axes
being oblique to one another.) Includes the oblique rhom-
boidal prism, (figs. 14, 15.)
6. Hexagonal system. Includes the rhombohedron and
hexagonal prism, (figs. 16, 17, 18.)
CLEAVAGE .

It has already been stated that crystals of calcareous spar

may be chipped off easily in three directions, and by this
means, the fundamental form, a rhombohedron, may be ob-
tained. In all other directions only an irregular fracture
takes place. This property of separating into natural layers,
is called cleavage, and the planes along which it takes place,
cleavagejoints.
Cubes of fluor spar may be cleaved on the angles, with a
slight pressure ofthe knife, and the process continued affords
successively the forms represented in figures 20, 20a, and
finally the completed octahedron, as already explained. A
lead ore, called galena, yields cubes by cleavage. Mica-
often improperly called isinglass-may be torn by the fingers
into elastic leaves more delicate than the thinnest paper.
In many species cleavage is obtained with difficulty, and in
others none can be detected. Quartz is an instance of the
latter; yet it may sometimes be effected with this mineral by
heating it and plunging it while hot into cold water.
The following are the more important laws with respect to
this property :
Cleavage is uniform in all varieties of the same mineral.
It occurs parallel to the faces of a fundamental form or
along the diagonals.
It is always the same in character parallel to similar faces
What is cleavage ? How does it differ in different minerals ? What
are the laws relating to cleavage .
34 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

of a crystal, being obtained with equal ease, and affording

planes of like luster : and conversely, it is dissimilar paral-
lel to dissimilar planes. It is accordingly the same, parallel
to all the faces ofa cube ; but in the square prism, the basal
cleavage differs from the lateral,because the base is unequal
to the lateral planes. Often there is aneasy cleavage par-
allel to the base, and none distinct parallel to the sides, as
in topaz ; and so the reverse may be true.
The thirteen fundamental forms enumerated, are the solids
obtained from the various minerals by cleavage.
Some minerals present peculiar cleavages of a subordinate
character, independent ofthe principal cleavage. Calc spar,
for example, has sometimes a cleavage parallel to the longer
diagonal of its faces. The facts on this subject are of con-
siderable interest,yet not of sufficient importance to be dwelt
on inthisplace.
SECONDARY FORMS.

Ifcrystals always assumed the shape ofthe primary form,

there wouldbe comparatively little ofthat varietyand beauty
which we actually find in the mineral kingdom. Nature
first taught to heighten the brilliancy ofthe gem bycovering
its surface with facets. To the uninstructed eye, these cubes
and prisms with their numberless brilliant surfaces, often
appear as if they had been cut and polished by the lapidary :
yet the skill and finish of the work, most perfect in the
microscopic crystal, has but feeble imitation in art. Not
unfrequently, crystals are found with one or two hundreddis-
tinct planes, and occasionally even a much larger number;
and every edge and angle: has the utmost perfection, and the
surfaces an evenness of polish, that betrays no rude work-
manship, even under the highest magnifying glass. Cavities
are occasionally met with in the rocks, studded on every
side with crystals-a crystal grotto in minature-sparkling
when brought out to the sun like a casket ofjewels. Even
amid the apparent confusion, there is wonderful order of
arrangement in the crystals : the corresponding planes gen-
erally face thesame way, so that the sparkling effect appears
in successive flashes over the surface, as every new set of
facets comes in turn to the light. Add to this view, their
delicate colors-the rich purple of the amethyst, the soft
yellowish shades of the topaz, the deep green of the eme.
Onwhat does the beauty of crystals to a great extent depend ?
 MODIFICATIONS OF CRYSTALS .
35

rald-and it will be admitted that the powers of crystalliz-

ation scarcely yield to vitality in the forms of beauty they
produce.
These results are not more wonderful than the simplicity
of the laws that lead to them.
The various secondary forms proceed from the occurrence
of planes on the angles or edges of the fundamental forms,
which planes are called secondary planes. Figures 20,
21, are secondaries to the cube, and the planes a and e are
secondary planes ; figures 28, 29, 30, are secondaries to
the rhombohedron, and the planes e and a are secondary
planes.* These secondary planes however numerous, con-
form in their positions to a certain law called the law of
symmetry. Previous to stating this law a few explanations
are added.
The cube, it has been remarked, has six equal square faces.
The twelve edges are therefore all equal, and so also the
eight angles. In the square prism the vertical edges differ
in length from the basal, and are therefore not similar. In
the rectangular prism, not only the vertical differ from the
basal, but two of the basal at each extremity differ from the
other two basal. This will be seen at once in the models.
In the right rhombic and rhomboidal, two of the lateral edges
are acute and two obtuse ; these then are not similar to one
another. In the oblique prisms some ofthe basal edges are
acute and some obtuse. After tracing out the similar and
dissimilar angles and edges in the primaries, with the models,
the following laws may be easily applied : Either-
1. All the similar parts of a crystal are similarly and
simultaneously modified ;* or,
Explain the relation of secondary planes to the fundamental form.
What is said of the cube ? of the square prism ? the rectangular prism ?
the right rhombic and rhomboidal ? the oblique prisms ? What is the first
law repecting secondary planes ?
Note. What is meant by replacement, bevelment, and truncation ?
*To avoidcircumlocutions, the following technical terms are employed
in describing the modifications ofcrystals.
Replacement . An edge or angle is replaced, when cut off by one or
more secondary planes, (figs. 20, 21 , 32.)
Truncation. An edge or angle is truncated, when the replacing
plane is equally inclined to the adjacent faces, (figs. 20, 21.)
Bevelment. An edge is beveled, when replaced by two planes, which
are respectively inclined at equal angles to the adjacent faces, (fig. 32.)
Truncation and bevelment can occur only on edges formed by the meet-
ing ofequal planes.
36 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS .

2. Half the similar parts ofa crystal, alternate in position,

are modified independently ofthe other half.
In the cube, octahedron, or dodecahedron, if one edge is
replaced, all the other edges will be replaced, and by the
same planes. Ifthere are two planes on one edge, (fig. 32)
there will be two on every other edge ; and the two on each
will have the same inclinations. If there are three planes
on one angle, (fig. 33) there will, in the same manner, be
three on the other seven angles. Perfect symmetry is thus
preserved, however numerous the added planes. The fol-
lowing figures illustrate this principle, that all the edges, and
all the angles are modified alike.
32 33 34 35

P P

A
P
A P
P P P a
P
A

This symmetry is well seen in the solids which the secon-

dary planes, in the above figures, produce, if enlarged till
he primary planes are obliterated. Thus from figure 32,
comes the form in figure 36,the planes e' being enlarged till
the planes Pare obliterated ; from 33, comes the form in
fig. 37; from 34, the form in 38 ; and from 35, the form in
39. The form in figure 37 has 24 faces, and is called a
trapezohedron. It is common ingarnet and leucite.
36 37 38 39

e
a
a

d
aaa

In figure 35, there are six planes oneach angle,and as there

are eight angles in the cube, the solid represented in figure
39 has forty-eight faces. Both 38 and 39 are forms of the
diamond.
Inconnection with the law above given, it is stated that
half the similar parts may be modified independently of
the other half. The parts thus modified are alternate with
one another and still produce symmetrical solids. Thus the
What second law is mentioned ? Explain the first law ty examples.
 MODIFICATIONS OF CRYSTALS. 37

cube may have only the alternate angles replaced; or only

one of the two beveling planes shown in figure 32 may occur
on each edge ; or three of the six on each angle in figure 35.
The following are examples ; and each figure in the lower
line, represents the completed form, produced by extending
the secondary planes in the figure above, to the obliteration
ofthe primaries, as explained on the preceding pages.
40 41 42 43
P P P
a d

P P P
P P
eP P P

44 45 46 47
e
a

The replacement begun in figure 40, continued to the oblit-

eration of the Ps, produces figure 44, which is a tetrahedron,
or three-sided pyramid. So the planes á in figure 41, give
rise to fig. 45 ; the planes é in 42, to figure 46, which is a
pentagonal dodecahedron, so called because it has twelve
pentagonal (or five-sided) faces. The forms represented in
figures 40 and 41 are common in boracite, and those offigures
42, 43, in iron-pyrites. These forms with halfthe full num-
ber of planes are called hemihedral forms, from the Greek
words for half andface.
The tetrahedron is sometimes placed among the primary
forms ; but it is properly a secondary form, derived from the
cube, in the manner here explained, or from the octahedron
by the extension offour faces to the obliteration of the other
four. (Compare figs. 2 and 44.)
In the right square prism, the basal edges being unequal
to the vertical, (because the prism, unlike the cube, is higher
than broad,) these two kinds of edges are not replaced by
similar planes, and the basal may be modified when the
lateral are not modified, (figs. 48, 49.) The lateral edges
may be truncated, because their including planes are equal ;
Explain the second law. What are the resulting forms called ?
What is said ofthe tetrahedron ?
4
38 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

the terminal cannot be truncated, but are replaced byplanes

unequally 48
inclined to the including
49
planes. The50
solid angles
P
P P

MM MM M M

ofthe square prism are of one kind and are replaced alike, as
in figures 23, 50 ; all the angles in these figures have the
same number ofplanes, and the two adjacent planes in figure
50 are similar intheir inclinations, because the lateral planes
M, M, of a square prism, are equal.
Inthe rectangular and rhombic prisms the lateral axes are
unequal. Consequently in the rectangular prism, two basal
edges differ from the other two, and are therefore modi-
fied independently (figs. 51, 52.) The planes e extended to
the obliteration of T and P, would produce a rhombic prism
(inahorizontal position,)as shown in figure 53, andanother
horizontal prism may be formed by the extension of the
planes ē, fig. 52. In the rhombic prism the basal edges cor-
51 52 53 54
P P
e

M T M
M T M M

55
respond to the angles of the rectangular prism
P
(see fig. 266) and are similar and simultaneously
replaced as in figure 24. The basal angles are
Mee M unlike, one being obtuse and the other acute, and
the planes of the two (fig. 54) differ in their in-
clinations. The lateral edges differ in the same
manner, two being obtuse and two acute, and they are inde-
pendently replaced, as in figure 55. The two planes e are
similar planes, because, in a rhombic prism, M and Mare
equal; andthe extension of theseplanes mayproduce another
rhombicprism.
In an oblique rhombic prism the superior basal edges dif-
Explain these laws from the square prism ; the rectangular and
rhombic.
 MODIFICATIONS OF CRYSTALS , 39

fer from the inferior in front, two being obtuse and two acute ;
consequently, they are independently replaced. Figure 56,
shows the replacement of the obtuse basal. So also the front
angles differ in the same manner, the upper (left side in fig.
57) being independent of the inferior in its modifications.
56 57 58 59
P
P P
e
a P

M M M
M M
M MM

But the four lateral angles are similar (fig. 58.) Two ofthe
lateral edges are obtuse and two acute, as in the right rhom-
bic prism, and their secondary planes are therefore unlike
(fig. 59.)
60 61
P
In the oblique rhomboidal prism,
only two diagonally opposite edges P

T
or angles are similar,and the modi- 4

M fications of one edge are therefore мут

independent of those of all the other
edges, except the one diagonally
opposite : the same is true of the
angles. The difference between this prism and the oblique
rhombic will thus be seen on comparing figures 56 and 60,
and also figures 58 and 61 :
In the rhombohedron, the distinction ofvertical and lateral
solid angles has already been explained, and also the differ-
ence between the terminal and lateral edges. The figures
given will show how these distinctions are carried out in the
62 63 64 65

R
R R B R R R

B R R
R

modifications. In figure 62, the terminal solid angles are

replaced, but none of the lateral. In figures 64, 65 and 29,
the lateral angles are replaced, but not the terminal. Figure
63, has the terminal edges replaced, and figures 68 and 28.
the lateral edges.
Explain the laws with regard to secondary planes from the oblique
rhombic prism ; oblique rhomboidal ; the rhombohedron.
40 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS .

When the planes a' in figure 64 are a little more extended,

the form is changedto figure65, or adouble six-sided pyramid.
It is in this way that the pyramidal form ofcrystals of quartz
is produced from the primary rhombohedron. In figure 66,
66 67 68 69

B B
R R

B R

a', as is seen, is adifferent plane from a" in figure 64. By

enlarging the planes a', till the planes R are obliterated,
figure 67 is obtained, an acute rhombohedron. This may
appear a singular result : but it will be understood on con-
sidering that there are six lateral angles ; and three of the
planes a' incline upward, and three, alternate, incline down-
ward ; theymust therefore produce anoblong solid, bounded
bysix equalfaces, which is nothing elsethanarhombohedron.
In figure 68, the lateral edges arebeveled by the planes e
'.
The planes e' enlarged to the obliteration of the faces
R, lead to the form in figure 69-a twelve-sided figure, or
dodecahedron, and called from the shape of its faces, a
scalene dodecahedron. It is the form of dog-tooth spar, a
variety of calcareous spar. In figures 28, 29, the planes e
anda are each parallel to the vertical axis, and they con-
sequently produce prisms when extended, as explained on
pages 31, 32.
In figure 3, under Tourmaline, we have an instance of a
hemihedral modification in the hexagonal system. The ex-
tremities of the prism, as will be observed, have different
secondaryplanes, there being in addition to the three faces
R, three small triangular planes above, and three narrow
linear planes below. Topaz crystals are also differently
modified at the extremities, and are examples of hemihedral
modifications in a right rhombic prism.
Another law gives still greater interest to the study of
crystallography: but it can only be briefly alluded to in this
place. When speaking of the right square prism it was
Mention some instances of hemihedral modifications, and explain.
 MODIFICATIONS OF CRYSTALS. 41

stated that the basal edges were never truncated, but, when
modified, were replaced by planes unequally inclined to the
basal and lateral faces of the primary. These secondary
planes do not however occur at random, at any possible in-
clination; but there is a direct relation, in all instances, to
the comparative height and breadth of the fundamental form
of the mineral. The same is true of planes on the angles,
and in secondaries to all the fundamental forms.
Take a cube and cut off evenly one of the edges : this
removes parts of two other edges, at each end of the plane.
It is found that in cubic crystals these parts are either equal
to one another, or one is double of the other, or treble ; or
in some other simple ratio. The same is true in the other
fundamental forms, except that, as stated, the relative height
and breadth of the prism come into account, and influence
the result.
70 71
For example : in figure 70,
(asection of a cube,) PM and P NP C N

PN are equal edges, divided

a
into equal parts ; now a plane
on an edge of a cube, as a b, a
removes, as is seen, equal parts
of PM and PN ; another, as w M
a c, removes twice as many parts of one
edge as of the other ; and so other planes have like simple
ratios. In figure 71, a section of a prism, the lines PM and
PN (height and breadth of the prism) are unequal : let them
be divided into a like number of parts ; then a plane on an
edge, as a b, will cut off as many parts of P Mas of PN ;
others, as a c, bd, twice as many parts of one as the other :
and so on. a b truncates the edge in figure 70; but not so
in figure 71. It is evident to the mathematical scholar that
the inclination of a plane a b to PN or PM, is sufficient to
determine the relative dimensions of Pa and Pb, or the rela-
tive height and breadth ofthe fundamental form.
These principles give a mathematical basis to the
science.
Thus we perceive that the attraction which guides each
particle to its place in crystallization, produces forms of
hathematical exactness. It covers the crystal with scores
of facets of finished brilliancy and perfection ; and these
What other law is there, respecting the occurrence of secondary
planes? Explain by the figures.
4
*
42 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

facets are not only uniform in number on similar parts of a

crystal, but are even fixed in every angle and every edge.*
COMPOUND CRYSTALS.

In the preceding pages, we have been considering simple

crystals, and their secondary forms. The same forms are
occasionally compounded so as to make what have been
called twin or compound crystals. They will be understood
72 73 74 75

A
MM A

*
at once from the annexed figures. Figure 72 represents a
crystal of snow ofnot unfrequent occurrence. It consists, as
AA

What is a twin or compound crystal ?

*On a preceding page,ithas been explained that in monometric cys-
talsthe axes are equal ; in dimetricand hexagonal crystals the lateral
axes are equal, and the vertical is of a different length, shorter or longer.
In the other systems, the trimetric and the two oblique systems, the
three axes are allunequal. In the above paragraphs it has been shown
that the relative lengths of the axes in afundamental form of a crystal
are fixed, and may be determined by simple calculations. These fixed
relative dimensions are supposed to be the relative dimensions of the
particles or molecules constituting crystals; that is if the fundamental
form of a crystal is twice as long as broad,the same is true of its mole-
cules. The molecules of a cube must therefore be equal in different
directions; those of a square prism must be longer or shorter than
broad,butequal in breadth and thicknesss ; those ofa rectangular prism
1 2 2a 3 must be unequal in three
directions; and the relative
inequality is determinable as

080 just stated. The simplest and

most probable view of the
forms ofmolecules isthat they
are spheres for monometric
solids; and ellipsoids of different axes for the other forms. Figure 1
represents a sphere.
Figure 2 represents an ellipsoid with the lateral axes equal, as seen
in the cross section 2a; it isthe form in the dimetric and hexagonal
systems.
Figure 3 represents an ellipsoid with the lateral axesunequal (fig. 3a),
as inthetrimetric and oblique systems ; avariation in the length ofthe
axes will vary the dimensions, according to any particular case.
 COMPOUND CRYSTALS. 43

is evident to the eye, either of six crystals meeting in a point,

or of three crystals crossing one another. Besides, there
are numerous minute crystals regularly arranged along the
rays. Figure 73 represents a cross (cruciform) crystal of
staurotide, which is similarly compound, but made up of
fewer crystals. Figure 74, is a compoundcrystal ofgypsum,
and figure 75, one ofspinel. These will be understood from
the following figures.
76 77
Figure 76 is a simple crystal ofgyp-
sum; if it be bisected along a b, and a

the right half be inverted and applied A

A
to the other, it will form figure 74, A
which is therefore a twin crystal, in
which one half has a reverse position A
from the other. Figure77, is asimple
octahedron ; if it be bisected through
the dotted line, and the upper half, after being revolved half
way around, be then united to the lower, it produces figure
75. Both ofthese therefore are similar twins, in which one
of the two component parts is reversed in position.* Com-
poundcrystals are generally distinguished by their reëntering
angles.
Besides the above,there are also geniculated crystals, as
78
inthe annexed figure. The bendinghas here
takenplace at equal distances from the center
of the crystal ; and it must therefore have
been subsequent in time to the commence-
ment of the crystal. The prism began from
asimplemolecule : but after attainingacertain
length,anabrupt change ofdirection took place. The angle
of geniculation is constant in the same mineral species ; for
the same reason that the angles of secondary planes are
fixed; and it is such that across section directly through the
geniculation is parallel to the position of acommon secon-
daryplane. Inthe figure given,the plane ofgeniculation is
parallel to one ofthe terminal edges.
Mention illustrations. Explain their structure in the case of gypsum
and spinel. What is said of geniculated crystals ?
*Such crystals have proceeded from a compound nucleus in which one
of the two particles was reversed. Compound crystals of the kind
above described, thus differ from simple crystals in having been formed
from anucleusof two ormore united molecules, instead offrom a simple
nucleus.
44 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

DIMORPHISM.-POLYMORPHISM.

It was formerly supposed that the same chemical com

pound could have but a single mode of crystallization. But
later researches have discovered that there are many in-
stances of substances crystallizing according to two distinct
systems. Thus sulphur at different times crystallizes in ob-
liqueprisms and right rhombic octahedrons, or according to
the two systems monoclinate and trimetric. Carbonate of
lime at one time takes on the rhombohedral form, and is
then called calc spar; at another, that of a rhombic prism,
and it is then termed arragonite. Again, sulphuret of iron
presents us both with cubical (monometric) crystals and
rhombicprisms (trimetric.) As far as investigationhasgone,
it has appeared that one of these forms is assumed at a lower
temperature than the other; and this takes place uniformly,
so that the temperature attending solidification, in certain
cases at least, determines the forms and system of crystal-
lization. How far other causes operate is unknown.
This property is termed dimorphism, (from the Greek dis,
two or twice, and morphe, form,) and a substance presenting
two systems of crystallization is said to be dimorphous. In
addition to the above, garnet and idocrase, the one dodeca-
hedral, and the other square-prismatic, are different forms
ofthe same substance. Rutile, which is dimetric, anatase,
dimetricalso, but ofdifferent dimensions, and Brookite, which
is trimetric, are three distinct forms of the same substance,
oxyd of titanium. In this last case, the property has been
called trimorphism, (from the Greek tris, three times, and
morphe, form.) As the number of forms may be still greater,
the more general term polymorphism (polus, many, and
morphe) has been introduced to include all cases, whatever
the number of forms assumed.
Apolymorphous substance in its different states presents
not merely difference ofform. There is also a difference in
hardness, specific gravity and luster, in fact, in nearly all
physical qualities. Arragonite has the specific gravity 2.93,
and calc spar only 2.7 ; the hardness of arragonite is 34,
and that of calc spar but 3.
May the same substance crystallize under more than one fundamen-
tal form ? Mention examples. What is this property called ? What
is said of oxyd of Titanium ? What is trimorphism ? polymorphism ?
What other differences beside that of form are connected with poly-
morphism ?
 IRREGULARITIES OF CRYSTALS. 45

The forms of adimorphous substance differ in stability.

Arragonite when heated gently falls to powder, arising from
achange in the condition of its particles. Arragonite has
been obtained by evaporating a solution of lime over a water
bath, and calc spar when the same was evaporated at the ordi-
nary temperature. When a right rhombic prism ofsulphate
of zinc (which is dimorphous) is heated to 126° F. certain
points in its surface become opaque, and from these points,
bunches of crystals shoot forth in the interior of the speci-
men ; and in a short time the whole is converted into an
aggregate of these crystals, diverging from several centers on
the surface of the original crystal. These small crystals
are oblique rhombic prisms ; and the same form may be ob-
tained by evaporating asolution at this temperature or above
it. Many other similar cases might be cited,but these serve
to explain the principle in view.

IRREGULARITIES OF CRYSTALS.

Before concluding this subject, a few remarks may be

addedonthe irregularities ofcrystals.
Crystals ofthe same form vary much inlength, and in the
size of corresponding faces. The same mineral may occur
in very short prisms, or in long and slender prisms : and
some planes may be so enlarged as to obliterate others ;
a few figures of quartz crystals will illustrate these pecu-
liarities.
79 80 81 82 83

R B

a 4

R
"

Figure 79 is the regular form of the crystal. Figure 80 is

the same form with some faces very much enlarged, and
others very small. Figure 81 is a very short prism and
pyramid of quartz, such as is often seen attached to the
surface of rocks; and figure 82 is a similar form very much
elongated. Notwithstanding all these variations, every angle
What are some ofthe irregularities ofcrystals?
46 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

of inclination remains the same: and this is ageneral fact

inall crystals, that whatever distortions take place, the angles
are constant. Greater diversity is given to the shapes of
crystals by these simple variations, without multiplying the
number ofdistinct forms. Figure 83 is a tapering prism of
the same mineral, with aminute pyramid at the apex. The
faces of this pyramid have exactly the same inclinations as
those offigure 79.
The constancy of the angles shows that the fundamental
form of the crystal, or, in other words, the form of its mole-
cules, is constant, amid all these variations of size and shape.
Crystals have sometimes curved faces. The faces of
diamonds are usually convex, and some crystals are almost
84
spheres. Figure 84 is one of these diamond
crystals. It is the same form as is represented
in figure 45. For cutting glass, they always
select those crystals that have a natural curved
edge, as others are much inferior for the purpose
and sooner wear out. In figure 85 a different
kind of curvature is represented. It is acurved rhombohe-
85 dron, inwhich the opposite faces are parallel in
their curving : it isacommon form ofspathic iron
pand pearl spar. The latter mineral from Lock-
port, New York, is always curved in this way.
Still more singular curvatures are sometimes
met with. In the mammoth cave ofKentucky,
86 leaves, vines and flowers are beautifully imita-
ted in alabaster. Some of the " rosettes" are
afoot indiameter, and consist ofcurvingleaves,
clustered ingraceful shapes. The frostings on
our windows inwinter are often miniature pic-
tures of forests and vines with rolled tendrils.
It is one among the many singular results of
crystallization. On the cool mornings of spring
for autumn, inthis climate, twigs of plants are
Poccasionally found encircled by fibrous icy
curls, (fig. 86,) whichare attached vertically to
the stem. They are formed during the night,
anddisappear soon after the appearance ofthe
sun.

What is said ofcurved crystals ? What ofcurved crystallizations of

gypsum? ofice ?
 MEASUREMENT OF CRYSTALS. 47

ON MEASURING ANGLES OF CRYSTALS .

As the angles of crystals are constant, minerals, as has

beenstated, may often be distinguished by measuring these
is done by means of instruments called goni-
angles. This is
ometers, a term meaning, literally, angle-measurers.* These
are of two kinds ; one is called the common goniometer, the
other the reflecting goniometer.
The common goniometer depends on the 87
very simple principle that when two straight A D
lines cross one another, as AE, CD in the
annexed figure 87, the parts will diverge 0

equally on opposite sides of the pointofin- B

tersection (O) ; that is, in mathematical language, the angle

AOD is equal to the angle COE, and AOC is equaltoDOE.
The instrument in common use is here represented.
88

130 120 110 100 90 80

d
70 60
f
5
0
150
140
160
180
170

40

711
30
20
10

12

Itconsists oftwo arms, ab, cd,movingonapivot ato : the arms

open and shut, and their divergence, or the angle they inake
with one another, is read off on the graduated arc attached.
In using it, press up between them, the edge ofthe crystal
whose angle is to be measured, and continue openingthe arms
thus till the inner edges lie evenlyagainst the faces that include
How are the angles of crystals measured? Explain the principle of
the common goniometer from the figure. Explain the common goni-
ometer and its use.

* From the Greek gonu, angle, and metron, measure.

48 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

the required angle. To insure accuracyin this respect, hold

the instrument and crystal between the eye and the light,
and observe that no light passes between the arm andthe
applied faces ofthe crystal. The arms may then be secured
in position by tightening the screw at o; the angle will then
bemeasured by the distance on the arc from k to the left
or outer edge of the arm cd, this edge being in the line of
o, the center of motion. As the instrument stands in the
figure, it reads 45°. The arms have slits at gh, n p, by
which they may be shortened so as to make them more con-
venient for measuring small crystals.
In some instruments of this kind the arc is detached from
the arms. When this is the case, after the measurement is
made and the screw at o tightened, the arc (which has the
shape ofa fb in the annexed figure, except that from a to b
is a solid bar) is adjusted to the upper edge of one of the
arms, bringing the markato,the center,exactly tothecenterof
divergence ofthe arms. The angle is thenreadoffas before.
With a little ingenuity the student mayconstruct agoni-
ometer for himselfthat will answer agood purpose. Asemi-
circle may be described on mica or a glazed card, of the
shape in figure 88 : it should then be divided into halves at
f, and again each half subdivided into nine equal parts.
Each of these parts measures 10 degrees; and if they are
nextdivided intotenequal parts, each ofthese small divisions
will be degrees. The semi-circle may then be cut out, and
isreadyforuse. The arms might also be made ofstiff card
fortemporary use; but mica, bone or metal is better. The
arms should have the edges straight and accurately parallel,
and be pivoted together. The instrument may be used like
that lastdescribed, and will give approximate results, suffi-
ciently near for distinguishing most minerals. The ivory
rule accompanyingboxes ofmathematical instruments,having
upon it a scale of sines for measuring angles, will answer
89
an excellent purpose, and is as con-
venient as the arc. The annexed 150

figure will illustrate the mode of 400

120
using it. The scale is graduated
along the margin, the middle point
marking 90°, and the divisions
either side 10 degrees (as in the figure) and also single de-
How is it used whenthe arms are detached? How maya temporary
goniometerbemade ? How may a scale ofsinesbe used?
 MEASUREMENT OF CRYSTALS . 49

grees. The arms are so applied to the scale,that the center

of motion is exactly at the extremity of the middle line,
marked 90 ; and the leg crossing the scale (or that edge of it
in the line of the center of motion) will then indicate by its
position over the graduated margin, the angle desired. *
Inmaking suchmeasurements it is important to remember
that-
1. An angle AOD (figure 87) and AOC, together,
equal 180° ; so that if AOC he measured, A OD is ascer-
tainedby subtracting AOC from 180°.
b
2. In a rhomb or rhomboid, ba band a ba, to-
gether, equal 180°; and one may be ascertained
by subtracting the other from 180°. If an obtuse
angle ofarhombic prism has been measured and
found to be 110°, and the acute angle on measurement is as-
certained to be 60°, the student should add the two together
to find whether the sum is 180° ; for if not, there is some
error in the measurement, and it should be repeated. 110°
added to 60° makes 170°, showing in this case an error
of 10°.
3. In any polygon, the sum of the angles is equal to twice
as many right angles as there are sides less two. Let the
number of sides, for example, be 6 : 6 less two is 4; and
the angles together equal twice 4, (or 8,) right angles, which
is equivalent to 8 × 90° =720°. If we have a prism of six
sides, and wish to ascertain the angles between these sides,
the angles should be measured successively, and the whole
added together to ascertain whether the measurements are
correct. Ifthe sum is 720°, there is good reason to confide
in them. Crystals are at times a little irregular ; and this
should be looked to, as part of the apparent error may at
times be thus accounted for. This general principle and the

What three points must be observed in making measurements ?

*Another mode for approximate results consists in holding the crys-

tal with the two faces (whose inclination is to be measured) in an
exactlyvertical position over a piece of paper: then place a small rule
parallel, as near as the eye canjudge, to one face, and drawa line ; next
dothe same for the other face. The angle between the two lines,
measured either by an arc or the ivory rule just mentioned, is the
desired inclination. With practice, much skill inay be acquired in
such trials. They may be made with microscopic crystals under a
microscope.
5
50 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

preceding, which is only a simpler case of the same, are of

great importance inthe measurements ofcrystals.
Reflecting Goniometer. The reflectinggoniometer affords
amore accurate method of measuring crystals that have
luster, and may be used with those of minute size: The
principle on which this instrument is constructed will be un-
derstood from the annexed figure (fig. 90) representing a
90
crystal, whose angle abcis required.
d
The eye, looking at the face of the
M
crystal b c, observes a reflected image
0
ofm, in thedirectionPn. On revolving,
the crystal till a b has the position of
n
bc, the same image will be seen again in
the same direction P n. As the crystal
is turned, in this revolution, till a b d has the present position
of bc, the angle dbc measures the number of degrees
through which it is revolved. But dbc, subtracted from
180°, equals the angle of the crystal a bc. The crystal is
therefore passed in its revolution through a number of de-
grees, which, subtracted from 180°, give the required angle.
This angle, in the reflecting goniometer of Wollaston, is
measured byattachingthe crystal to a graduated circle which
revolves with it, as91here represented (fig. 91.)
AB is the graduated cir-
cle. The wheel, m, is at-
tached to the main axis, and
moves the graduated circle
77 together with the adjusted
n
crystal. The wheel, n, is
connected with an axis
which passes through the
main axis, (which is hollow
for the purpose,) and moves
merely the parts to which
the crystal is attached, in
B

order to assist in its adjust-

ment. The contrivances for
the adjustment of the crystal
are at p, q, r, S. To use the instrument, itmustbe placed on
a small stand or a table, and so elevated as to allow the ob-
server to rest his elbows on the table. The whole, thus
Explain the principle ofthe reflecting goniometer. Explain the mode
ofusingthe instrument.
 MEASUREMENT OF CRYSTALS. 51

firmly arranged, is to be placed in front ofa window, distant

from the same from six to twelve feet, and with the axis of
the instrument parallel to it. Preparatory to operation, a
dark line must be drawn below the window near the floor,
parallel to the bars of the window; or, what is better, on a
slate or board placed before the observer on the table.
The crystal is attached to the movable plate, q, by a piece
ofwax, and so arranged that the edge of intersection of the
two planes forming the required angle, shall be in a line with
the axis of the instrument. This is done by varying its
situation on the plate, q, or the situation ofthe plate itself, or
by means ofthe adjacent joints and wheel, r, s, p, as will be
readily understood from the instrument.
When apparently adjusted, the eye must be brought close
to the crystal, nearly in contact with it, and on looking into
a face, part ofthe window will be seen reflected, one bar of
which must be selected for the trial. If the crystal is cor-
rectly adjusted, the selected bar will appear horizontal, and
on turning the wheel, n, tillthis bar, as reflected, is observed
to approach the dark line below, seen in a direct view, it will
be found to be parallel to this dark line, and ultimately to
coincide with it. If there is not a perfect coincidence, the
adjustment must be altered until this coincidence is obtained.
Continue then the revolution of the wheel, n, till the same
bar is seen by reflection in the next face, and if here there
is also a coincidence of the reflected bar with the dark line
seen direct, the adjustment is complete ; if not, alterations
must be made, andthe first face again tried. A few succes-
sive trials of the faces, will enable one to obtain a perfect
adjustment.
The circle A B is usually graduated to half degrees, and
by means of the vernier, v, minutes are measured. After
adjustment, 180° on the arc must be brought opposite 0, on
the vernier. The coincidence of the bar and dark line is
then to be obtained, by turning the wheel, n. When ob-
tained, the wheel, m, should be turned until the same coinci-
dence is observed, by means of the next face of the crystal.
Ifa line on the graduated circle now corresponds with 0 on
the vernier, the angle is immediately determined by the
number ofdegrees opposite this line. If no line corresponds
with 0, we must observe which line on the vernier coincides
with one on the circle. If it is the 18th on the vernier, and
the line on the circle next below 0 on the vernier marks 125°,
52 STRUCTURE OF MINERALS.

the required angle is 121° 18' ; if this line marks 125° 30′,
the required angle is 125° 48'.
Some goniometers are furnished with a small polished re-
flector, attached to the foot of the instrument below the part
s, q, which is placed at an oblique angle so as to reflect a bar
ofthe window. The reflected bar then answers the purpose
of the line drawn below the window, (or on a slate,) and is
more conveniently used.
Other modes of adjustment for the crystal, are also used ;
but they will explain themselves to the student acquainted
with the above explanations, and need not here be dwelt
upon.

MASSIVE MINERALS, OR IMPERFECT CRYSTALLIZATIONS.

Massive or imperfectly crystallized minerals either consist
of fibers or minute columns, of leaves or lamine, or ofgrains :
in the first, the structure is said to be columnar ; in the
second, lamellar ; in the third, granular. We have a familiar
example of the lamellar structure in slate rocks and many
minerals that occur in masses made up ofseparable laminæ.
The fibrous or columnar structure is common in seams of
rocks, and sometimes in incrustations covering exposed sur-
faces ; the material of the seam or crust is made up of mi-
nute fibers or prisms closely compacted together, produced
by a rapid crystallization on the supporting surface. The
granular structure is well seen in loaf sugar and statuary
marble.
1. COLUMNAR STRUCTURE. The following are explana-
tions of the terms used in describing the different kinds of
columnar structure.
Fibrous ; when the columns are minute and lie in the
same direction ; as gypsum and asbestus. Fibrous minerals
very commonly have a silky luster : a fibrous variety of
gypsum, and one ofcalc spar, have this luster very strongly,
and each is often called satin spar.
Reticulated ; when the fibers, or columns, cross in various
directions, and produce an appearance having some resem-
blance to a net.
Stellated ; when they radiate from a center in all direc-
tions, and produce a star-like appearance. Ex. stilbite,
gypsum.
What kinds ofstructure exist in massive minerals ? Explain the dif-
ferent varieties of columnar structure, fibrous ; reticulated, &c.
 IMPERFECT CRYSTALLIZATIONS . 53

Radiated, divergent ; when the crystals radiate from a

center, without producing stellar forms. Ex. quartz, gray
antimony.
2. LAMELLAR STRUCTURE . In the lamellar structure, the
laminæ or leaves may be thick, or very thin ; they some-
times separate easily, and sometimes with great difficulty.
When the laminæ are thin and separate easily, the struc-
ture is said to be foliaceous. Mica is a striking example,
and the term micaceous is often used to describe this
structure.
When the laminæ are thick, the term tabular is often ap-
plied ; quartz and heavy spar afford examples.
The laminæ may be elastic, as in mica,flexible, as in talc
or graphite, or brittle, as in diallage.
Small laminæ are sometimes arranged in stellar shapes ;
this occurs in mica.
3. GRANULAR STRUCTURE. When the grains in the
texture of a mineral are coarse, it is said tobe coarsely gran-
ular, as in granular marble ; when fine,finely granular, as
in granular quartz ; and if no grains can be detected with
the eye, the structure is described as impalpable, as in
chalcedony.
Granular minerals, when easily crumbled by the fingers,
are said to be friable.
IMITATIVE SHAPES.-Massive minerals also take certain
imitative shapes, not peculiar to either of theso varieties of
structure. The following terms are used in describing imi-
tative forms :
Globular ; when the shape is spherical or nearly so : the
structure may be columnar and radiating, or it may be con-
centric, consisting of coats like an onion. When they are
attached, they are called implanted globules.
Reniform ; kidney-shaped. In structure, they are like
globular shapes.
Botryoidal ; when a surface consists of a group of rounded
prominences. The prominences or globules usually consist
of fibers radiating from the center.
Mammillary ; resembling the botryoidal,but consisting of
larger prominences.
Filiform ; like a thread.
Acicular ; slender like a needle .
Explain the varieties oflamellar structure ; ofgranular structure ; the
several imitative shapes, globular ; reniform, &c.
5*
b4 S'TRUCTURE OF MINERALS .

Stalactitic ; having the form ofa cylinder, or cone, hang.

ing from the roofs of cavities or caves. The term stalactite
is usually restricted to the cylinders of carbonate of lime
hanging from the roofs of caverns : but other minerals are
said to have a stalactitic form when resembling these in their
general shape and origin. Chalcedony and brown iron ore
are often stalactitic.
Reticulated ; net-like.
Drusy; a surface is said to be drusy when covered with
minute crystals.
Amorphous ; having no regular structure or form, either
crystalline or imitative. The word is from the Greek, and
means without shape.

PSEUDOMORPHOUS CRYSTALS .

A pseudomorphous* crystal is one thathas aform which is

foreign to the species to which the substance belongs.
Crystals sometimes undergo a change of composition from
aqueous or some other agency, without losing their form ;
for example, octahedrons of spinel change to steatite, still
retaining the octahedral form. Cubes ofpyrites are changed
to red or brown iron ore .
Again : crystals are sometimes removed entirely, and at the
same time and with equal progress, another mineral is sub-
stituted ; for example, when cubes of fluor spar are trans-
formed to quartz. The petrifaction of wood is of the same
kind.
Again : cavities left empty by a decomposed crystal, are
refilled by another species by infiltration, and the new
mineral takes on the external form of the original mineral,
as a fused metal the form of the mould into which it is cast.
Again : crystals are sometimes incrusted over by other
minerals, as cubes of fluor by quartz ; and when the fluor is
afterwards dissolved away, as sometimes happens, hollow
cubes of quartz are left.
The first kind of pseudomorphs, are pseudomorphs by al-
teration ; the second, pseudomorphs by replacement ; the
What is a pseudomorphous crystal ? What is the first, the second,
the third and the fourth mode of pseudomorphism ? What are they
called?

• From the Greek pseudes, false, and morphe, form.

 LUSTER OF MINERALS . 55

third, pseudomorphs by infiltration ; the fourth, pseudomorphs

by incrustation.*
Pseudomorphous crystals are distinguished by having a
different structure and cleavage from that of the mineral
imitated in form, and a different hardness, and usually little
luster.
Alarge number of minerals have been met with as pseu-
domorphs. The causes ofsuch changes have operated very
widely and produced important geological results.
CHAPTER III.-PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
MINERALS.

CHARACTERS DEPENDING ON LIGHт.

The characters depending on light are offive kinds, and

arise from the power of minerals to reflect, transmit, or emit
light. They are as follows :
1. Luster ; 2. Color ; 3. Diaphaneity ; 4. Refraction ;
5. Phosphorescence.
LUSTER.

90. The luster ofminerals depends on the nature of their

surfaces, which causes more or less light to be reflected.
There are different degrees of intensity of luster, and also
different kinds of luster.
a. The kinds of luster are six, and are named from some
familiar object or class of objects.
1. Metallic : the usual luster of metals. Imperfect me-
tallic luster is expressed by the term sub-metallic.
2. Vitreous : the luster of broken glass. An imperfect
vitreous luster is termed sub-vitreous . Both the vitreous and
sub -vitreous lusters are common. Quartz possesses the
former in an eminent degree ; calcareous spar often the lat-
ter. This luster may be exhibited by minerals of any color.
3. Resinous : luster ofthe yellow resins. Ex. opal, zinc
blende.
4. Pearly : like pearl. Ex. talc, native magnesia, stil-
bite, &c. When united with sub-metallic luster, the term
metallic-pearly is applied.
How are pseudomorphous crystals distinguished ? What characters
depend onlight? Explain the varieties of luster, metallic, vitreous, &c.
*This subject is farther treated of by the author in the Amer. Jour.
of Science, vol. xlviii, pp. 66, 81, 397.
56 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS.

5. Silky : like silk ; it is the result of a fibrous structure.

Ex. fibrous carbonate of lime, fibrous gypsum, and many
fibrous minerals, more especially those which in other forms
have a pearly luster.
6. Adamantine : the luster of the diamond. When sub-
metallic, it is termed metallic-adamantine. Ex. some varie-
ties of white lead ore .
b. The degrees of intensity are denominated as follows :
1. Splendent : when the surface reflects light with great
brilliancy, and gives well defined images. Ex. Elba iron
ore, tin ore, some specimens ofquartz and pyrites.
2. Shining : when an image is produced, but not a well
defined image. Ex. calcareous spar, celestine.
3. Glistening : when there is a general reflection from
the surface, but no image. Ex. talc, copper pyrites.
4. Glimmering : when the reflection is very imperfect,
and apparently from points scattered over the surface. Ex.
flint, chalcedony.
A mineral is said to be dull when there is atotal absence
of luster. Ex. chalk.
COLOR.

Indistinguishing minerals, both the external color and the

color of a surface that has been rubbed or scratched, are
observed. The latter is called the streak, and the powder
abraded, the streak-powder.
The colors are either metallic or non-metallic .
The metallic are named after some familiar metal, as
copper-red, bronze-yellow, brass-yellow, gold-yellow, steel-
gray, lead-gray, iron-gray.
The non-metallic colors used in characterizing minerals,
are various shades of white,gray, black, blue, green, yellow,
red and brown .
There are thus snow-white, reddish-white, greenish-white,
milk-white, yellowish-white ;
Bluish-gray, smoke-gray, greenish-gray, pearl-gray, ash-
gray ;
Velvet-black, greenish-black, bluish-black ;
Azure-blue, violet-blue, sky-blue, Indigo-blue ;
Emerald-green, olive-green, oil-green, grass-green, apple-
green, blackish-green, pistachio-green (yellowish) ;
What is observed respecting color ?
 COLOR OF MINERALS . 57

Sulphur-yellow, straw-yellow, wax-yellow, ochre-yellow,

honey-yellow, orange-yellow ;
Scarlet-red, blood-red, flesh-red, brick-red, hyacinth-red,
rose-red, cherry-red ;
Hair-brown, reddish-brown, chesnut-brown, yellowish-
brown, pinchbeck-brown, wood-brown.

Aplay of colors : this expression is used when several

prismatic colors appear in rapid succession on turning the
mineral. The diamond is a striking example ; also precious
opal.
Change of colors : when the colors change slowly on turn-
ing indifferent positions, as in labradorite.
Opalescence : when there is a milky or pearly reflection
from the interior of a specimen, as in some opals, and in
cat's eye.
Iridescence : when prismatic colors are seen within a
crystal; it is the effect of fracture, and is common in
quartz.
Tarnish : when the surface colors differ from the interior ;
it is the result of exposure. The tarnish is described as
irised, when it has the hues of the rainbow.
Polychroism :* the property, belonging to some prismatic
crystals, ofpresenting a different color in different directions
The term dichroismt has been generally used, and implies
different colors in two directions, as in the mineral iolite,
which has been named dichroite because of the different
Colors presented by the bases and sides of the prism. Mica
is another example ofthe same. The more general termhas
been introduced, because a different shade of color has been
observed in more than two directions.
These different colors are observed only in crystals with
unequal axes. The colors are the same in the direction of
equal axes, and often unlike in the direction of unequal axes.
This is the general principle at the basis ofpolychroism.

What is a play of colors ? change of colors ? opalescence ? irides-

cence ? tarnish ? dichroism and polychroism ? Mention examples of
this last property ; also the law relating to it.

* From the Greek polus, many, and chroa, color.

From the Greek dis, twice, and chroa.
58 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS.

DIAPHAΝΕΙΤΥ .

Diaphaneity is the property which many objects possess

of transmitting light ; or in other words, of permitting more
orless light to pass through them. This property is often
called transparency, but transparency is properly one of the
degrees of diaphaneity. The following terms are used to
express thedifferentdegrees ofthis property :
Transparent : a mineral is said to be transparent when
the outlines ofobjects, viewed through it, are distinct. Ex.
glass, crystals of quartz.
Subtransparent, or semitransparent: whenobjects are seen
but their outlines are indistinct.
Translucent : whenlight is transmitted, but objects are not
seen. Loafsugar is a good example ; also Carrara marble.
Subtranslucent : when merely the edges transmit light
faintly. When no light is transmitted, the mineral is de-
scribedas opaque.
REFRACTION AND POLARIZATION .

Light is always bent out ofits course onpassing from one

medium into another of different density : as from air into
water, orfrom water into air. This bending of the rays of
light is called
92
refraction. Thus if a ray of light, as RS,
-

pass into water atS, it becomes changed

a
in direction to S U, instead of going
R
straight in its course, RST. The line
S a Sc is a perpendicular to the surface of
the water, and the greater refraction of
the water is seen by the bending of the
ray toward this perpendicular. If a
X circle be described about S as a center,
and the lines Ra and U b be drawnperpendicular to a c, or
parallel to the surface of the water, we see by these lines
the exact relation between the amount of refraction in these
twocases ; for the refraction in water is as much greater than
in air as Ub is less than R a.* This relation is called the

What is diaphaneity ? Explain the terms transparent, &c. What

ismeantby refraction ? Explain from the figure.
*Inmathematical language, Ub is the sine of the angle of refrac-
tion, and a R the sine of the angle a SR, the angle of incidence ; the
ratiobetweenthe two sines is constant, it being alike for every angle of
incidence.
 REFRACTION AND POLARIZATION OF LIGHT. 59

index of refraction. It is about 14 for water, or more accu-

rately, 1.335. With diamond, the ray would be bent in the
direct S V, which indicates a much greater amount of re-
fraction; its index is nearly 24, or correctly, 2.439. The
eye at R, looking into a diamond in the direction R S, would
see anobject in the direction ofS V, and not in that of S T.
The index of refraction has been obtained for many sub-
stances, of which the following are a few :
Air, 1.000 Calc spar, 1.654
Tabasheer, 1.211 Spinel, 1-764
Ice, 1.308 Sapphire, 1-794
Cryolite, 1.349 Garnet, 1-815
Water, 1-335 Zircon, 1.961
Fluor spar, 1-434 Blende, 2.260
Rock salt, 1-557 Diamond, 2.439
Quartz, 1.548 Chromate of lead, 2.974
DOUBLE REFRACTION. Many crystals possess the pro-
perty of refracting light in two directions, instead of one, and
objects seen through them consequently appear double.
This is called double refraction. It is most conveniently
exhibited with a crystal of calc spar, and was first noticed
in a pellucid variety of this mineral from Iceland, called from
the locality Iceland spar. On drawing a line on paper and
placing the crystal over it, two lines are seen instead of one-
one by ordinary refraction, the other by an extraordinary
refraction. If the crystal, as it lies over the line, be turned
around, when it is in one position the two lines will come
together. Instead of a line, make a dot on the paper, and
place the crystal over the dot : the two dots seen will not
come together on revolving the crystal, but will seem to re-
volve one around the other. The dot will, in fact, appear
double through the crystal in every direction except that of
the vertical axis, and this direction is calledthe axis ofdouble
refraction. To view it in this direction, the ends must be
ground and polished. The divergence increases on passing
from a viewinthe direction of the axis to one at right angles
with it, where it is greatest. In some substances, the re-
fraction of the extraordinary ray is greater in the latter
direction than that of the ordinary ray, and in others it is less.
What is double refraction ? What takes place on revolving a trans-
parent rhomb ofcalc spar over a line or dot ? In what direction is there
no double refraction, and in which is it greatest ?
60 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS.

In calc spar it is less, it diminishing from 1.654 to 1.483.

In quartz it is greater, it increasing from 1.5484 to 1.5582.
The former is said to have a negative axis, the latter a
positive.
This property ofdouble refraction belongs to such of the
fundamental forms as have unequal axes ; that is, to all except
those ofthe monometric system. Those forms in which the
lateral axes are equal, (thedimetric and hexagonal systems,)
have one axis ofdouble refraction; and those in which they
are unequal, (the trimetric, monoclinate and triclinate sys-
tems,) have two axes ofdouble refraction.*
Both rays in the latter are rays ofextraordinary refraction.
In niter, the two axes are inclined about 5° to each other ;
in arragonite, 18º 18 ; in topaz, 65°. The positions ofthe
axes thus vary widely in different minerals.
POLARIZATION.----The extraordinary ray exhibits a pecu-
liar property of light, termed polarization. Viewed bymeans
of another doubly-refracting crystal, or crystalline plate,
(called from this use ofit ananalyzing plate,) the ray of light
becomes alternately visible and invisible as the latter plate
is revolved. If the polarized light be made to pass through
acrystal possessed of double refraction, and then be viewed
in the manner stated,rings ofprismatic colors aredeveloped,
93 94 95 96

and on revolving the analyzing plate, the colored rings and

What is meant by positive and negative double refraction ? What
crystalline forms exhibit double refraction ? which have one and which
twoaxes ofdouble refraction ? What are the effects due to polarization ?

*The figures in the note to page 42, represent the form ofthe mole-
culescorresponding to thesethreeconditions: 1, a sphere; 2, an ellip-
soid with equal transverse axes; 3, an ellipsoid withunequal lateral
axes.
 PHOSPHORESCENCE 61

intervening dark rings successivelychange places. Ifcrys-

talline plates,having one axis ofdouble refraction, be viewed
in the direction of the axis, the rings are circles, and they
are crossed by a dark or light cross. Figure 93 shows the
position of the colored rings and cross in calc spar, and
figure 94, the same at intervals of 90° in the revolution of
the plate. With a crystal having two axes ofdouble refrac-
tion, there are two series ofelliptical rings, as in figures 95,
96 ; these figures show the character of the rings in niter,
the latter alternating with the former in the revolution ofthe
plate.
The same results are producedwhenthe light is polarized
byothermeans. For example, ifa ray oflight be reflected
from a plate ofglass at a certain angle, (56' 45',) it is polar-
ized; and on causing this ray to pass through crystals, as
above, similar rings are shown with the same succession of
changes on revolving the analyzing plate. 97
There are some monometric
crystals which have the property
ofpolarization. The accompany-
ing figure ofa crystal ofanalcime,
by Sir David Brewster, exhibits a
singular symmetrical arrangement
of lines of prismatic colors and
dark alternating lines with cross
bands, producing a very brilliant
effect. An irregular polarization
has also been detected in some
diamonds.
PHOSPHORESCENCE .

Several minerals give out light either by friction or when

gently heated. This property of emitting light is called
phosphorescence.
Two pieces ofwhite sugar struck against one another give
a feeble light, which may be seen in a dark place The
same effect is obtained on striking together fragments of
quartz, and even the passing of a feather rapidly over some
specimens ofzinc blende, is sufficient to elicit light .
Fluor spar is the most convenient mineral for showing
phosphorescence by heat. On powdering it, and throwing
What is said ofthe appearance of certain crystals in polarized light ?
What is phosphorescence ? Mention examples explaining the different
modes of exhibiting it.
6
62 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS.

it on a shovel heated nearly to redness, the whole takes on

abright glow. In somevarieties, the light is emerald green ;
in others, purple, rose, or orange. A massive fluor, from
Huntington, Connecticut, shows beautifully the emerald
green phosphorescence.
Some kinds of white marble, treated in the same way,
give out a bright yellow light.
After being heated for a while, the mineral loses its
phosphorescence ; but a few electric shocks will, in many
cases, to some degree, restore it again.
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM.

ELECTRICITY.-Many minerals become electrified on

being rubbed, so that they will attract cotton and other light
substances; and when electrified, some exhibit positive, and
others negative electricity, when brought near a delicately
suspended magnetic needle. The diamond, whether polished
or not, always exhibits positive electricity, while other gems
become negatively electric in the rough state, and positive
only in the polished state. Friction with a feather is suffi-
cient to excite electricity in some varieties ofblende. Some
minerals, thus electrified, retain the power ofelectric attrac-
tion for many hours, as topaz, while others lose it in a few
minutes.
Many minerals become electric when heated, and such
species are said to be pyro-electric, from the Greek pur, fire,
and electric.
Ifa prism of tourmaline, after being heated, be placed on
a delicate frame, which turns on a pivot like a magnetic
needle, on bringing a magnet near it, one extremity will be
attracted, the other repelled, thus indicating the polarity al-
luded to. The same is better shown if the ends ofthe crystal
be brought near the poles ofadelicately suspended magnetic
needle. The prisms of tourmaline have different secondary
planes at the two extremities, or, as it is expressed, are hemi-
hedrally modified (page 37.)
Several othermineralshave this peculiar electric property.
especially boracite and topaz, which, like tourmaline, are
hemihedral in their modifications. Boracite crystallizes in
Will electricity restore the phosphorescent property when it is lost by
heating a mineral ? What two modes are there of exciting electricity
in minerals ? What is said of the diamond as compared with other
gems? What is a pyro-electric ? What is said of tourmaline ? what
oftopaz and boracite ?
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY . 63

cubes, with onlythe alternate solid angles similarly replaced

(figs. 40, 41, page 37.) Each solid angle, on heating the
crystals, becomes an electric pole; the angles diagonally
opposite, are differently modified and have opposite polarity.
MAGNETISM.- Lodestone includes certain specimens of an
ore of iron, called magnetic oxyd of iron, having the power
of attraction like a magnet; it is common in many ore beds
where this ore of iron occurs. When mounted like a horse-
shoe magnet, a good lodestone will lift a weight of many
pounds. This is the only mineral that has decided magnetic
attraction. But several ores containing iron are attractedby
the magnet, or, when brought near a magnetic needle, will
cause it to vibrate; and moreover, the metals nickel, cobalt,
manganese, palladium, platinum and osmium, have been
found to be slightly magnetic.
Many minerals become attractable by the magnet after
being heated, that are not so before heating. This arises
from apartial reduction, developing the protoxyd of iron.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

The specific gravity of a mineral is its weight compared

with that of some substance, taken as a standard. For solids
and liquids, distilled water at 60° F. is the standard ordinarily
used; and if a mineral weighs twice as much as water, its
specific gravity is 2 ; if three times, it is 3. It is then
necessary to compare the weight of the mineral with the
weight ofan equal bulk ofwater. The process is as follows :
First weigh a fragment ofthe mineral in the ordinaryway,
98
with adelicate pair of scales : next sus-
pend the mineral by a hair or fiber of
silk to one of the scales, immerse it thus
suspended in atumbler of water, (keep-
ing the scales clear of the water,) and
weighitagain : subtractthe second weight
from thefirst, to ascertainthe loss by im-
mersion, and divide the first by the dif-
ference obtained : the result is the spe-
cific gravity. The loss by immersion is

What ore is at times possessed ofmagnetic attraction ? What is

said of other minerals as regards magnetism ? What is specific gravity ?
Explain. Mention the mode ofascertaining specific gravity.
64 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS.

equal to the weight of the same bulk of water as the

mineral.*
Abetter and more simple process than the above, and one
available for porous as well as compact minerals, is per-
formed with a light glass bottle, capable of holding exactly a
thousand grains (or any known weight) ofdistilled water.
The specimen should be reduced to a coarse powder. Pour
out a few drops ofwater from the bottle, and weigh it ; then
add the powdered mineral till the water is again to the brim,
and reweigh it : the difference in the two weights, divided
by the loss of water poured out, is the specific gravity sought.
The weight of the glass bottle itself is here supposed to be
balancedby an equivalent weight in the other scale.
HARDNESS.

The comparative hardness of minerals is easily ascer-

tained, and should be the first character attended to by the
student in examining a specimen. It is only necessary to
draw the file across the specimen, or to make trials ofscratch-
ing one with another. As standards of comparison, the
following minerals have been selected, increasing gradually
in hardness from talc, which is very soft and easily cut with
aknife, to the diamond, which nothing will cut. This table
is called the scale ofhardness.
1, talc, common foliated variety ; 2, rock salt ; 3, calc spar,
transparent variety ; 4, fluor spar, crystallized variety; 5,
apatite, transparent crystal ; 6, feldspar, cleavable variety ;
7, quartz, transparent variety ; 8, topaz, transparent crystal' ;
9, sapphire, cleavable variety ; 10, diamond.
If on drawing a file across a mineral, it is impressed as
easily asfluor spar, the hardness is said to be 4; ifas easily
asfeldspar, the hardness is said to be 6 ; ifmore easily than
What other mode is fitted for porous as well as compact minerals ?
How is the hardness of minerals ascertained ? What is the scale of
hardness ? Explain its use. What directions are given for trials of
hardness ?

*For perfectly accurate results, the most delicate scales and weights
should be used, and great care be observed in the trial. The purity and
temperature of the water should also be attended to, and the height of
the barometer. For the latter, an allowance is made for any variation
from aheight of 30 inches. The temperature of water at its maximum
density, or at 39° 1 F., is recommended as preferable to 60° F.
 FRACTURE . 65

feldspar, but with more difficulty than apatite, its hardness is

described as 54 or 5.5.
The file should be run across the mineral three or four
times, and care should be taken to make the trial on angles
equally blunt, and on parts of the specimen not altered by
exposure. Trials should also be made by scratching the
specimen under examination with the minerals in the above
scale, as sometimes, owing to a loose aggregation ofparticles,
the file wearsdown the specimen rapidly,although the par-
ticles are very hard.
STATE OF AGGREGATION.

Solid minerals may be either brittle, sectile, malleable,

flexible or elastic. Fluids are either gaseous or liquid.
1. Brittle : when parts of the mineral separate in powder
on attempting to cut it.
2. Sectile : when thin pieces may be cut off with a knife
but the mineral pulverises under a hammer.
3. Malleable : when slices may be cut off, and these slices
will flatten out under the hammer. Example, native gold
and silver.
4. Flexible : when the mineral willbend, and remain bent
after the bending force is removed. Example, talc.
5. Elastic : when after being bent, it will spring back to
its original position. Example, mica.
Aliquid is said to be viscous, when on pouring it the drops
lengthen and appear ropy. Example, petroleum.
FRACTURE .

The following are the several kinds of fracture in minerals :

1. Conchoidal : when the mineral breaks with a curved,
or concave and convex surface of fracture. The word con-
choidal is from the Latin concha, a shell. Flint is a good
example.
2. Even : when the surface of fracture is nearly or quite
flat.
3. Uneven : when the surface of fracture is rough with
numerous small elevations and depressions.
4. Hackly : when the elevations are sharp or jagged, as
in broken iron.

Explain the use of the term brittle ; sectile ; malleable, &c. Explain
the use of the term conchoidal ; even ; uneven.
6*
66 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS .

TASTE .

Tastebelongs onlyto the soluble minerals ; the kinds are-

1. Astringent : the taste ofvitriol.
2. Sweetish-astringent : the taste of alum.
3. Saline : taste ofcommon salt.
4. Alkaline : taste of soda.
5. Cooling : taste ofsaltpeter.
6. Bitter : taste of epsom salts.
7. Sour : taste of sulphuric acid.
ODOR.

Excepting a few gases and soluble minerals, minerals in

the dry, unchanged state, do not give off odor. By friction,
moistening with the breath, the action ofacids and the blow-
pipe, odors are sometimes obtained, which are thus designated :
1. Alliaceous : the odor ofgarlic. It is the odor of burn-
ing arsenic, and is obtained by friction and more distinctly
by means of the blowpipe from several arsenical ores.
2. Horse-radish odor : the odor ofdecaying horse-radish.
It is the odor of burning selenium, and is strongly perceived
when ores ofthis metal are heated before the blowpipe.
3. Sulphureous : odor of burning sulphur. Friction will
elicit this odor from pyrites, and heat from many sulphurets.
4. Fetid : the odor ofrotten eggs or sulphuretted hydrogen.
It is elicited by friction from some varieties of quartz and
limestone .
5. Argillaceous : the odor of moistened clay. It is given
off by serpentine and some allied minerals when breathed
upon. Others, as pyrargillite, afford it when heated.
CHAPTER IV.-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
MINERALS .

ACTION OF ACIDS.

Acids are used in distinguishing certain minerals that are

decomposed by them. The acids employed are either the
sulphuric, muriatic, or nitric. Carbonate of lime, (calca-
What taste is astringent ? sweetish astringent ? saline ? What will
develop odor in some minerals? What is understood by an alliaceous
odor ? What mineral when heated produces this odor ? What is the
odor of fumes of selenium ? How is a sulphureous odor obtained from
certain minerals? What gas has a fetid odor ? What is an argilla.
ceous odor ?
 USE OF THR BLOWPIPE . 67

reous spar,) when dropped into either ofthese acids gives off
bubbles of gas, which effect is called effervescence. The
same result takes place with some other minerals. The
acid used in these tests, should be half water ; and to avoid
error, it is best to put a little ofit in a test tube, and drop in
small fragments of the coarsely powdered mineral. Some-
times heat will cause an effervescence, which does not take
place with cold acid. Often effervescence arises from some
impurity present, which is discontinued before the solution
ofthe mineral in the acid is complete.
Other minerals, that do not effervesce in the acids, be-
come changed to a jelly-like mass. For trials of this kind,
the strong acids should generally be used. The powdered
mineral is allowed to remain for a while in the acid, and
gradually ajelly-like mass is formed. Oftenheat is required,
and in that case, the jelly appears, as the solution cools.
The minerals belonging to the zeolite family more especially
undergo this change from the action of acids, and it arises
from the separation of their silica in agelatinous state.
BLOWPIΡΕ .

To ascertain the effect of heat on minerals, small instru-

ment is used called a blow. 100 101 102

pipe. In its simplest form, d

(fig. 100,) it is merely a bent

tube of small size, 8 to 10
inches long, terminating at
one end in a minute orifice,
not larger than a pin hole.
It is used to concentrate the
flame ofa candle or lamp on
a mineral, and this is done
by blowing through it while
the smallerend is just within
the flame.
Figures 101 and 102 are
other forms of the blowpipe,
containing air chambers (0)
to receive the moisture which
is condensed in the tube ! 18

What is effervescence, and how produced ? How should the acid be

used ? How are some minerals made to gelatinize ? On what does
his property depend ? What is the object of a blowpipe ?
68 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS.

during the blowing ; the moisture, unless thus removed, is

often blown through the small aperture and interferes with
the experiment. The air chamber in figure 102 is a cylin-
der, into which the tube a b c is screwed at c, and the small-
er piece de f, at d. For the convenience of packing it
away, there is a screw at b. The part bc, after unscrewing
it, may be run into the part a b, through the large end, (a,)
and screwed up again, and thus it is half the length it has
when arranged foruse. The mouth piece ef screws off,
and is made ofplatinum in order that it may be cleaned when
necessary by immersion in an acid. The best material for
the blowpipe is silver, or if a cheaper material is desired,
tinned iron with the piece ef of brass. Brass gives a dis-
agreeable smell to the moist fingers.
In using the blowpipe, it is necessary to breathe and blow
at the same time, that the operator may not iuterrupt the
flame in order to take breath. Though seemingly absurd,
the necessary tact may easily be acquired. Let the student
first breathe a few times through his nostrils, while his cheeks
are inflated and his mouth closed. After this practice, let
him put the blowpipe to his mouth, and he will find no diffi-
cultyinbreathing as before ; while the muscles of the in-
flated cheeks are throwing the air they contain through the
blowpipe. When the air is nearly exhausted, the mouth may
again be filled through the nose without interrupting the
process ofblowing.
A lamp with a large wick, so as to give a broad flame,
and fed with olive oil, is best ; but a candle is more conve-
niently carried about when travelling. The wick should be
bent in the direction the flame is to be blown.
The flame has the form ofa cone, yellow without and blue
within. The heat is most intense just beyond the extremity
of the blue flame. In some trials, it is necessary that the
air should not be excluded from the mineral during the ex-
periment, and when this is the case, the outer flame is used.
The outer is called the oxydating* flame, and the inner the
reducing flame.
Explain the structure and mode of use. What is said of the flame
of a candle before the blowpipe ? Which is the oxydating, and which
the reducing flame ?

* It is so called because when thus heated, oxygen, one of the con-

stituents of the atmosphere, combines in many cases with some parts
of the assay (or substance under experiment.)
 USE OF THE BLOWPIPE . 69

The mineral is supported in the flame, either on charcoal,

or by means of steel forceps, (fig. 103,) with platinum ex-
tremities (ab ) ; the forceps are opened by pressing 103
on the pins pp. The charcoal should be firm b
and well burnt. Charcoal is especially necessary
when the reduction ofthe assay needs the presence
of carbon; and platinum when simple heat is re-
quired. Platinum foil for enveloping the mineral,
and small platinum cups are also used. When
nothing better is at hand, the mineral mica or kyan-
ite may be employed. The fragment of mineral
under trial should be less than half a pea in size,
and often a thin splinter is required..
To test the presence of water or a volatile ingre-
dient, the mineral is heated in a glass tube or test
vial. The tube may be three or four inches long
and as large as a quill. The flame is directed
against the exterior of the tube beneath the assay,
and the volatilized substance usually condenses in
the upper part of the tube. By inserting into the
upper end of the tube a strip of litmus or other
test paper, it is ascertained whether the fumes are
acid or not.
Some species require for fusion the aid of what are
calledfluxes. Those morecommonlyused are borax,
salt of phosphorus, and carbonate of soda. They
are fused to a clear globule, to which the mineral is
added ; or powdered and made up into a ball with
the moistened mineral in powder. In this way
some minerals are fused that cannot be attacked
otherwise, and nearly all species, as they melt, un-
dergo certain changes in color, arising from changes
in composition, which are mentioned in describing
minerals.
The above mentioned fluxes also are often required in
order to obtain the metals from the metallic ores . Onheat-.
ing a fragment of copper pyrites with borax, a globule of
copper is obtained ; and tin ore heated with soda yields a
globule oftin.
What instruments or appliances are used for holding minerals before
the blowpipe ? How is the presence ofwater ascertained ? Howmay
its acidity be tested ? How are the common fluxes employed, and
what is their use ?
70 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS.

The following table contains the reactions of some ofthe

metallic oxyds with the ordinary fluxes :*
Borax. Salt ofPhosphorus. Soda.
Titanic acid O, colorless or O, colorless, trp Deep yw, hot ;
milky worgyh, cold
Oxydof iron O, red,hot; ywh O, red,hot ; paler or
or colorless, colorless, cold
cold
R, green or bh
gn
Oxyd ofcerium 0, r ; yw on O, fine r, hot; col-
cooling ; W orless, cold
enamel on
flaming
R, colorless or
w enamel
Oxyd of manga- O, amethystine O. amethystine Pl. trp gn,hot;
nese bh-gn, cold
Oxyd ofcobalt O,trpblue O,blue Pl. pale r, hot ;
gray, cold
Oxyd ofchrome O,bn,hot ; pale O, green O. Pl. dull or-
gn, cold ange; op& yw
R, emerald-gn, R, green oncooling
cold
Oxyd of copper O, green O, green Pl. gu,hot; col,
R, colorless, R, colorless,hot ; r op, cold
hot; but sud- on solidifying
denly opaque
and rdh on
cooling
The following are other reactions :
Nitrate of cobalt in solution added to the assay after heat-
ing to redness, and then again heated, produces before fusion
a blue color for alumina and apale-red for magnesia.
Boracic acid fused with a phosphate produces a globule,
into which if the extremity ofa small iron wire be inserted,
and the whole heated in the reduction flame, the globule at-
tached to the wire will be brittle, as proved by striking it
with a hammer on an anvil. Before this trial it should be
ascertained that no sulphuric or arsenic acid is present, which
also may form a brittle globule with the iron ; nor any
metallic oxyd reducible by the iron.
For what is nitrate of cobalt used ? How and for what is boracic
acid used ?

* O stands for oxydating flame ; R for reducing flame ; Ch for char-

coal; trp for transparent ; bh bluish ; угоуyellow; gn green ; rred ;
gyh grayish ; w white ; Pl in platinum forceps ; op opaque.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS . 71

Tin-
foil is used to fuse with certain peroxyds of metals to
reduce them to protoxyds. The assay, previously heated in
the reducing flame, should be touched with the end of the
tin foil ; a very minute quantity of a metallic oxyd is thus
detected.
Saltpeter added along with a flux to a compound contain-
ing manganese, gives the amethystine color, when the quan-
tity is too small to be detected without it.
Potash salts, if there is no soda present, give a slightly
violet tinge to the flame.
Soda salts give the flame a deep yellow color.
Lithia salts give the flame a reddish tinge ; the silicates
require the addition of some fluor spar and bisulphate ofpot-
ash. By adding soda and heating on platinum, the lithia
stains the platinum brown.
Sulphurets, Sulphates. Aglass made of soda and silica
becomes red or orange yellow when sulphur is present.
Heated on charcoal with soda, and then adding a drop of
water, they yield sulphuretted hydrogen, which blackens a
test paper containing acetate of lead. Sulphurets heated in
a glass tube closed below, with litmus paper above, redden
the litmus paper, and yield usually a sulphureous odor.
Seleniets give off a horse-radish odor.
Arseniurets give offan odor like garlic, which is brought
out by heating with soda inthe reduction flame, if not other-
wise perceptible ; heated in atube, orpiment is condensed.
Fluorids. Heated with salt of phosphorus, previously
melted in a glass tube, the glass is corroded; and Brazil
paper placed in the tube becomes yellow. The salt of
phosphorus for this trial should be free from all chlorids.
Nitrates detonate on burning coals.
CHAP. V.-CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS.

Under the term mineral, as explained, are included all

inorganic substances occurring in nature. These substan-
ces have been found to consist of various elements, some few
How and for what is tin-foil used ? saltpeter ?-What is said ofthe
constitution of minerals ?

* For full information on the use of the blowpipe and its reactions
there is no better work than Berzelius on " the Use of the Blowpipe,"
translated by J. O. Whitney. 238 pp. 8vo. Boston, 1845.
72 CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS .

species being each a simple element alone, and others con-

sisting of two or more elements in a state of combination.
The various native metals, as native gold, silver, copper,
mercury, are some of the elements. Iron ores are com-
pounds of the element iron with some other element or
elements, as oxygen, sulphur, or oxygen and carbon, &c.
Marble is a compound of three elements, calcium, oxygen
and carbon. Water consists of two elements, hydrogen and
oxygen. Diamond is the simple element carbon, which is
identical with pure charcoal. All the so-called elements of
matter are found in the mineral kingdom, either in a pure or
combined state; and it is the object of chemical analysis
to ascertain the proportions of each in the constitution of
the several minerals. Uponthese results depends to a great
degree our knowledge of those relations ofthe species upon
which the classification of minerals is based.
The number of elemental substances in nature, according
to the most recent results of chemistry, is fifty-nine. Of
these, forty-three are metals, and five are gases ; the re-
mainder, as, for instance, sulphur and carbon, are solids
without a metallic luster, excepting one (bromine) which is
a liquid at the ordinary temperature. Of these fifty-nine
elements, very much the larger part are of rare occurrence
in nature. The rocks ofthe globe, with their most common
minerals, are made up of about thirteen of the elements.
These are the gases oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, chiorine ;
the non-metallic elements carbon, sulphur, silicon ; the metals
calcium, (basis of lime,) sodium, (basis of soda,) potassium,
(basis ofpotash,) magnesium, (basis ofmagnesia,) aluminium.
(basis of alumina, the principle constituent of clay,) witn
iron. The element silicon combined with oxygen, forms
silica. In this state, it is the mineral quartz, the most
common in the constitution of the rocks of the globe: it
is a constituent of granite, mica slate and the allied rocks,
ofthe hard granular quartz rock; and it is the essential part
ofall sandstones and millstone grits, as well as the principal
ingredient of the sands of the sea shore and of most soils.
Combined with lime, potash or soda, magnesia or alumina,
and often with iron, it forms nearly all the other mineral in-

What is the number of elements, and how many are metals ? How
many constituents are essential to the rocks of the globe, and what are
they ? What is said ofquartz ?
 CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS. 73

gredients of granite, mica slates, volcanic rocks, shales,

sandstones and various soils. No element is therefore more
important than this in the constitution of the earth's strata :
and it is specially fitted for this preeminence by its superior
nardness, a character it communicates to the rocks in which
it prevails. Next to silica, rank lime and carbon ; for carbon
with oxygen constitutes carbonic acid, and this combined
with lime, produces carbonate of lime, the ingredient which,
when occurring in extended beds, we call limestone and
marble. Again, lime combined with sulphur and oxygen,
(sulphuricacid,) makes sulphate of lime, or common gypsum.
Iron is very generally diffused ; it is one of the constituents
of many siliceous minerals, and forms vast beds of ore.
Oxygen, as has been implied, is a constituentin all the rocks
above mentioned, and besides, is an essential part of the
atmosphere and water; it is the most universally diffused of
the elements. It is united with hydrogen in the constitu-
tion of water, and with nitrogen in the constitution of the
atmosphere. Chlorine combined with sodium constitutes
common salt, which occurs in sea water and brine springs,
and is also found in vast beds in some rock strata.
It is thus seen how few are the elements essential to the
framework of our globe. The various metallic ores, of less
general diffusion, are however ofvast economical importance
to man, and multiply considerably the number of mineral
species. Those important to the general student, however,
are comparatively few. The whole number of well estab-
lished species in the mineral kingdom is about 500 ; ofthese,
more than two-thirds are known only to the mineralogist.
It is the province of chemistry to discuss fully the nature
of the elements, and their modes of combination. It is suf-
ficient to add here, for the benefit of any who may not have
the requisite elementary chemical knowledge, how the chem-
ical names of minerals indicate their composition. Terms
such as oxyd of iron, chlorid of iron, express a combination
of iron with the element oxygen, or chlorine ; so also sul-
phuret of iron is a compound of iron with sulphur. The
force of the terminations id or uret is always as here ex-
plained. Protoxyd and peroxyd imply different proportions

Which are the next most common ingredients of rocks ? Mention

the other ingredients alluded to. What is an oxyd ? a chlorid? a sul-
phuret ? a carbonate ?
7
74 CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS.

of oxygen, the latter the highest. Terms such as carbonate

oflime, sulphate of lime, indicate that the substance is com-
posed of an acid-carbonic acid, or sulphuric acid in the
instances cited, with lime. So silicate of soda is a com-
pound of soda and silicic acid (or silica) ; and all such com-
pounds are theoretically said to consist ofan acid and a base-
lime and soda, in the cases mentioned, being bases.
The true foundation of a species in mineralogy must be
derived from crystallization,as the crystallizing force is funda-
mental in its nature and origin ; and itis now generally admit-
ted that identity of crystallineform and structure is evidence
of identity of species. This principle unites certain distinct
chemical compounds into the same species :-for example, a
silicate of magnesia and asilicate ofiron crystallizing alike,
constitute but one species in mineralogy, though chemically
so different. Oxyd of iron and magnesia are themselves
nearly identical in molecularform and size, and on this fact
depends their power of replacing one another even in com-
plexcompounds. They are therefore said to be isomorphous
(from the Greek isos, similar, and morphe, form.)
There are many groups of these isomorphous substances,
and some knowledge of them is necessary to enable the
reader to understand why different varieties of a mineral
species may differ so widely, as they oftendo, in composition.
Some of these groups are as follows :
1. Alumina, peroxyd of iron, peroxyd ofmanganese.
2. Lime, magnesia, protoxyds ofiron, manganese andzinc.
3. Baryta, strontia, oxyd oflead.
4. Sulphur, selenium, tellurium.
5. Tungsten, molydenum.
6. Phosphoric acid, arsenic acid.
In epidote the alumina may be replaced by peroxyd of
iron ormanganese, and the magnesia in part or wholly by
lime, or the protoxyds of iron or manganese. The same is
true of garnet and several other minerals. The rhombohe-
drons of carbonate of lime, carbonate of iron, and carbonate
ofmagnesia, are very nearly identical in angle, because the
bases are ismorphous. This subject is illustrated by the
greater part of mineral species.
What is a sulphate ? a silicate? What is the test of identity of
species in mineralogy ? What are isomorphous substances ? What
are the common groups of isomorphous substances in minerals ? Ex-
plainby examples.
 CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS. 75

GENERAL VIEW OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS .

The classification adopted in this work is based on the

constitution of minerals. The following is a general view
of it:
CLASS I. Gases : consisting of or containing nitrogen or
hydrogen.
CLASS II. Water.
CLASS III. Carbon, and compounds ofcarbon.
CLASS IV. Sulphur.
CLASS V. Haloid minerals : compounds of the alkalies
and earths, with the soluble acids (sulphuric, nitric, carbonic,
&c. or water,) or of their metals with chlorine or fluorine.
1, Salts of ammonia ; 2, ofpotash; 3, of soda ; 4, of baryta ;
5, of strontia ; 6, of lime ; 7, ofmagnesia ; 8, of alumina.
CLASS VI. Earthy minerals : silica and siliceous or alu-
minous compounds of the alkalies and earths-1, silica ; 2,
lime; 3, magnesia ; 4, alumina ; 5, glucina ; 6, zirconia ;
7, thoria.
CLASS VII. Metals and metallic ores, (exclusive of the
metals of the alkalies and earths) : 1, Metals easily oxydiz-
able-cerium, yttrium, uranium, iron, manganese, chromium,
nickel, cobalt, zinc, cadmium,bismuth, lead, mercury, copper,
titanium, tin, molybdenum, tungsten, tellurium, antimony,
arsenic ; 2, Noble metals : platinum, iridium, palladium, gold,
silver.

Explain the classification adopted.

76 GASEOUS MINERALS.

CLASS I.-GASES .

The gases occurringnative are as follows : 1. containing

or consisting of nitrogen : atmospheric air, nitrogen. 2.
containing hydrogen : carbureted hydrogen, phosphureted
hydrogen, sulphureted hydrogen, muriatic acid. 3. contain-
ing carbon or sulphur : carbonic acid, sulphurous acid.
ATMOSPHERIC AIR.

1. Atmospheric air is the air we breathe. It consists of

oxygen 21 per cent. by weight, and nitrogen 79 per cent.,
witha smallproportion ofcarbonic acid. It has neither color,
odor, nor taste. It supports life and combustion through the
oxygen which it contains, this gas being used or absorbed
in respiration as well as in the burning of wood or a candle.
The oxygen thus consumed is restored to the air again by
vegetation which gives out oxygen through the day, and in
this way the quality of the atmosphere requisite for life is
sustained. It is about 815 times lighter than water, and
11,065 times lighter than mercury. A hundredcubic inches
weigh about 31 grains.
NITROGEN GAS.

Nitrogen destroys life, and has neither color, odor nor

taste. It is one of the constituents of the atmosphere. It
bubbles up through the waters ofmanysprings, having been
derived from air by some decompositions in progress within
the earth, by which the oxygen of the air is absorbed.
Lebanon springs in Columbia county, NewYork, and a
region in the town of Hoosic, Rensselaer county, afford
large quantities of this gas. There is another locality at
Canoga, Seneca county, where the water is in violent ebul-
lition from the escape of the gas ; its temperature is 40° F.
There are other nitrogen springs in Virginia, west of the
Blue Ridge at Warm and Hot Springs ; in Buncombe
county, N. C.; and on the Washita in Arkansas. At Bath, in
England, nitrogen is escaping from the tepid springs at the
What gases occur in nature ? What is the constitution of the at-
mosphere? its genera
general characters ? the weight ? What is said of the
characters of nitrogen? Where does nitrogen occur in nature ?
 GASES CONTAINING HYDROGEN. 77

rate of 267 cubic inches aminute, or 222 cubic feet a day.

The gas from these nitrogen springs contains only 2 or 3
per cent. ofoxygen, andoften a very little carbonic acid.
CARBURETED HYDROGEN .

Carbureted hydrogen consists ofcarbon 75, hydrogen 25 ;

burns with abright yellow flame. It is the same gas nearly
that is used for lighting the streets in some of our cities. It
issues abundantly from some coal beds and beds of bitumi-
nous slate. At Fredonia, in western New York, near Lake
Erie, it is given out so freely from a slate rock, that it is
used for lighting the village. A vessel containing 220 cubic
feet is filled in about 15 hours. A light-house at Portland
harbor, on Lake Erie, four miles from Fredonia, is also
lighted with the same gas from other springs.
Another carbureted hydrogen, burning with a pale blue
flame, rises in bubbles through pools of water, owing to
vegetable decomposition in the soil beneath.
PHOSPHURETED HYDROGEN.

Phosphureted hydrogen consists of phosphorus 91.29, and

hydrogen 8.71 . It takes fire spontaneously. The phos.
phoric matter, called Jack-o'-lantern, sometimes seen float-
ing over marshy places, is supposed to be phosphureted
hydrogen.
SULPHURETED HYDROGEN.

Sulphureted hydrogen consists of sulphur 94.2, hydrogen

5.8. It has the odor and taste ofputrescent eggs and burns
with a bluish flame. It is abundant about sulphur springs,
issuing freely from the waters, as in western New York and
in Virginia. It is sometimes found about volcanoes. It
blackens silver and also a common cosmetic made of oxyd
of bismuth.

MURIATIC ACID.-Hydrochloric Acid.

Muriatic acid gas consists of hydrogen 2.74, chlorine
97-26 . It has a very pungent odor and is acrid to the skin.
What is the composition ofcarbureted hydrogen? its general charac-
ters ? mode of occurrence in nature ? What is said of Fredonia ?
Mention the characters of phosphureted hydrogen ; the characters of
sulphureted hydrogen; its mode of occurrence. What is said of muri-
atic acid ?
7*
78 WATER.

It is rapidly dissolved by water. If passed into a solution

of nitrate of silver, it produces a white precipitate which
soonblackens on exposure. It is given out occasionallyby
volcanoes.*

CLASS II .-WATER.

Water (oxyd ofhydrogen) is the well known liquid of our

streams and wells. The purest natural water is obtainedby
melting snow, or receiving rain in a clean glass vessel ; but
it is absolutely pure only when procured by distillation. It
consists of hydrogen 1 part by weight, and oxygen 8 parts.
It becomes solid at 32º Fahrenheit, (or 0º Centigrade) and
then crystallizes, and constitutes ice or snow. Flakes of
snow consist of a congeries ofminute crys-
tals, and stars like the annexed figure may
often be detected with a glass. Various
Mother allied forms are also assumed. The
rays meet at an angle of 60', and the
branchlets pass off at the same angle with
perfect regularity. The density of water is
greatest at 39º 1 F.; below this it expands as it approaches
32°, owing to incipient crystallization. It boils at 212 F.
A cubic inch of pure water at 60° F. and 30 inches of the
barometer, weighs 252-458 grains. A pint, United States
standard measure, holds just 7342 troy grains of water,
which is little above a pound avoirdupois (7000 grains troy.)
Water as it occurs on the earth, contains some atmos-
pheric air, without which the best would be unpalatable.
This air, with some free oxygen also present, is necessary
to the life of water animals. In most spring water there
is a minute proportion of salts of lime, (sulphate, chlorid
or carbonate,) often with a trace of common salt, carbo-
nate of magnesia and some alumina, iron, silica, phospho-
ric acid, carbonic acid, and certain vegetable acids. These
impurities constitute usually from to 10 parts, in 10,000
parts by weight. The Long Pond water, used in Boston,
Of whatdoes water consist? What is said ofsnow and ice ? What
ofthe density of water ? its boiling temperature ? the weight of a pint ?
What are the usual impurities of common spring or river water ?
*Carbonic acid and sulphurous acid gases, are described, one under
carbon, and the other under sulphur.
 GASES CONTAINING HYDROGEN . 79

contains about a part in 10,000 ; the Schuylkill of Phila-

delphia, about 1 part in 10,000 ; the Croton, used in New
York city, 1 to 1½ parts in 10,000. In the Schuylkill
water the constituents of the 1 part of solid ingredients were,
chlorid of sodium 1.47, chlorid of magnesium 0.094, sulphate
of magnesia 0.57, silica 0.8, carbonate of lime 18.72, car-
bonate ofmagnesia 3.51, carbonate ofsoda and loss 16.44.*
The water towards the surface is always purer than that
below.
Sea water contains 32 to 37 parts of solid substances in
solution in 1000 parts of water. The largest amount in the
Atlantic, 36-6 parts, is found under the equator, away from the
land or the vicinity of fresh water streams ; and the smallest
in narrow straits, as Dover Straits where there are only 32.5
parts. In the Baltic and the Black Sea, the proportion is
only one-third that in the open ocean. Of the whole, one-
half to two-thirds is common salt (chlorid of sodium.) The
other ingredients are magnesian salts, (chlorid and sulphate,)
amounting to four-fifths of the remainder, with sulphate and
carbonate of lime, and traces of bromids, iodids, phosphates
and fluorids. The water ofthe British channel affords, water
964.7 parts in 1000, chlorid of sodium 27.1, chlorid of pot-
assium 0.8, chlorid of magnesium 3.7, sulphate of magnesia
2.30, sulphate of lime 1.4, carbonate of lime 0.03, with some
bromid ofmagnesium, and probably traces of iodids, fluorids
and phosphates. The bitter taste of sea water is owing to
the salts ofmagnesia present.
The waters of the Dead Sea contain 200 to 250 parts of
solid matter in 1000 parts, (or 20 to 25 per cent.,) including
7 to 10 per cent. of common salt, the same proportion of
magnesian salts principally the chlorid, 24 to 3 per cent.
ofcarbonate and sulphate of lime, besides some bromids and
alumina. The density ofthese waters is owing to this large
proportion of saline ingredients. The brine springs ofNew
York and other states south and west, are well known
sources of salt, (see beyond undercommon salt.) Many ofthe
springs afford bromine,and large quantities of it are manufac-
tured for making daguerreotype plates and other purposes.
What proportion of solid substances in sea water, and of this what
proportion is common salt ? What proportion magnesiansalts ? What
isthe bitter taste of sea water owing to ?

* Chem. Exam. by B. Silliman, Jr , Jour. Sci., ii ser., ii, 218.

80 CARBON.

Mineral waters vary much in constitution. They often

contain carbonate of iron, like those of Saratoga and Balls-
town, and are then called chalybeate waters, from the ancient
name for iron or steel, chalybs, derived from the name of a
country on the Baltic. The water of Congress Spring, ac-
cording to Dr. Steel, contains in a pint, chlorid of sodium
48.1, bicarbonate ofmagnesia 12.0, carbonate of lime 12.3,
carbonate of iron 0-6, silica 0-2, iodid of sodium nearly 0.5,
with a trace ofbromid ofpotash ; ofcarbonic acid 39.0 cubic
inches and nearly 1 cubic inch ofatmospheric air.
Minute traces of salts of zinc and arsenic, lead,copper,
antimonyand tin, have been found in some waters. What-
ever is soluble in a region through which waters flow, will of
course be taken up by them, and many ingredients are
soluble inminute proportions, which are usually described
as insoluble.

CLASS III.-CARBON AND COMPOUNDS OF

CARBON.

Carbonoccurs crystallized in the diamond. In amassive

form, and more or less pure state, it constitutes the various
kinds ofmineral coal. Combined with hydrogen, or hydro-
genand oxygen, it forms bitumen, amber, andanumber of
native mineral resins.

DIAMOND.

Monometric. In octahedrons, dodecahedrons and more

complex forms. Faces often curved, as in the annexed
figures. Cleavage octahedral ; highly perfect.
1 2 3 4

Color white or colorless ; also yellowish, red, orange,

What are chalybeate waters ? What is the difference between the

diamond and charcoal ? What is the crystallization of the diamond ?
What other characters are mentioned ?
 THE DIAMOND . 81

green, brown orblack. Luster adamantine. Transparent ;

translucent when dark colored. H = 10. Gr = 3 ·48-
3.55 .
Composition. Pure carbon. It burns and is consumed at
a high temperature, producing carbonic acid gas. Exhibits
vitreous electricity when rubbed. Some specimens exposed
to the sun for a while, give out light when carried to a dark
place. Strongly refracts and disperses light.
Dif. Diamonds are distinguished by their superior hard-
ness ; their brilliant reflection of light and adamantine luster ;
their vitreous electricity when rubbed, which is not afforded
by other gems unless they are polished ; and by the prac-
ticed ear, by means ofthe sound when rubbedtogether.
Obs. Diamonds occur in India, in the district between
Golconda and Masulipatam, and near Parma, in Bundel-
cund, where some of the most magnificent specimens have
been found ; also on the Mahanuddy, in Ellore. In Borneo,
they are obtained on the west side of the Ratoos mountain,
with gold and platina. The Brazilian mines were first dis-
covered in 1728, in the district ofSerra do Frio, to the north
of Rio de Janeiro ; the most celebrated are on the river
Jequitinhonha, which is called the Diamond river, and the
Rio Pardo ; twenty-five to thirty thousand carats are export-
ed annually to Europe from these regions. In the Urals of
Russia they had not been detected till July, 1829, when
Humboldt and Rosè were on theirjourney to Siberia. The
river Gunil, in the province of Constantine, in Africa, is re-
ported to have afforded some diamonds. In the United
States, the diamond has been met with, in Rutherford county,
North Carolina, (fig. 4,) and Hall county, Georgia.
The original rock in Brazil appears to be either a kind of
laminated granular quartz called itacolumite ; or a ferruginous
quartzose conglomerate. The itacolumite occurs inthe Urals,
and diamonds have beenfound in it ; and it is also abundant
in Georgia and North Carolina. In India, the rock is a
quartzose conglomerate. The origin of the diamond has
been a subject of speculation, and it is the prevalent opinion
that the carbon, like that of coal, is of vegetable origin.
Some crystals have been found with black uncrystallized
particles or seams within, looking like coal ; and this fact
has been supposed to prove their vegetable origin.

Howis the diamonddistinguished? What are itsprincipal localities ?

82 CARBON.

Diamonds with few exceptions are obtained from alluvial

washings. In Brazil, the sands and pebbles of the diamond
rivers and brooks (the waters of which are drawn off in the
dry season to allow of the work) are collected and washed
under a shed, by a stream of water passing through a suc-
cession ofboxes. A negro washer stands by each box, and
inspectors are stationed at intervals. When a diamond is
found weighing 171 carats, the negro is entitled to his
liberty.
The largest diamond of which we have any knowledge is
mentioned by Travernier, as in the possession of the Great
Mogul. It weighed originally 900 carats, or 2769-3 grains,
butwas reducedby cutting to 861 grains. It has the form
and size ofhalf ofa hen's egg. Itwas found in 1550, in the
mine of Colone. The diamond which formed the eye of a
Braminican idol, and was purchased by the Empress Catha-
rine II. of Russia from a French grenadier who had stolen
it, weighs 193 carats, and is as large as a pigeon's egg.
The Pitt or regent diamond is of less size, it weighing but
136.25 carats, or 4194 grains; but on account of its un-
blemished transparency and color, it is considered the most
splendid of Indian diamonds. It was sold to the Duke of
Orleans by Mr. Pitt, an English gentleman, who was gover-
nor ofBencolen, in Sumatra, for £130,000. It is cut in the
form ofabrilliant, and is estimated at £125,000. Napoleon
placed it in the hilt of his sword of state. The Rajah of
Mattanhas in his possession a diamond from Borneo, weigh-
ing 367 carats.
The diamonds of Brazil are seldom large. Maure men-
tions one of 120 carats, but they rarely exceed 18 or 20.
The famous diamond, weighing 1680 carats, belonging to
the emperor of Brazil, is supposed to be a topaz.
Diamonds are valued according to their color, transpa-
rency and size. When limpid (of pure water) and no ex-
traordinary magnitude, the value of a wrought diamond is
estimated by first ascertaining the weight in carats.* The
How are diamonds obtained ? How are diamonds valued ?

*A carat is a conventional weight, and is divided into 4 grains,

which are a little lighter than 4 grains troy ; 74 1-16 carat grains are
equal to 72 troy grains. The term carat is derived from the name of
a bean in Africa, which, in a dried state, has long been used in that
country for weighing gold. These beans were early carried to India,
and were employed there for weighing diamonds.
 THE DIAMOND . 83

rule given is as follows : double the weight in carats, and

multiply the square of the product by £2. Thus a wrought
diamond weighing 1 carat, would be worth £8 ; one of 4
carats , £ 128 ; one of 10 carats, £800 . A ve 20 carats,
the prices rise much more rapidly. A flaw, however mi-
nute, or the slightest smokiness, diminishes very much the
value. The average price of rough diamonds, of first
quality, of 1 carat, is £2 ; of 2 carats, £8, since it loses
half its weight in cutting, and becomes then one of 1 carat
wrought.
The rule just given is scarcely regarded in market, as
so much depends upon the purity of water. In different
countries, moreover, the standard of taste as regards dia-
monds is very different, the market in England demanding
the very first quality, while in other countries a somewhat
inferior kind satisfies the purchaser.
The rose diamond is more valuable than a snow-white
diamond, owing to thegreat beautyofits color and its rarity.
The green diamond is much esteemed on account of its
color. The blue is prized only for its rarity, as the color is
seldom pure. The black diamond, which is uncommonly
rare and without beauty, is highly prized by collectors. The
brown, grayand yellow varieties are ofmuch less value than
the pure white or limpid diamond.
The diamond is cut by taking advantage of its cleavage,
and also by abrasion with its own powder and by friction
with another diamond. The flaws are first removed by
cleaving it ; or else by sawing it with an iron wire, which is
covered with diamond powder-a tedious process, as the
wire is generally cut through after drawing it across five or
six times. After the portion containing flaws has thus been
cut off, the crystal is fixed to the end of a stick, in a strong
cement, leaving the part projecting which is to be cut ; and
another being prepared in the same manner, the two are
rubbed together till a facet is produced. By changing the
position, other facets are added in succession till the required
form is obtained. A circular plate ofsoft iron is then charged
with the powder produced by the abrasion, and this, by its
revolution, finally polishes the stone. To complete a single
facet often requires several hours. Diamonds were first cut
in Europe, in 1456, by Louis Berquen, a citizen of Bruges ;
How are diamonds cut ?
84 CARBON.

but in China and India, the art of cutting appears to have

been known at avery early period.
By the above process,diamonds are cut into brilliant, rose
and table diamonds. The brilliant has a crown or upper
part, consisting of a large central eight-sided facet, and a
series offacets around it ; and a collet, or lower part, of pyr-
amidal shape, consisting of a series offacets, with a smaller
series near the base ofthe crown. The depth of a brilliant
is nearly equal to its breadth, and it therefore requires a
thick stone. Thinner stones, in proportion to the breadth,
are cut into rose and table diamonds. The surface of the
rose diamond consists of a central eight-sided facet of small
size, eight triangles, one corresponding to each side of the
table, eight trapeziums next, and then a series of sixteen tri-
angles. The collet side consists of a minute central octagon,
surrounded by eight trapeziums, corresponding to the angles
of the octagon, each of which trapeziums is subdivided by a
salient angle into one irregular pentagon and two triangles.
The table is the least beautiful mode of cutting, and is used
for such fragments as are quite thin in proportion to the
breadth. It has a square central facet, surrounded by two
or more series offour-sided facets, corresponding to the sides
ofthe square.
Diamonds have also beencut with figures upon them. As
early as 1500, Charadossa cut the figure of one of the
Fathers of the church on adiamond, for Pope Julius II.
Diamonds are employed for cutting glass; and for this
purpose only the natural edges of crystals can be used, and
those with curved faces are much the best. Diamond dust
is used to charge metal plates of various kinds for jewelers,
lapidaries and others. Those diamonds that are unfit for
working, are sold for various purposes, under the name of
bort. Fine drills are made of small splinters of bort, which
are used for drilling other gems, and also for piercing holes
in artificial teeth and vitreous substances generally.
The diamond is also used for lenses for microscopes.
When ground plano-convex, they have but slight chromatic
aberration, and consequently a larger field, and but little loss
of light, compared with similar lenses of other materials.
They often have an irregularity of structure when perfectly

What are the three forms usually given the diamond? For what
purposes are diamonds used ?
 MINERAL COAL . 85

pellucid, which unfits them for this purpose, and such lenses
therefore are seldom made.

MINERAL COAL.

Massive. Color black or brown, opaque. Brittle or

sectile . H = 1-2.5. Gr= 1.2-1.75.
Composition. Carbon, with usually a few per cent. of
silica and alumina, and sometimes oxyd of iron; often con-
tains a large proportion of bitumen. The bituminous varie-
ties burn with a bright flame and bituminous odor ; while
those destitute of bitumen afford only a pale blue flame,
arising from the decomposition of the water present and the
formation of the gas called carbonic oxyd.
VARIETIES .-1. Without bitumen.
Anthracite. Anthracite (called also glance coal and stone
coal) has a high luster, and is often iridescent. It is quite
compact and hard, and has a specific gravity from 1.3 to
1.75. It usually contains 80 to 90 per cent. of carbon, with
4 to 7 of water, the rest consisting of earthy impurities.
There is often some bitumen present, in which case it burns
with considerable flame .
Besides the use of anthracite for fuel, it is often made into
inkstands, small boxes, and other articles, which have a high
polish, and fine specimens of this kind of ware may be ob-
tained in Philadelphia.
2. Bituminous varieties.
Bituminous coal varies much and indefinitely in the
amount of bitumen it contains, and there is a gradual pas-
sage in its varieties into varieties of anthracite. It is softer
than anthracite and less lustrous. The specific gravity does
not exceed 1.5.
Pitching or caking coal, as it is distinguished in England,
at first breaks when heated, into small pieces, which, on
raising the heat, againunite into a solid mass. Its color is
velvet or grayish black. It burns readily with a lively yel-
low flame, but requires frequent stirring to prevent its caking,
and so clogging the fire. The principal beds at Newcastle,
England, afford this kind of coal. Cherry coal resembles
pitch coal in appearance, but does not soften and cake. It

Ofwhat does mineral coal consist ? How does anthracite differ

from other varieties ?
8
86 CARBON.

is very brittle, and in mining there is consequently much

waste. It burns with a clear yellow flame. It occurs at
the Glasgow coal beds, and is named from its luster and
beauty. The splint coal (or hard coal) of the same region
is harder than the cherry coal.
Cannel coal is very compact and even in texture, with
little luster, and breaks with a large conchoidal fracture. It
takes fire readily, and burns without melting with a clear
yellow flame, and has hence been used as candles-whence
the name. It is often made into inkstands, snuff-boxes and
other similar articles.
Brown coal, wood coal, lignite, are names ofa less perfect
variety of coal, usually having a brownish black color, and
burning with an empyreumatic odor. It has often the struc-
ture of the original wood. The term brown coal is, how-
ever, applied generally to any coal more recent in origin
than the era of the great coal beds of the world, although it
may not have any distinct remains of a woody structure, or
burn with an empyreumatic odor. The name lignite has
sometimes the same general application, though without
strict propriety.
Jet resembles cannel coal,but is harder, of a deeperblack
color, and has a much higher luster. It receives a brilliant
polish, and is set injewelry. It is the Gagates of Dioscor
ides and Pliny, a name derived from the river Gagas, in
Syria, near the mouth of which it was found, and the origin
ofthe termjet, now in use.
Obs. Mineral coal occurs in extensive beds or layers,
interstratified with different rock strata. The associate
rocks are usually clay shales (or slatybeds) and sandstones ;
and the sandstones are occasionally coarse grit rocks.
There are sometimes also beds of limestone alternating with
the other deposits. In a vertical section through the coal
measures-as the series of rocks and coal seams are usually
called-there may be below, sandstones and shales in alter-
nating layers, or sandstones alone and then shales; there
may next appear upon the shale a bed or layer of coal, one,
two or even thirty feet thick ; then above the coal, other
layers of shale and sandstone; and then another layer of
coal; again shale and sandstones in various alternations, or

What is cannel coal? brown coal or lignite ? jet ? How do beds of

coal occur, and what are the associated rocks ?
 MINERAL COAL . 87

perhaps layers of limestone ; and then a third bed of coal,

and so on. By such alternations the series is completed.
Immediately in the vicinity ofthe coal, the rock is generally
rather a shale than a sandstone, and these shales are usually
full of impressions of leaves and stems of plants. The clay
shales are sometimes quite soft and earthy, and of a light
clay color ; but in most coal regions they are hard and firm,
with a brownish or black color, in the vicinity of the coal
layer. The sandstones are either of a grayish, bluish, or
reddish color.
These various layers constituting coal beds, are some-
times nearly or quite horizontal in position, as in New Hol-
land and west of the Appalachians. They are very often
much tilted, dipping at various angles and sometimes verti-
cal, as is generallythe case throughout central Pennsylvania ;
and in some cases the beds are raised in immense folds, as
the leaves ofa book may be folded, by a sidewise pressure.
They are very commonly intersected by fractures, along
which the coal seam on one side is higher or lower than on
the other, owing to a dislocation, (then said to be faulted) ;
and miners working in a bed for a while, in such a case,
find it to terminate abruptly, and have to explore above or
below for its continuation. These are points of great im-
portance in the mining ofcoal.
There is no infallible indication of the presence of coal
distinguishable in the mineral nature of rocks ; for just such
rocks as are here described occur where no coal is to be
found, and where none is to be expected. The presence of
fossil leaves offerns, and ofplants having jointed stems or a
scarred or embossed surface, in the shales or sandstone, is a
useful hint ; the discovery of the coal itself a much better
one. The geologist ascertains the absence of coal from a
region by examining the fossils in the rocks ; these fossils
being different in rocks of different ages, they indicate at
once whether the beds under investigation belong to what is
called the coal series. If they contain certain trilobites,
and other species which are found only in more ancient
rocks, there is no longer a doubt that coal is not to be ob-
tained in any workable quantities ; and he arrives at the
same conclusion if the remains are those of more recent

What is said of the position of the beds ? How do the rocks indicate
whether coal is to be expected in a region or not?
88 CARBON.

rocks, such as fossil fish ofcertain genera, or the remains or

traces of birds or quadrupeds, or of such species of shells as
never occur as low in the rocks as true coal beds. But if
the fossils are such as have beendescribed as characterizing
a coal series, there is then reason for exploration. It is
impossible in this place to give such knowledge as will be
practically useful. The inquirer must refer to treatises on
geology, or better to the practical geologist, whose judgment
in such questions might often have saved much useless
mining and wasted expenditure.
Mineral coal is very widely distributed over the world.
England, France, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, Germany, Aus-
tria, Sweden, Poland and Russia, have their beds of mineral
coal. It is also abundant in India, China, Madagascar, Van
Dieman's Land, Borneo and other East India Islands, New
Holland, and at Conception in Chili. But no where is the
coal formation more extensively displayedthan in the United
States, and in no part of the world are its beds of greater
thickness, more convenient for working, or more valuable in
quality. There are four extensive areas occupied by this
formation. One of these areas commences on the north, in
Pennsylvania and southeastern Ohio, and sweeping south
over western Virginia and eastern Kentucky and Tennessee,
to the west of the Apalachians, or partly involved in their
ridges, it continues to Alabama near Tuscaloosa, where a
bed ofcoal has beenopened. It has been estimated to cover
63,000 square miles. It embraces several isolated patches
in the eastern halfof Pennsylvania. A second coal area (the
Illinois) lies adjoining the Mississippi, and covers the larger
part of Illinois, the western part of Indiana, and a small
northwest part of Kentucky; it is but little smaller than the
preceding. A third occupies a portion of Missouri west of
the Mississippi. A fourth covers the central portion of
Michigan. Besides these, there is a smaller coal region (a
fifth) in Rhode Island, which appears near Portsmouth, not
far from the railroad to Boston, and also in Mansfield, Massa-
chusetts. Out of the borders of the United States, on the
northeast, commences a sixth coal area, that of Nova Scotia
and New Brunswick, which covers 10,000 square miles,

What is said of the distribution ofcoal over the globe ? How many
coal areas are there in the United States, and what their positions ?
What is said of the Nova Scotia and New Brunswick coal beds ?
 MINERAL COAL. 89

2500 square miles of which are inNova Scotia. At Cape

Breton is still another field of coal .
The coal of Rhode Island and eastern Pennsylvania is
anthracite. Going west in Pennsylvania, the anthracite
becomes more and more bituminous ; and at Pittsburg, at its
western extremity, as also throughout the western states, it
is wholly of the bituminous kind. The Rhode Island variety
is sohard and compact and free from all volatile ingredients,
that for many years it had been deemed unfit for use. The
anthracite of eastern Pennsylvania affords 3 to 6 per cent.
of aqueous vapor, and 1 to 4 per cent. of volatile combustible
matter. In the Bradford coal field, lying near the eastern
limits ofthe bituminous coal deposits, Prof. Johnson obtained
1 to8 per cent. of moisture, 9 to 15 per cent. of inconden-
sable gas, 5 to 17 of earthy matter, and 62 to 75 of carbon.
In the bituminous coal of the Portage railroad, Cambria
county, Penn., he obtained 18.2 per cent. of volatile com-
bustible matter ; in that of Caseyville, Ky., and Cannelton,
Indiana, 30 to 34 per cent.; and ina coal from Osage river,
Missouri, 41-35 per cent. The general fact that the pro-
portion ofbitumen increases as we go westward, is here well
exhibited.
Some of these results, derived from an extensive series of
experiments, are thus averaged by Prof. Johnson :
Moisture. Vol.Matter.
Combustible Ashes and Fixed
Clinker. Carbon
Pennsylvaniaanthra- 1.34 3.84 7-37 87-45
cites,
Maryland free burn- 1-25 15-80 9.94 73-01
ingbituminous coal
Pennsylvania free
burning bituminous 0.82 17-01 13-35 68-82
coal,
Virginia bituminous, 1.64 36-63 10-74 50-99
Cannelton, Indiana, 2-20 33-99 4-97 58-44
bituminous,
It has also been shown that this fact is connected with the
geological condition of the country, the anthracite occurring
in the east where the rocks are variously uplifted and thrown
out of position by subterranean forces, evincing also other

What is the relative geographical position ofthe anthracite and bitu-

minous coal in the United States ? What has probably made the dif-
ference in these two kinds ofcoal ?
8*
90 CARBON.

effects of heat besides this debituminisation of the coal ;

while the bituminous coal occurs where such disturbances of
the rocks have not taken place : and the amount of bitumen
increases as we recede from the region of greatest distur-
bance. The heat and attendant siliceous solutions have
therefore been the means of giving unusual hardness to the
Rhode Island coal .
Owing to the various upliftings or foldings ofthe strata and
subsequent denudations, the beds are often exposed to view
in the sides of hills or ridges, and the coal in Pennsylvania is
in most cases rather quarried out than mined. The layers
are at times 20 to 35 feet thick, without any slaty seams, and
the excavations appear like immense caverns, whose roofs
are supported by enormous columns of coal, " into which a
coach and six might be driven and turned again with ease."
Besides the great coal beds ofthe coal era, as it is signifi-
cantly called, there are small beds, sometimes workable, of
amore recentdate. The bed near Richmond, Va., belongs
to a subsequent period ; there are also beds in Yorkshire,
and at Brora in Sutherland. Tertiary coal occurs in
Provence, and also in Oregon on the Cowlitz. These beds
ofmore recent coals are seldom sufficiently extensive to pay
for working, and are oftenmuch contaminated by pyrites.
The amount ofanthracite worked in 1820, in Pennsylvania,
was only 380 tons ; in 1847, it amounted to more than
3,000,000 tons ; and the whole amount of both anthracite
and bituminous coal worked in that state, in 1847, was not
less than 5,000,000 tons. In Great Britain, the annual
amount ofcoal mined is about 35,000,000 of tons.
The uses of mineral coal are well known. The Pennsyl-
vania anthracite was first introduced into blacksmithing in
1768 or 1769, by Judge Obadiah Gore, a blacksmith, who
early left Connecticut for Wilkesbarre. It is now employed
in smelting iron ores, and for nearly every purpose in the
arts for which charcoal was before employed.
The formation of coke from pit coal, for smelting iron, is
done in close furnaces or ovens. After heating up, the coal
(about two tons) is thrown in at a circular opening at top,
and remains for 48 hours ; the doorway is gradually closed
to shut off the air as the combustion increases, and finally
the atmosphere is wholly shut off, and in this condition it
How is coke prepared ?
 GRAPHITE. 91

remains for 12 hours. The volatile matter is thus expelled,

and the cokes produced are ponderous, extremely hard, of a
light gray color, and having a metallic luster. To make
another kind of coke, like charcoal, the pit coal is placed in
a receptacle more like a baker's oven, and the air has
more free access. Both of these kinds of coke are used in
smelting.
GRAPHITE. Plumbago .
Occasionally in six-sided prisms, with a transversely foli-
ated structure. Usually foliated, and massive ; also granu-
lar and1compact.
Luster metallic, and color iron black to dark steel gray.
Thin laminæ flexible. H= 1-2. Gr= 2.09. Soils paper,
and feels greasy.
Composition. 90 to 96 per cent. of carbon, with the rest
iron. Some specimens from Brazil contain scarcely a trace
of iron. It is often called carburet of iron, but is not a
chemical compound. It is infusible before the blowpipe,
both alone and with reagents ; it is not acted upon by acids.
Dif. Resembles molybdenite, but differs in being unaf-
fected by the blowpipe and acids. The same characters
distinguish the granular varieties from any metallic ores
they resemble.
Obs. Graphite (called also black lead) is found in crys-
talline rocks, especially in gneiss, mica slate and granular
limestone ; also in granite and argillite, and rarely in green-
stone. Its principal English locality is at Borrowdale, in
Cumberland. Ure observes that this mineral became so
common a subject of robbery, a century ago, as to have en-
riched many living in the neighborhood ; a body of miners
would break into the mine and hold possession of it for a
considerable time. The place is now protected by a strong
building, and the workmen are required to put on a working
dress in an apartment on going in and take it offon coming
out. In an inner room two men are seated at a large table
assorting and dressing the graphite, who are locked in while
at work and watched by the steward from an adjoining room,
who is armed with two loaded blunderbusses. This is
deemed necessary to check the pilfering spirit of the Cum-
What is the appearance of graphite ? What is its prominent char-
acteristic ? its composition ? Where does it occur ? Where is it worked
inEngland ?
92 GRAPHITE .

berland mountaineers. In some years the net produce of

the six weeks' annual working of the mine, has amounted
to £40,000.
In the United States, graphite occurs in large masses in
veins in gneiss at Sturbridge, Mass. It is also found in
North Brookfield, Brimfield and Hinsdale, Mass.; at Roger's
rock, near Ticonderoga ; near Fishkill landing in Dutchess
county ; at Rossie, in St. Lawrence county, and near Amity,
in Orange county, N. Y.; at Greenville, L. C.; in Corn-
wall, near the Housatonic, and in Ashford, Ct.; near Attle.
boro, in Buck's county, Penn.; in Brandon, Vermont ; in
Wake, North Carolina ; onTyger river, and at Spartanburg,
near the Cowpens furnace, South Carolina.
For the manufacture of pencils the granular graphite has
been preferred, and it is this character of the Borrowdale
graphite which has rendered it so valuable. At Sturbridge,
Mass., it is rather coarsely granular and foliated, and has
been extensively worked ; the mine yields annually about
30 tons of graphite. The mines of Ticonderoga and Fish-
kill landing, N. Y.; of Brandon, Vt.; and of Wake, North
Carolina, are also worked ; and that of Ashford, Ct., for-
merly afforded a large amount of graphite, though now the
works are suspended.
The material for lead pencils, when of the finest quality,
is first calcined and then sawn up into strips ofthe requisite
size and commonly set in wood, (usually cedar,) as theyap-
pear in market. It is much used now in small cylinders
without wood for ever-pointed pencil cases. Graphite of
coarser quality, according to a French mode, is ground up
fine and calcined, and then mixed with the finest levigated
clay, and worked into a paste with great care. It is made
darker or lighter and of different degrees of hardness, by
varying the proportion ofclay and the degree of calcination
to which the mixture is subjected; and the hardness is also
varied by the use of saline solutions. Lampblack is some-
times addded with the clay.
A superior method in use at Taunton, Mass., where the
Sturbridge graphite is extensively employed, consists in
finely pulverising it, and then by a very heavy pressure ob-
tainedby machinery, condensing it into thin sheets. These

How are the best lead pencils made ? How are they manufactured
from the Sturbridge bed ?
 AMBER. 93

sheets are then sawn up ofthe size required. The pencil is

pure graphite, and the foliated variety is preferred on account
ofits being freer from impurities.
Graphite is extensively employed for diminishing the
friction of machinery ; also for the manufacture of crucibles
and furnaces, and as a wash for giving a gloss to iron stoves
and railings. For crucibles it is mixed with half its weight
ofclay.
CARBONIC ACID .

Carbonic acid is the gas that gives briskness to the Sara-

toga andmany other mineral waters, and to artificial soda
water. Its taste is slightly pungent. It extinguishes com-
bustion and destroys life. Composition : carbon 27-65,
oxygen 72-35.
Besides occurring in mineral waters, it is common about
some volcanoes. The Grotto del Cane (Dog cave) near
Naples, is a small cavern filled to the level of the en-
trance with this gas. It is a common amusement for the
traveler to witness its effects upon a dog kept for the purpose.
He is held in the gas a while and is then thrown out appa-
rently lifeless ; in a few minutes he recovers himself, picks
up his reward, a bit of meat, and runs off as lively as ever.
Ifcontinued in the carbonic acid gas a short time longer life
would have been extinct.
Carbonic acid combined with lime forms carbonate of lime
or common limestone ; with oxyd of iron it constitutes spathic
iron, one of the common ores of iron ; with oxyd of zinc, it
forms calamine, the most profitable ore ofzinc. It is found
in combination also in various other minerals.
AMBER.

In irregular masses. Color yellow, sometimes brownish

or whitish ; luster resinous. Transparent to translucent.
H= 2-2.5. Gr= 1.18. Electric by friction.
Composition. Carbon 70.7, hydrogen 11.6, oxygen 7.8.
Burns with a yellow flame and aromatic odor.
Obs. Occurs in alluvium and on coasts, in masses from
avery small size to that of a man's head. In the Royal
Museum at Berlin, there is a mass weighing 18 pounds. On
For what other purposes is it used ? What is carbonic acid ? Com-
bined with lime, whatdoes it form ? What is the appearance ofamber ?
Where does it occur ?
94 MINERAL RESINS.

the Baltic coast it is most abundant, especially between

Königsberg and Memel. It is met with at one place in a
bed of bituminous coal; it also occurs on the Adriatic, in
Poland, on the Sicilian coast near Catania, in France near
Paris in clay, in China. It has been found in the United
States, at Gay Head, Martha's Vineyard, Camden, N. J.,
and at Cape Sable, near the Magothy river, in Maryland.
It is supposed with good reason to be a vegetable resin,
which has undergone some change while inhumed, a part of
which is due to acids of sulphur proceeding from decompo-
sing pyrites or some other source. It oftencontains insects,
and specimens ofthis kind are so highly prized as frequently
to be imitated for the shops. Some of the insects appear
evidently to have struggled after being entangled in the then
viscous resin, and occasionally a leg or a wing is found some
distance from the body, having been detached in the struggle
for escape.
Amber is the elektron of the Greeks ; from its becoming
electric so readily when rubbed, it gave the name electricity
to science. It was also called succinum, from the Greek
succum, juice, because ofits supposed vegetable origin.
Uses. Amber admits of agood polish and is used for or-
namental purposes, though not very much esteemed, as it is
wanting in hardness and brilliancy of luster, and moreover
is easily imitated. It is much valued in Turkey for mouth-
pieces to their pipes.
Amber is the basis of an excellent transparent varnish.
After burning, there is left a light carbonaceous residue, of
which the finest black varnish is made. Amber affords by
distillation an oil called oil ofamber, and also succinic acid;
and as the preparation of amber varnish requires that the
amber be heated or fused, these products are usually obtained
at the time.

MINERAL CAOUTCHOUC.-Elastic Bitumen.

In soft flexible masses, somewhat resembling caoutchouc

or India rubber. Color brownish black ; sometimes orange
red by transmitted light. Gr= 0.9-1.25.
Composition : carbon 85.5, hydrogen 13.3. It burns
readily with a yellow flame and bituminous odor.
What is said of the origin of amber? What term has it given to
science ? For what is amber used ? What is mineral caoutchouc ?
 MINERAL RESINS. 95

Obs. From a lead mine in Derbyshire, England, and a

coal mine at Montrelais. It has been found at Woodbury,
Ct., in a bituminous limestone.
RETINITE. Retinasphaltum.
In roundish masses. Color light yellowish brown, green,
red ; luster earthy or slightly resinous in the fracture. Sub-
transparent to opaque, Often flexible and elastic when first
dug up, but loses these qualities on exposure. H= 1-2.5.
Gr
=1.135.
Composition : vegetable resin 55, bitumen 41, earthy
matter 3. Takes fire in a candle and burns with a bright
flame and fragrant odor. The whole is soluble in alcohol
except an unctuous residue.
Obs. Accompanies Bovey coal at Devonshire ; also found
with brown coal at Wolchow in Moravia, and near Halle.
BITUMEN.

Both solid and fluid. Odor bituminous. Luster resinous ;

of surface of fracture often brilliant. Color black, brown or
reddish when solid; fluid varieties nearly colorless and trans-
parent. H= 0-2. Gr= 0.8-1.2.
VARIETIES :
Mineral pitch or Asphaltum. The massive variety, often
breaking with a high luster like hardened tar. The earthy
mineral pitch includes less pure specimens.
Petroleum . A fluid bitumen of a dark color, which oozes
from certain rocks and becomes solid on exposure. A less
fluid variety is called maltha, or mineral tar.
Naphtha, or mineral oil. A limpid or yellowish fluid,
lighter than water ; specific gravity 0.7-0.84. It hardens
and changes to petroleum on exposure. It may be obtained
frompetroleum by heat, which causes it to pass off in vapor.
Composition ofnaphtha : carbon 82.2, hydrogen 14.8. The
above varieties burn readily with flame and smoke.
Obs. Asphaltum is met with abundantly on the shores of
the Dead Sea, and in the neighborhood of the Caspian. A
very remarkable locality occurs on the island of Trinidad,
where there is a lake of it about a mile and half in circum-
ference. The bitumen is solid and cold near the shores ;
but gradually increases in temperature and softness towards
Describe bitumen. What is asphaltum ? petroleum ? naphtha ? What
is said ofthe asphaltum of Trinidad ?
96 MINERAL RESINS.

the center, where it is boiling. The appearance of the

solidified bitumen is as if the whole surface had boiled up in
large bubbles and then suddenly cooled. The ascent to the
lake from the sea, a distance of three quarters of a mile,
is covered with the hardened pitch, on which trees and
vegetation flourish, and here and there about Point La
Braye, the masses of pitch look like black rocks among the
foliage.
Large deposits ofasphaltum occur in sandstone in Albania.
It is also found in Derbyshire, and with quartz and fluor in
granite in Cornwall ; in cavities of chalcedony and calc spar
in Russia and other places.
Naphtha issues from the earth in large quantities in Persia
and the Birman empire. At Rangoon, on one of the branches
of the Irawady river, there are upwards of 500 naphtha and
petroleum wells which afford annually 412,000 hogsheads.
In the peninsula ofApcheron on the western shore of the
Caspian, naphtha rises through a marly soil in vapor, and is
collected by sinking pits several yards indepth, into which
the naphtha flows. Near Amiano in the state of Parma, there
is an abundant spring.
In the United States petroleum is common. The salines
of Kenawha, Va.; Scotsville, Ky.; Oil creek, Venango
county, Penn.; Duck creek, Monroe county ; near Hinsdale
inAllegany county, N. Y., and Liverpool, Ohio, are among
its localities. It was formerlycollected for sale by the Sen-
eca and other Indians ; the petroleum is therefore com-
monly called Genesee or Seneca oil, under which name it is
sold in market.
Uses. Bitumen in all its varieties was well known to the
ancients. It is reported to have been employed as a cement
in the construction ofthe walls ofBabylon. At Agrigentum
it was burnt in lamps and called Sicilian oil. The Egyp-
tians made use ofit in embalming.
The asphaltum ofTrinidad mixed with grease or common
pitch is used for pitching (technically, paying) the bottoms
ofships; and it is supposed to protect them from the Teredo.
Two ship loads of the pitch were sent to England by Admi-
ral Cochrane ; but it was found that the oil required to fit it
for use exceeded in expense the cost of pitch in England ;

Where is naphtha obtained ? What is Seneca oil? For what is

asphaltum used ?
 MINERAL RESINS 97

and consequently the project ofemploying it in the arts was

abandoned.
Asphaltum is a constituent of the kind of black varnish
called Japan. It is used in France in forming a cement for
covering the roofs and lining water cisterns. A limestone,
thoroughly dried, is ground up fine and stirred well in a ves-
sel containing about one-fifth its weight of hot melted bitu-
men. It is then cast into rectangular moulds, which are first
smeared with loam to prevent adhesion. When cold, the
frame ofthe mould is taken apart and the block removed.
Petroleum is used in Birmah as lamp oil ; and when
mixed with earth or ashes, as fuel. Naphtha affords both fuel
and light to the inhabitants of Batku on the Caspian. The
vapor is made to pass through earthen tubes and is inflamed
as it passes out and used in cooking. The spring near
Amiano is used for illuminating the city of Genoa. Both
petroleum and naphtha have been employed as a lotion in
cutaneous eruptions, and as an embrocation in bruises and
rheumatic affections. Naphtha is oftensubstituted for oil in oil
paint, onaccount of its drying quickly. It is also employed
for preserving the metals of the alkalies, potassium and
sodium, which, owing to their tendency to unite with oxygen,
cannot be kept in any liquid that contains this gas.
The petroleum orSeneca oil of western New York, Penn-
sylvania and Ohio, as it appears in the market, is of a dark
brown color, and a consistency between that of tar and
molasses.

The following are the names of other kinds of fossil resin or wax:-
Fossil Copal, Middletonite, Piauzite, which are resinous and nearly or
quite insoluble in alcohol ; Guyaquillite and Berengelite, from South
America, resinous and soluble in alcohol like Retinite ; Scheererite,
Hatchetine, Dysodile, Hartite, Ixolyte, Ozocerite, Fichtelite, Konlite,
Branchite, found with coal, especially brown coal, and resembling wax
or tallow. Idrialine is grayish or brownish black with a grayish luster,
and occurs at the Cinnabar mines of Idria.

CLASS IV. SULPHUR.

Sulphur exists abundantly in the native state. It occurs

combined with various metals, forming sulphurets and sul.
phates; and the sulphurets especially are very common ores.
The sulphuret of iron is common iron pyrites; sulphuret of
copper is the yellow copper ore of Cornwall and other re-
gions ; sulphuret of mercury is cinnabar, the ore from which
9
98 NATIVE SULPHUR.

mercury is mostly obtained ; sulphuret of lead is galena, the

usual ore oflead. It is also sparingly met with in the con-
dition of sulphuric and sulphurous acids.
NATIVE SULPHUR .

Trimetric. In acute octahedrons, and secon-

EE daries to this form, with imperfect octahedral
cleavage. Also massive.
Color and streak sulphur yellow, sometimes
EE
orange yellow. Luster resinous. Transparent
to translucent. Brittle. H = 1.5-2.5 . Gr =
2.07.
Native sulphur is either pure or contaminated with clay
or bitumen. It sometimes contains selenium, and has then
an orange yellow color.
Dif. It is easily distinguished by burning with a blue
flame and a sulphur odor.
Obs. The great repositories of sulphur are either beds
of gypsum and the associate rocks, or the regions of active
or extinct volcanoes. In the valley of Noto and Mazzaro in
Sicily, at Conil near Cadiz in Spain, Bex in Switzerland,
and Cracow in Poland, it occurs in the former situation.
Sicily and the neighboring volcanic islands, Vesuvius and
the Solfatara in its vicinity,Iceland, Teneriffe, Java, Hawaii,
New Zealand, Deception island, and most active volcanic
regions afford more or less sulphur. The native sulphur of
commerce is brought mostly from Sicily, where it occurs in
beds alongthe central part of the south coast and to some
distance inland. It is often associated with fine crystals of
sulphate of strontian. It undergoes rough purification by
fusion before exportation, which separates the earth and clay
with which it occurs. Sixteen or seventeen thousand tons
are annually imported from Sicily into England alone.
Sulphur is also exported from the crater of Vulcano, one of
the Lipari islands, and from the Solfatara near Naples.
On the Potomac, 25 miles above Washington, fine speci-
mens of sulphur are found associated with calc spar in a gray
compact limestone. Sulphur is also found as a deposit about
springs where sulphureted hydrogen is evolved, and in cavi-
ties where iron pyrites have decomposed. Localities of the

.
What is the crystallization of sulphur? Mention its other characters
Where is the sulphur ofthe arts obtained ?
 NATIVE SULPHUR. 99

former kind are common in the state of New York, and of

the latter in the coal mines of Pennsylvania, the gold rocks
of Virginia and elsewhere.
The sulphur of commerce is also largely obtained from
copper and iron pyrites, it being given off during the roasting
of these ores, and collected in chambers of brick work con-
nected with the reverberatory furnace. It is afterwards
purified by fusion and cast into sticks.
Sulphur when cooled from fusion, or above 232° F., crys-
tallizes in oblique rhombic prisms. When poured into
water at a temperature above 300 F. it acquires the consis-
tency of soft wax, and is used to take impressions of gems,
medals, &c., which harden as the sulphur cools.
The uses of sulphur for gunpowder, bleaching, the manu-
facture of sulphuric acid, and also in medicines, are well
known. Gunpowder contains 9 to 20 per cent.- 9 or 10
per cent. for the best shooting powder, and 15 to 20 for
mining powder.
SULPHURIC AND SULPHUROUS ACIDS .

Sulphuric acid is occasionally met with around volcanoes,

and it is also formed from the decomposition of sulphureted
hydrogen about sulphur springs. It is intensely acid. Com-
position, sulphur, 40-14, oxygen 59.86. It is said to occur
in the waters of Rio Vinagro, South America ; also in Java,
and at Lake de Taal on Luzon in the East Indies.
Sulphurous acid is produced when sulphur burns, and
causes the odor perceived during the combustion. It is com-
monabout active volcanoes. It destroys life and extinguishes
combustion. Composition, sulphur 50.14, oxygen 49.86.
SELENIUM, ARSENIC. Selenium has close relations to sulphur. Its
most striking characteristic is the horse-radish odor perceived when it is
heated. It occurs in nature combined like sulphur with various metals,
andthese ores, called seleniets or seleniurets, are at once distinguished
by the odor when subjected to the heat of the blowpipe flame.
Arsenic is also near sulphur in a chemical point of view, although
metallic in luster. It forms similar compounds with the metals and
metallic oxyds, which are called arseniurets and are often highly im-
portant ores. Thearseniurets of nickel and cobalt are the main sources
of these metals. Its ores are distinguished by giving off when heated
an odor resembling garlic.

What is said ofsulphuric acid ? What is said of sulphurous acid ?

100 SALTS OF AMMOΝΙ.Ι .

Tellurium and Osmium are other metals having chemical relations

to sulphur. They form similar compounds with the metals. They are
of rare occurrence .
The minerals containing the elements arsenic, selenium,tellurium and
osmium, are described under Class VII, including metals and metallic
ores.

CLASS V. -HALOID MINERALS .

1. AMMOΝΙΑ .

The salts of ammonia are more or less soluble, and are

entirely and easily dissipated in vapor before the blowpipe.
By this last character they are distinguished from other
salts.
SAL AMMONIAC.-Muriate of Ammonia.
Occurs in white crusts or efflorescences, often
A A yellowish or gray. Crystallizes in regular
octahedrons. Translucent-opaque ; taste sa-
A A
line and pungent. Soluble in three parts of
water.
Composition : ammonia 33-89, chlorine 66.11. Gives off
the odor of hartshorn when powdered and mixed with
quicklime.
Dif. Distinguished by the odor given off when heated
along with quicklime.
Obs. Occurs in many volcanic regions, as at Etna,
Vesuvius, and the Sandwich Islands, where it is a product
of volcanic action. Occasionally found about ignited coal
seams .
But the sal ammoniac of commerce is manufactured
from animal matter or coal soot. It is generally formed in
chimneys of both wood and coal fires. In Egypt, whence
the greater part of this salt was formerly obtained, the fires
of the peasantry are made of the dung of camels ; and the
soot which contains a considerable portion of the ammonia-
cal salt is preserved and carried in bags to the works, where
it is obtained by sublimation. Bones and other animal mat-
ters are used in France, and a liquor condensed from the gas
works, in England.

What are general characters of the salts ofammonia ? What is a

distinctive character ofsal ammoniac ? What is its composition ? From
what is it manufactured ? How is it manufactured in Egypt ?
 SALTS OF POTASH-NITER . 101

Uses. It is a valuable article in medicine, and is em-

ployed by tinmen in soldering ; also, mixed with iron filings
or turnings to pack the joints in steam apparatus.
Mascagnine-Sulphate of Ammonia. In mealy crusts, of a yellow-
ish-gray or lemon-yellow color. Translucent. Taste pungent and
bitter. Composition, sulphuric acid 53-3, ammonia 22.8, water 23.9.
Easily soluble in water. Occurs at Etna, Vesuvius, and the Lipari Is-
lands. It is one of the products from the combustion of anthracite coal.
Phosphate of ammonia, bicarbonate of ammonia, and phosphate of
magnesia and ammonia have been found native in guano, by E. F.
Teschemacher. The last is named guanite. It occurs in brilliant
rhombic prisms of122° 30' . Gr= 1.5. H=2 .
Struvite. A phosphate of ammonia and magnesia like the guanite,
but containing 13 percent. ofwater. It occurs in yellowish subtranspa-
rent rhombic crystals. G= 1.7. H= 1 . Slightly soluble in water.
Found on the site ofan old church in Hamburg.
2. POTASSA .

NITER.-Nitrate of Potash.
Trimetric. In modified right rhombic prisms. M : M
about 120°. Usually in thin white subtransparent crusts,
and in needleform crystals on old walls and in caverns.
Taste saline and cooling.
Composition : potassa 46.56, nitric acid 53.44. Burns
vividly on a live coal.
Dif. Distinguished readily by its taste and its vivid
action on a live coal ; and from nitrate of soda, which it most
resembles, by its not becoming liquid on exposure to the air.
Uses. Niter, called also saltpeter, is employed in making
gunpowder, forming 75 to 78 per cent. in shooting powder,
and 65 in mining powder. The other materials are sulphur
(12 to 15 per cent.) and charcoal, (9 to 12 for shooting
powder, and 20 for mining.) It is also extensively used in
the manufacture ofnitric and sulphuric acids ; also for pyro-
technic purposes, fulminating powders, and sparingly in
medicine.
Obs. Occurs in many of the caverns of Kentucky and
other Western States, scattered through the earth that forms
the floor of the cave. In procuring it, the earth is lixiviated,
and the lye, when evaporated, yields the saltpeter. India is
its most abundant locality, where it is obtained largely for
What does niter consist of? What effect is produced when it is
put on a live coal ? What are its uses ? Where does it occur ?
9*
102 SALTS OF SODA.

exportation. It is there used for making a cooling mixture ,

an ounce of powdered niter in five ounces of water reduces
the temperature 15° F.
Spain and Egypt also afford large quantities of niter for
commerce . This salt forms on the ground in the hot weather
succeeding copious rains, and appears in silky tufts or efflo-
rescences; these are brushed up by akind ofbroom, lixiviated,
and after settling, evaporated and crystallized. In France,
Germany, Sweden, Hungary and other countries, there are
artificial arrangements called nitriaries or niter-beds, from
which niter is obtained by the decomposition mostly of the
nitrates of lime aud magnesia which form in these beds.
Refuse animal and vegetable matter putrified in contact with
calcareous soils produces nitrate of lime, which affords the
niter by reaction with carbonate of potash. Old plaster
lixiviated affords about 5 per cent. This last method ismuch
used in France.
Chlorid of potassium, or sylvine, has been observed with salt at
Saltzburg.
3. SODA .

The following salts of soda are all more or less soluble :

they are in general distinguished by giving a deep yellow
light before the blowpipe. Hardness below 3 ; specific
gravity below 2.9.
GLAUBER SALT.-Sulphate of Soda.
Monoclinate. In oblique rhombic prisms. Occurs in
efflorescent crusts ofa white or yellowish-white color ; also
in many mineral waters. Taste cool, then feebly saline and
bitter. Composition, soda 19.38, sul.acid 24-85, water 55.77.
Dif. It is distinguished from Epsom salt, for which it is
sometimes mistaken, by its coarse crystals, and the yellow
color it gives to the blowpipe flame.
Uses. It is used in medicine, and is known by the famil-
iar name of " salts."
Obs. On Hawaii, one ofthe Sandwich Islands, in acave
at Kailua, glauber salt is abundant, and is constantlyforming.
It is obtained by the natives and used as medicine. Glauber
What is a nitriary ? What effect is produced on the blowpipe flame
by soda ? What is its composition ? How is it distinguished from
Epsom salt ? Where does Glauber salt occur native ?
 CARBONATE OF SODA. 103

salt occurs also in efflorescences on the limestone below

Genesee Falls, near Rochester, N. Y. It is also obtained
in Austria, Hungary and elsewhere in Europe.
The artificial salt was first discovered by a German
chemist by the name ofGlauber. It is usually prepared for
the arts from sea water.
NITRATE OF SODA .

Rhombohedral ; R : R = 106° 33′. Also in crusts or

efflorescences, of white, grayish and brownish colors; taste
cooling. Soluble and very deliquescent.
Composition : nitric acid63.40, soda36-60 . Burns vividly
on coal, with a yellow light.
Dif. It resembles niter, (saltpeter,) but deliquesces, and
gives a deep yellow light when burning.
Obs. In the district of Tarapaca, the dry Pampa for an
extent of forty leagues is covered with beds of this salt, mixed
with gypsum, common salt, Glauber salt and remains of
recent shells. The country appears to have been under the
sea at no very remote period.
Uses. It is used extensively in the manufacture of nitric
acid or aqua fortis.
NATRON.-Carbonate of Soda.
Monoclinate. Generally in white efflorescent crusts,
sometimes yellowish or grayish. Taste alkaline. Effloresces
on exposure, and the surface becomes white and pulverulent.
Composition : a simple hydrous carbonate of soda. Effer-
vesces strongly with nitric acid.
Dif. Distinguished from other soda salts by effervescing,
and from Trona, by efflorescing on exposure.
Obs. Abundant in the soda lakes of Egypt, situated in a
barren valley called Bahr-bela-ma, about 30 miles west of
the Delta. Also in lakes at Debrezin in Hungary ; in
Mexico, north of Zacatecas, and elsewhere. Sparingly dis-
solved in the Seltzer and Carlsbad waters .
Trona is a sesquicarbonate of soda. In the province of
Suckena in Africa, between Tripoli and Fezzan, it forms a

How does nitrate of soda differ in composition from niter ? What

are other peculiarities distinguishing it? For what is it used? Where
does it occur native ? What are the distinctive characters of carbonate
of soda ?
104 BALTS OF SODA .

fibrous layer an inch thick beneath the soil, andseveral hun.

dred tons arecollected annually. At alake in Maracaibo.
48 miles from Merido, it is very abundant.
Uses. Carbonate ofsodais used extensively inthe manu-
facture ofsoap. The powders put up for making soda water
consist of this salt and tartaric acid. On mixing the two,
the tartaric acid unites with the soda and the carbonic acid
ofthe carbonate ofsoda escapes as agas producing the effer-
vescence. In Mexico, this salt (or the sesquicarbonate,
trona) occurs in such abundance over extensive districts that
it is employed as a flux in smelting ores ofsilver, especially
the chlorid of silver which is a common ore.
COMMON SALT.

Mónometric. In cubes (fig 1) and its secondaries, as the

following. Sometimes crystals have the shape of a shallow
1 2 3

P P

P P
P P P.P

cuplike figure 4, andarecalled hopper shapedcrystals. They

were formed floating; the cup receiving its enlargement at
the margin, this being the part which lay at the surface of
the brine where evaporation was going on. Common salt
is usually white or grayish, but sometimes prosents rose red,
yellow and amethystine tints. H= 2. Gr =2-257. Taste
saline.
Composition : chlorine 60.3, sodium 39.7. Crackles or
decrepitates when heated.
Dif. Distinguished by its taste, solubility, and blowpipe
characters.
Obs. Salt is usually associated with gypsum, and clays or
sandstone. It occurs in extensive beds in Spain, in the Pyre-
nees, in the valley of Cardona and elsewhere, forming hills
300 to 400 feet high ; in Poland at Wieliczka ; at Hall in the
Tyrol, and along a range through Reichenthal in Bavaria,
Forwhat is it used ? What happens when tartaric acid and carbon-
ate of soda are mixed ? What are the forms of crystals of common
salt? Ofwhat does It consist ? Where are some ofthe most remarkable
deposits of rock salt ?
 COMMON SALT. 105

Hallein in Saltzburg, Hallstadt, Ischel and Ebensee in Upper

Austria, and Aussee in Stiria ; in Hungary at Marmoros and
elsewhere ; in Transylvania ; Wallachia, Gallicia and Up-
per Silesia ; at Vic and Dieuze in France ; at Bex in Swit-
zerland ; in Cheshire, England ; in northern Africa in vast
quantities, forming hills and extended plains ; in northern
Persia at Teflis ; in India in the province of Lahore, and in
the valley of Cashmere ; in China and Asiatic Russia ; in
South America, in Peru and the Cordilleras ofNew Grenada.
The most remarkable deposits are those of Poland and
Hungary. The former, near Cracow, has been worked
since the year 1251, and it is calculated that there is still
enough salt remaining to supply the whole world for many
centuries. Its deep subterranean regions are excavated into
houses, chapels and other ornamental forms, the roof being
supported by pillars ofsalt ; and when illuminated by lamps
and torches, they are objects ofgreat splendor.
The salt is often impure with clay, and is purified by dis-
solving it in large chambers, drawing it off after it has settled
and evaporating it again. The salt ofNorwich(in Cheshire)
is in masses 5 to 8 feet in diameter, which are nearly pure,
and it is prepared for use by crushing it between rollers.
Beds of salt have lately been opened in Virginia in Wash-
ington county, where as usual it is associated with gypsum.
The Salmon mountains of Oregon also afford rock salt.
Salt beds occur in rocks of various ages : the brines of
the United States come from a red sandstone below the coal ;
the beds of Norwich, England, occur in magnesian lime-
stone; those of the Vosges in marly sandstone beds of the
lower secondary ; that ofBex in the lias or middle secondary ;
that of the Carpathian Alps in the upper oolite ; that of
Wieliczka, Poland and the Pyrenees, in the cretaceous for-
mation or upper secondary ; that of Catalonia in tertiary :
and moreover there are vast deposits that are still more re-
cent, besides lakes that are now evaporating and producing
saltdepositions.
Vast lakes of salt water exist in many parts of the world.
Lake Timpanogos, or Youta, called also the Great Salt
Lake, has an area of 2000 square miles, and is remarkable
for its extent, considering that it is situated towards the sum-

What is said of the beds of Cracow? How is this salt purified ?

Where do beds occur in North America? What is said ofsalt lakes ?
106 SALTS OF SODA.

mit of the Rocky Mountains, at an elevation of 4200 feet

above the sea. The dry regions of these mountains and of
the semideserts of California abound in salt licks and lakes.
There is a small spring on the Bay of San Francisco. In
northern Africa large lakes as well as hills of salt abound,
and the deserts of this region and Arabia abound in saline
efflorescences. The Dead and Caspian seas, and the lakes
of Khoordistan, are salt. Over the pampas of La Plata and
Patagonia there are many ponds and lakes of salt water.
The greater part of the salt made in this country is obtained
by evaporation from salt springs. Those of Salina and
Syracuse are well known ; and many nearly as valuable are
worked in Ohio and other western states. At the best New
York springs a bushel of salt is obtained from every 40 gal-
lons.-(Beck.) The springs of Onondaga county, New York,
afforded in 1841 upwards of three millions ofbushels of salt,
and it is estimatedthat three hundredandtwenty-two millions
ofgallons of brine were raised and evaporated during that
year. (Beck.) To obtain the brine, wells from 50 to 150
feetdeepare sunk by boring. It is then raised by machinery,
carried by troughs to the boilers, which are large iron kettles
set in brickwork, and there evaporated by heat. As soon as
the water begins to boil, the water becomes turbid from the
deposit of calcareous salts which are also contained in salt
waters, and are less soluble than the salt. These are re-
moved with ladles, called bittern ladles, with the exception
ofwhat adheres firmly tothe sides ofthe boiler. The salt is
next deposited; it is then collected and carried away to drain.
The liquid which remains contains a large proportion of
magnesian salts, and is called bittern from the bitter taste of
these salts. Some of the brine is also evaporated by expo-
sure to the sun in broad, shallow vats.
This last process is extensively employed in hot climates
for making salt from sea water, which affords a bushel for
every 300 or 350 gallons. For this purpose a number of
large shallow basins are made adjoining the sea; they have
a smooth bottom of clay, and all communicate with one an.
other. The water is let in at high tide and then shut off for
the evaporation to go on. This is the simplest mode,and is
What is the source of the salt manufactured in the United States ?
How much water is necessary to procure a bushel of salt ? How is
the salt obtained from the brine ? How much salt is afforded by sea
water, and how is it obtained ?
 BORAX. 107

used even in uncivilized countries, as among the Pacific

Islands. It is better to have a large receiving basin for
the salt water, which shall detain the mechanical impurities
ofthe water.

Martinsite is a compound of 91 per cent. of chlorid of sodium and 9

ofsulphate ofmagnesia. It is from the salines of Stassfurth .

BORAX.- Borate of Soda.

Monoclinate. In right rhomboidal prisms, (see fig. 11,
page 26) ; M : T= 106'6' . Cleavage parallel with M per-
fect. The crystals are white and transparent with a glassy
luster. H = 2-2.5. Gr = 1-716 . Taste sweetish-alkaline.
Composition : soda 16.37, boracic acid 36-53, water
47.10. Swells up to many times its bulk and becomes
opaque white before the blowpipe, and finally fuses to a
glassy globule.
Obs. Borax was originally brought from a salt lake in
Thibet, where it is dug in considerable masses from the
edges and shallow parts ofthe lakes. The holes thus made
in a short time become filled again with borax. The crude
borax was formerly sent to Europe under the name oftincal,
and there purified for the arts. It has also been found in
Peru and Ceylon. It has of late been extensively made
from the boracic acid of the Tuscany lagoons by the reaction
of this acid on carbonate of soda.
Uses. Borax is used as a flux not only by the mineralo-
gist in blowpipe experiments, but extensively in metallurgi-
cal operations, in the process of soldering, and in the manu-
facture ofgems.
Boracic acid. Occurs in small scales, white or yellowish. Feel
smooth and unctuous. Taste acidulous and a little saline and bitter.
G=1.48. Composition, boracic acid 56.38, water 43.62 . Fuses easily
inthe flame ofacandle, tinging the flame at first green.
Found at the crater ofVulcano, and also at Sasso in Italy, whence it
was called Sassolin. The hot vapors of the lagoons of Tuscany afford
it in large quantities. The vaporsare made to pass through water,
which condenses them ; and the water is then evaporated by the steam
ofthe springs, and boracic acid obtained in large crystalline flakes. It

What are some ofthe characters ofborax ? What is its composition ?

What are its effects before the blowpipe ? What is it used for ? Where
was it originally obtained ? How is it procured in Tuscany ? What
is boracic acid ? What is said of the boracic acid lagoons of Tuscany ?
108 SALTS OF BARYΤΑ .

still requires purification, asthe best thus procured contains but 50 per
cent. of the pure acid.
It is employed in the manufacture of borax. Boron occurs in nature
also, in datholite, tourmaline and borate of lime,but these are not a
sufficient source to be employed in the arts.
Thenardite. Thenardite is an anhydrous sulphate of soda from Es-
partine in Spain.
Gay-Lussite. Occurs in oblong crystals, in a lake in Maracaibo
S. A.; it is a hydrous compound of the carbonates of lime and soda.
Glauberite. In oblique cystals, (usually flattened, with sharp edges,)
nearlytransparent and yellowish-gray in color. Taste weak, slightly
saline ; consists of49 per cent. of sulphate of lime and 51 of sulphate of
soda. Occurs in rock salt at Villa Rubia, Spain, and also atAussee in
Upper Austria, and Vic in France.
4. BARYΤΑ .

The salts of baryta are distinguished by their high specific

gravity, which ranges from 3.5 to 4.8. They resemble the
salts of strontia, and some of the metallic salts. From the
latter they are distinguished by giving no odor nor metal-
lic reaction before the blowpipe, when pure. Hardness
below 4.

HEAVY SPAR.-Sulphate ofBaryta.

Trimetric. In modified rhombic and rectangular prisms,
1 2
(figs. 1, 2) M : M = 101 ° 40' ;
P
P : a = 141° 10' ; P : a=127° P

M
M
18'. Crystals usually tabular. M
Massive varieties often coarse
lamellar; also columnar, fibrous, granular and compact.
Luster vitreous; color white and sometimes tinged yellow,
red, blue or brown. Transparent or translucent. H = 2.5-
3.5 . Gr= 4.3-4.8. Some varieties are fetid when rubbed.
Composition : sulphuric acid 34, baryta 66. Decrepitates
before the blowpipe and fuses with difficulty.
Dif. Distinguished by its specific gravity from celestine
and arragonite, and also by not effervescing with acids from
the various carbonates ; from the metallic salts,by no metal-
lic reaction before the blowpipe.
Obs. Heavy spar is often associated with the ores of

What is a striking character of the salts of baryta ? How are they

distinguished from salts of the metals? What are the forins of the crys-
tals ofheavy spar? What are the colors? What is the composition ?
 SALTS OF BARYTA. 109

metals. In this way it occurs at Cheshire, Conn.; Hat-

field, Mass.; Rossie and Hammond, New York ; Perkio-
men, Pennsylvania, and the lead mines of the west. At
Scoharie and Pillar Point, near Sackett's harbor, are other
localities. Also near Fredericksburg and elsewhere, Vir-
ginia. The variety from Pillar Point receives a fine polish
and looks like marble, the colors being in bands or clouds.
Uses. Heavy spar is ground up and used as white paint,
and in adulterating white lead. When white lead is mixed
in equal parts with sulphate of barytes it is sometimes called
Venice white, and another quality with twice its weight of
barytes is called Hamburgh white, and another, one-third
white lead, is called Dutch white. When the barytes is very
white, a proportion of it gives greater opacity to the color,
and protects the lead from being speedily blackened by sul-
phureous vapors ; and these mixtures are therefore preferred
for certain kinds of painting. There are establishments for
grinding barytes near New Haven, Ct., where the spar from
Cheshire, Ct., Hatfield, Mass., and Virginia, is used. The
iron ore or ferruginous clay usually mixed with it, is separated
bydigestion in large vats ofdilute sulphuric acid.
WITHERITE.-Carbonate of Baryta.
Trimetric. In modified rhombic prisms, (fig. 8, p. 26.)
M : M= 118 ° 30′ ; M : ē= 149° 15′. Also in six-sided
prisms terminated with pyramids. Cleavage imper-
fect. Also in globular or botryoidal forms : often
massive, and either fibrous or granular. The mas- M
sive varieties have usually a yellowish or grayish
white color, with a luster a little resinous, and are
translucent. The crystals are often white and nearly trans-
parent. H = 3-3.75. Gr= 4.29-4.30. Brittle.
Composition : baryta 77.6, carbonic acid 22.4. Decrep.
itates before the blowpipe and fuses easily to a translucent
globule, opaque on cooling. Effervesces in nitric acid.
Dif. Distinguished by its specific gravity and fusibility
from calcareous spar and arragonite ; ly its action with
acids from allied minerals that are not carbonates ; by yield-
ing no metal from white lead ore, and by not tinging the
flame red, from strontianite.

What are the uses of heavy spar? How is witherite distinguished

from other minerals ?
10
110 SALTS OF BARYTA .

Obs. The most important foreign localities of witherite

are at Alstonmoor in Cumberland, and Anglezark in Lan.
cashire ..
Uses. This mineral is poisonous, and is used in the north
of England for killing rats. The salts of baryta are made
from this species : these salts are much used in chemical
analysis ; the nitrate affords a yellow light in pyrotechny ;
the prepared carbonate is acommon water color.
Barytocalcite occurs at Alstonmoor in Cumberland, England, in
whitish oblique rhombic crystals,M: M=106° 54′ . H=4. G=3.6-
3.7. Consists of the carbonates of lime and baryta.
Bromlite is a mineral of the same composition from Bromley Hil
nearAlston, and from Northumberland, England. Itscrystals are right
rhombic prisms .
Dreelite is a compound ofthe sulphates of baryta and lime, occurring
insmallwhitecrystalsin France.
Sulphato-carbonate ofBaryta occurs in six-sidedprisms.
5. STRONΤΙΑ .

The salts of strontia have a high specific gravity, it

ranging from 3.6 to 4.0. In this respect they most resemble
the salts of baryta, and they are distinguished by the same
characters as the baryta salts from the salts of the metals.
Hardness below 4.

CELESTINE.-Sulphate ofStrontia.
Trimetric. In modified rhombic prisms. M : M=104°
to 104° 30′. Crystals sometimes flattened; often long and
slender. a : a= 103° 58'. Cleavage distinct
a
parallel with M. Massive varieties : columnar
a
MM or fibrous, forming layers halfan inch or more
thick with a pearly luster ; rarely granular.
Color generally a tinge of blue, but sometimes clear white.
Luster vitreous or a little pearly; transparent to translucent.
H=3-3.5. Gr=3.9-4. Very brittle.
Composition : sulphuric acid 43.6, strontia 56.4. De-
crepitates before the blowpipe, and on charcoal fuses rather
easily to a milk white alkaline globule, tinging the flame
red. Phosphoresces when heated.

How is witheritedistinguished from strontianite ? What are itsuses ?

What is said of the salts of strontia ? What is the usual color and
appearance of celestine ? What is the composition ?.
 SALTS OF STRONΤΙΑ. 111

Dif. The long slender crystals are distinguished at once

from heavy spar, as the latter does not occur in such elon-
gated forms. From all the varieties of heavy spar, it differs
in a lower specific gravity and blowpipe characters ; from
the carbonates it is distinguished by not effervescing with
the acids.
Obs. A bluish celestine, in long slender crystals, occurs
at Strontian island, Lake Erie ; Scoharie, Lockport and
Rossie, N. Y., are other localities. A handsome fibrous
variety occurs at Franktown, Huntington county, Pennsyl-
vania. Sicily affords very splendid crystallizations associ-
ated with sulphur : the preceding figure represents one of the
crystals. The prisms are attached by one end, and being
crowded over the surface, they are in beautiful contrast with
the yellow sulphur beneath.
The pale sky-blue tint so common with the mineral, gave
origin to the name celestine.
Uses. Celestine is used in the arts for making the nitrate
of strontia, which is employed for producing a red color in
fire-works. Celestine is changed to sulphuret of strontium
by heating with charcoal, and then by means of nitric acid
the nitrate is obtained.

STRONTIANITE.-Carbonate of Strontia.
Trimetric. In modified rhombic prisms. M : M = 117°
19' . Cleavage parallel to M, nearly perfect. Occurs also
fibrous and granular, and sometimes in globular shapes with
a radiated structure within.
Color usually a light tinge of green ; also white, gray and
yellowish-brown. Luster vitreous, or somewhat resinous.
Transparent to translucent. H= 3.5-4. Gr= 3.6-3.72.
Brittle.
Composition : strontia 70.1, carbonic acid 29.9. Fuses
before the blowpipe on thin edges, tinging the flame red ;
becomes alkaline in a strong heat ; effervesces with the
acids.
Dif. Its effervescence with acids distinguishes it from
minerals that are notcarbonates; the color ofthe flame before
the blowpipe, from witherite ; and this character and the

For what is celestine used ? How do strontianite and celestine dif-

fer incomposition ? What are distinguishing characters of strontianite ?
112 SALTS OF LIME .

fusibility, although difficult, from calc spar. Calc sparse

times reddens the flame, but not so deeply.
Obs. Strontianite occurs in limestone at Scoharie, New
York, in crystals, and also fibrous and massive. Strontian
in Argyleshire, England, was the first locality known, and
gave the name to the mineral and the earth strontia. It
occurs there with galena in stellated and fibrous groups and
incrystals.
Uses. This mineral is used for preparing the nitrate of
strontia, which is extensively employed forgiving a red color
to fire-works.

6. LIME.

With the exception of the nitrate of lime, none of the

native salts of lime are soluble, unless in minute propor-
portions. Theygiveno odor, and no metallic reactionbefore
the blowpipe, except such as may arise from mixture with
iron or manganese. The specific gravity is below 3-2, and
hardness not above 5. The few metallic salts of lime
(arsenate of lime, tungstate of lime,&c.) are arranged with
the metallic ores.

GYPSUM.-Sulphate of Lime.
1 2
Monoclinate. Usually in right rhom-
boidal prisms, with beveled sides. M :
4/
T= 111°14 a : a= 143°28 ; e : e=
P
110° 36′. Figure 2 represents a com-
ee
montwin (or arrowhead) crystal. Emi-
nently foliated in one direction and
cleaving easily, affording lamine that
are flexible but not elastic. Occurs also
in laminated masses, often of large size ; in fibrous masses,
with a satin luster; in stellated or radiating forms consisting
ofnarrow lamine; also granular and compact.
When pure and crystallized it is as clear and pellucid as
glass, and has a pearly luster. Other varieties are gray,
yellow, reddish, brownish, and even black, and opaque.

Whence the name of the mineral and earth strontia? For what is it
used ? What is said of the salts of lime ? What are the prominent
characters ofgypsum ?
 GYPSUM. 113

H= 1.5-2, or so soft as to be easily cut with a knife.

Gr=2-31-2-33. The plates bend in one direction and are
brittle in another.
Composition : lime 32.9, sulphuric acid 46.3, water 20.8.
Before the blowpipe it becomes instantly white and opaque
and exfoliates, and then falls to powder or crumbles easily in
the fingers. At a high heat it fuses with difficulty. No
action with acids.
The principal varieties are as follows :
Selenite, including the transparent foliated gypsum, so
called in allusion to its color andluster from selene, the Greek
word for moon.
Radiated gypsum, having a radiated structure.
Fibrous gypsum or satin spar, white and delicately fibrous.
Snowy gypsum and alabaster, including the white or light-
colored compact gypsuın having a very fine grain.
Dif. The foliated gypsum resembles some varieties of
Heulandite, stilbite,talcand mica; and the fibrous, looks like
fibrous carbonate of lime, asbestus and some of the fibrous
zeolites ; but gypsum in all its varieties is readily distin-
guished by its softness ; its becoming an opaque white powder
immediately and without fusion before the blowpipe, and by
not effervescing nor gelatinizing with acids.
Obs. NewYork, near Lockport, affords beautiful selenite
and snowy gypsum in limestone. At Camillus and Manlius,
N. Y., and in Davidson county, Tenn., are other localities.
Fine crystals of the form represented in figure 1, come from
Poland and Camfield, Ohio, and large groups ofcrystals from
the St. Marys in Maryland. Troy, N. Y., also affords crys-
tals in clay. In the mammoth cave, Kentucky, alabaster
occurs in singularly beautiful imitation of flowers, leaves,
shrubbery and vines. Alabaster comes mostly from Caste-
lino in Italy, 35 miles from Leghorn. Massive gypsum oc-
curs abundantly in New York, from Syracuse westward to
the western extremity of Genesee county, accompanying the
rocks which afford the brine springs ; also in Ohio, Illinois,
Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas and Nova Scotia. It is
abundant also in Europe.
Uses. Gypsum whenburnt and ground up forms a white

What is the composition of gypsum? What is alabaster? What

effect is produced by heat? How is gypsum distinguished from talc,
mica and other minerals ?
10*
114 GYPSUM.

powder, which, after being mixed with a little water, be.

comes on drying, hard and compact. This ground gypsum
is plaster of Paris, and is used for taking casts, making
models, and for giving a hard finish to walls. Alabaster is
cut into vases and various ornaments, statues, &c. It owes
its beauty for this purpose to its snowy whiteness, translu-
cency and fine texture. It is moreover so soft as to be cut
or carved with common cutting instruments. Gypsum is
ground up and used for improving soils.
ANHYDRITE.-Anhydrous Sulphate of Lime.
Trimetric. In rectangularprisms, cleaving easily in three
a
directions, and readily breaking into
1
2
a
square blocks. The figure is a side view
M e ofa crystal ; M : à = 124º 10' ; M : a =
153° 50' ; M : e = 135° 15'. Occurs
also fibrous and lamellar, often contort-
ed; also coarse and fine granular and
compact.
Color white or tinged with gray, red, or blue. Luster
more or less pearly. Transparent to subtranslucent. H=
2.5-3.0. Gr 2.9-3 .
The crystallized varieties have been called muriacite.
Vulpinite is a siliceous variety containing 8 per cent. of
silex, and a little above the usual hardness, (3.5.)
Composition : lime 41.5, sulphuric acid 58.5. It is a sul-
phate of lime like gypsum, but differs in containing no water.
Whitens before the blowpipe, but does not exfoliate like
gypsum, and finally with some difficulty becomes covered
with a friable enamel. No action with acids.
Dif. Differs from gypsum in being harder and not ex-
foliating when heated ; from carbonate of lime and the
zeolites which it sometimes resembles, in the non-action of
acids, and its action before the blowpipe. Its square forms of
crystallization and cleavage are also good distinguishing
characters.
Obs. A fine blue crystallized anhydrite occurs with gyp-
sum and calcareous spar in a black limestone at Lock-
port. Foreign localities are at the salt mines ofBex in Swit-
What is plaster of Paris, and how is it used ? For what is alabaster
used ? How is gypsum employed in agriculture ? How does anhydrite
differ in composition from gypsum ? Mention other distinguishing
characters.
 CALCAREOUS SPAR. 115

zerland, at Hall in the Tyrol, at Ischil in Upper Austria,

Wieliczka in Poland and elsewhere.
Uses. The vulpinite variety is sometimes cut and polished
for ornamental purposes.
CALCITE-Calcareous Spar-Carbonate of Lime.
Rhombohedral, (fig. 1.) R: R= 105° 5'. Cleavage easy
parallel with the faces ofthe fundamental rhombohedron.
1 2 3 4 5

Figure 1, is the fundamental rhombohedron ; figure 2, is a

flat rhombohedron with the lateral angles removed, sometimes
called nail-head spar; figure 3, is a six-sided prism ; figure
4, an acute rhombohedron ; figure 5, a scalenedodecahedron,
the form of the variety called dog-tooth spar. Figures 28,
28a, 30, 31, page 32 ; 62, 63, page 39 ; and 66, page 40, are
other forms. Calcareous spar also occurs fibrous with a
silky luster, sometimes lamellar, and often coarse or fine
granular and compact.
The purest crystals are transparent with avitreous luster ;
the impure massive varieties are often opaque, and without
luster, or even earthy. The colors ofthe crystals are either
white or some light grayish, reddish or yellowish tint, rarely
deep red; occasionally topaz yellow, rose or violet. The
massive varieties are of various shades from white to black,
generally dull unless polished. H=3. Gr 2.5-2.8.
Composition : lime 56.3, carbonic acid 43.7 : sometimes
impure from mixture with iron, silica, clay, bitumen and
other minerals. Infusible before the blowpipe, but gives
out an intense light, and is ultimately reduced to quicklime.
Effervesces with the acids. Many varieties phosphoresce
when heated.

What is the fundamental form ofcalcite or cale spar ? What are its
colors and appearance ? What is its composition ?
116 SALTS OF LIME .

This species takes on a great variety of forms and colors,

and has received names for the more prominent varieties.
Iceland spar.-Transparent crystalline calc spar, first
brought from Iceland. Shows well double refraction.
Satin spar. A finely fibrous variety with a satin luster
Receives a handsome polish. Occurs usually in veins
traversing rocks ofdifferent kinds.
Chalk.
-White and earthy, without luster, and so soft as
to leave a trace on a board. Forms mountain beds .
Rock milk.-White and earthy like chalk, but still softer,
and very fragile. It is deposited from waters containing
lime in solution.
Calcareous tufa.-Formed by deposition from waters like
rock milk, but more cellular or porous and not so soft.
Stalactite, Stalagmite. The name stalactite is explained
on page 54. The deposits of the same origin that cover
the floor of a cavern, are called stalagmite. They gen
erally consist of different colored layers, and appear banded
or striped when broken. The so-called " Gibraltar rock"
is stalagmite from acavern in the rock of Gibraltar.
Limestone is a general name for all the massive varieties
occurring in extensive beds.
Oolite, Pisolite.-Oolite is a compact limestone, consist-
ing of small round grains, looking like the spawn of a fish ;
the name is derived from the Greek öon, an egg. Pisolite, a
name derived from pisum, the Latin for pea, differs from
oolite in consisting of larger particles.
Argentine. A white shining limestone consisting of
laminæ a little waving, and containing a small proportion of
silica.
Fontainebleau limestone. This name is applied to crystals,
ofthe form in figure 4, containing a large proportion ofsand,
and occurring in groups . They were formerly obtained at
Fontainebleau, France, but the locality is exhausted.
Granular limestone. A limestone consisting of crystal-
line grains. It is called also primary limestone. The
coarser varieties when polished constitute the common white
and clouded marbles, and the material of which marble
buildings are made. The finer are used for statuary, and
What is Iceland spar ? What is chalk ? How does satin spar under
this species differ from that which is a variety of gypsum ? What is
calcareous tufa ? How are stalactites and stalagmite formed ? Wha
is limestone ? What is oolite ? What is said ofgranular limestone ?
 CALCAREOUS SPAR. 117

called statuary marble. The best is as clear and fine grained

as loaf sugar, which it much resembles.
Compact limestone. The common secondary limestones,
breaking with a smooth surface, without any appearance of
grains. The rock is very variously colored, sometimes of
auniform tint, and frequently in bands, blotches or veinings,
and always nearly dull until polished. The varieties form
marbles of as many kinds.
Stinkstone, Anthraconite. A limestone, either columnar
or compact, which gives out a fetid odor when struck.
Plumbocalcite, from Cornwall, contains 2.34 per cent. of
carbonate of lead.
Dif. The varieties ofthis species are easily distinguished
by their being scratched easily with a knife, in connection
with their strongly effervescing with acids, and their com-
plete infusibility. Calc spar is not so hard as arragonite,
and differs entirely in its cleavage.
Obs. Crystallized calcareous spar occurs in magnificent
forms in the vicinity of Rossie, New York. One crystal
from there now at New Haven weighs 165 pounds. Some
rose and purple varieties from this region are very beautiful.
Splendid geodes of the dog-tooth spar variety occur in lime-
stone at Lockport, along with gypsum and pearl spar. Ley-
den and Lowville, N. Y., are other localities. Bergen Hill,
N. J., affords beautiful wine-yellow crystals in amygdaloid.
Argentine occurs near Williamsburg and Southampton, Mass.
Rock milk covers the sides of a cave at Watertown, N. Y. ,
and is now forming. Stalactites of great beauty occur in
Weir's and other caves in Virginia and the Western States ;
also in Ball's cave at Scoharie, N. Y. Chalk occurs in
England and Europe, but has not been met with in the Uni-
ted States. Granular limestones are common in the Eastern
and Atlantic States, and compact limestones in the middle
and Western, and some beds of the former afford excellent
marble for building and some of good quality for statuary.
Uses. Any of the varieties of this mineral when burnt,
form quicklime. Heat drives off the carbonic acid and leaves
the lime in a pure or caustic state. Some limestones con-
tain a portion of clay disseminated throughout it, and these
burn often to hydraulic lime, a kind of lime, of which a

What is said of compact limestone? How is this species distin-

guisned from other species ? What are the uses oflimestone ?
118 SALTS OF LIME .

cement or plaster is made that " sets" under water. See

further, the chapter on Rocks, for the uses of limestone.
ARRAGONITE .

Trimetric. In rhombic prisms, (see fig. 8, page 26) ;

M : M=116° 10'. Cleavage parallel with M. Usually
in compound crystals having the form of a hexagonal prism,
with uneven or striated sides, or in stellated forms consisting
of two or three flat crystals crossing one another. Also in
globular and coralloidal shapes ; also in fibrous seams in
different rocks.
Color white or with light tinges of gray, yellow, green
and violet. Luster vitreous. Transparent to translucent.
H-3.5-4. Gr 2.931 .
In composition, it is identical with calcareous spar, and in
its action before the blowpipe it differs only in falling to
powder readily when heated. Effervesces also with the
acids. Phosphoresces when heated. Some varieties con-
taina few per cent. of carbonate of strontia, but this is not
anessential ingredient.
Dif. The same distinctive characters as calcareous spar,
except its crystalline form and superior hardness, and its
falling to powder before the blowpipe.
Obs. Arragonite occurs mostly in gypsum beds and de-
posits of iron ore; also in basalt and other rocks. The
coralloidal forms are found in iron ore beds, and are called
flos -
ferri, flowers of iron. They look like a loosely inter-
twined or tangled white cord.
The flos-ferri variety occurs at Lockport with gypsum ;
also at Edenville, at the Parish iron ore bed in Rossie, and
inChester county, Pennsylvania. Arragon in Spain affords
six-sided prisms ofarragonite, associated with gypsum. This
locality gave the name to the species.
6. DOLOMITE Magnesian Carbonate of Lime.
Rhombohedral. R : R= 106° 15'. Cleavage perfect
parallel to the primary faces. Faces of rhom-
bodedrons sometimes curved, as in the annexed
figure. Often granular and massive, constitu-
ting extensive beds.
Color white or tinged with yellow, red, green,
What are the usual forms of arragonite ? Does it differ in composi-
tion from calcite ? What are its colors and luster ? What effect is
produced by the blowpipe ?
 DOLOMITE . 119

brown, and sometimes black. Luster vitreous, o a little

pearly. Nearly transparent to translucent. Brittle. H=
3.5-4. Gr-2.8-2.9 .
Composition. Dolomite is a compound of carbonate of
magnesia and carbonate of lime. The common variety con-
sists of 54.2 of the latter to 45.8 of the former. Infusible
before the blowpipe. Effervesces with acids, but more
slowly than calc spar.
The principal varieties of this species are as follows :
Dolomite. White crystalline granular, often not distin-
guishable in external characters from granular limestone,
except that it crumbles more readily.
Pearl spar. This variety occurs in pearly rhombohe-
drons with curved faces.
Rhomb spar, Brown spar.-In rhombohedrons, which
become brown on exposure, owing to their containing 5 to
10 percent. ofoxyd ofiron or manganese.
Miemite. A yellowish brown fibrous variety from Miemo
inTuscany.
Gurhofite. A compact white rock, looking like porcelain
and containing a few per cent. ofsilica.
Dif. Distinctive characters, nearly the same as for cal-
careous spar. It is harder than that species, and differs in
the angles of its crystals, and effervesces less freely ; but
chemical analysis is often required to distinguish them.
Obs. Massive dolomite is common in the Eastern States,
and constitutes much of the coarse white marble used for
building. Crystallized specimens are obtained at the Quar-
antine, Richmond county, N. Y. Rhomb spar occurs in talc
at Smithfield, R. I., Marlboro, Vt., Middlefield, Mass.; pearl
spar in crystals of the above form at Lockport, Rochester,
Glen's Falls ; gurhofite on Hustis's farm, Phillipstown, N. Y.
Dolomite was named in honor of the geologist and traveler,
Dolomieu.
Uses. Dolomite burns to quicklime like calc spaı, and af-
fords a stronger cement. The white massive variety is used
extensively as marble. The magnesian lime has been sup-
posed to injure soils ; but this is believed not to be the case
ifit is air-slaked before being used. It is also employed in
the manufacture of Epsom salts or sulphate of magnesia.

What is the composition of dolomite ? How does it differ from cal-

cite? What are its uses ?
120 SALTS OF LIME .

The mineral is subjected to the action of sulphuric acid ; the

sulphate of lime being insoluble is deposited, leaving the sul
phate of magnesia in solution. A more economical method
is to boil the calcined stone in proper proportions in bittern ;
the muriatic acid ofthe bittern takes up the lime.
Ankerite. This species resemblesbrown spar, and like that becomes
brown on exposure. The primary is a rhombohedron of 106° 12′. It
consists ofthe carbonates of lime,magnesia,iron, and manganese. The
Styrian iron ore beds and Saltzburg are some of its foreign localities.
Itissaidtooccur inveins atQuebec
Que and at West Springfield, Mass.

7, APATITE.-Phosphate of Lime.
In hexagonal prisms. The annexed figure represents a
crystal from St. Lawrence county, New York.
Cleavage imperfect.
Usually occurs in crystals ; but occasionally
MMM massive; sometimes mammillary with acompact
fibrous structure. Small crystals are occasionally
transparent and colorless, but the usual color is
green, oftenyellowish-green, bluish-green,andgrayish-green ;
sometimes yellow, blue, reddish or brownish. Coarse crys-
tals nearly opaque. Luster resinous, or a little oily. H=5.
Gr-3-3-25. Brittle. Some varieties phosphoresce when
heated, and some become electric by friction.
Composition : phosphate of lime 92.1, fluorid of calcium
7.0, chlorid of calcium 0.9. Infusible before the blowpipe
except on the edges. Dissolves slowly in nitric acid without
effervescence. Its constituents are contained in the bones
and ligaments ofanimals, andthe mineral has probably been
derived in manycases from animal fossils.*
Asparagus stone is a translucent wine-yellow variety oc-
curring in talc at Zillerthal in the Tyrol. Phosphorite is a
massive variety from Estremadura in Spain, and Schlacken-
wald inBohemia. Moroxite is a greenish-blue varietyfrom
Arendal. Eupyrchroite (Emmons) is a fibrous mammillary
variety from Crown Point, Essex county, N. Y.

What is the common form ofapatite ? is colors and appearance ? Is

it harder than calc spar ? What is the principal constituent in its com-
position ? What is a probable origin of this mineral in many cases ?

*Bones contain 55 per cent. ofphosphate of lime, with some fluorid

of calcium, 3 to 12 per cent. of carbonate of lime, some phosphate of
magnesia and chlorid of sodium, besides 33 per cent. of animal matter.
 FLUOR SPAR. 121

Dif. Distinguished by its inferior hardness fron beryl, it

being easily scratched with aknife ; by dissolving in acids
without effervescence from carbonate of lime and other car-
bonates ; by its difficult fusibility, and giving no metallic
reaction before the blowpipe from phosphate of lead and
other metallic species. Its phosphorescence is also an im-
portant characteristic.
Obs. Apatite occurs in gneiss and mica slate, granular
limestone, and occasionally in ancient volcanic rocks. The
finest localities in the United States occur in granular lime-
stone. The crystals from the limestone of St. Lawrence
county, N. Y., are among the largest yet discovered in any
part of the world. One from Robinson's farm measured a
foot in length and weighed 18 pounds. But they are nearly
opaque and the edges are usuallyrounded. They occur with
scapolite, sphene, &c. Edenville andAmity, Orangecounty,
N. Y., afford fine crystals from halfan inch to twelve inches
long. At Westmoreland, N. H., fine crystals are obtained in
avein of feldspar and quartz ; also at Blue Hill bay in Maine.
Bolton, Chesterfield, Chester, Mass., are other localities. A
beautiful blue variety is obtained at Dixon's quarry, Wil-
mington, Delaware.
The name apatite, from the Greek apatao, to deceive, was
given in allusion to the mistake of early mineralogists re-
specting the nature ofsome of its varieties.
8. FLUOR SPAR-Fluorid of Calcium, Fluate ofLime.
Monometric. Cleavage octahedral, perfect. Secondary
forms, the following :
P

A A
P P P
' P
P
P
a

Rarely occurs fibrous; often compact, coarse or fine gran-

ular. Colors usually bright ; white, or some shade of light
green, purple, or clear yellow are most common; rarely
rose-red and sky-blue; colors of massive varieties often

How is apatitedistinguished from beryl? howfrom carbonates? how

from phosphate of lead? What is said of the crystalline form and
cleavage of fluor spar ? What is said of its colors and appearance ?
11
122 SALTS OF LIME .

banded. The crystals are transparent ortranslucent. H=4.

Gr-3-14-3.18 . Brittle.
Composition : fluorine 47·7, calcium 52.3. Phosphoresces
on ahot iron, giving out a bright light of different colors ;
in some varieties the light is emerald green ; in others, pur-
ple, blue, rose-red, pink, or an orange shade. Before the
blowpipe it decrepitates, and ultimately fuses to an enamel.
Pulverised and moistened with sulphuric acid, agas is given
off which corrodes glass.
The name chlorophane has been given to the variety that
affords a green phosphorescence.
Dif. In its bright colors, fluor resembles some of the
gems, but its softness at once distinguishes it. Its strong
phosphorescence is a striking characteristic ; and also its
affording easily, with sulphuric acid and heat, a gas that cor-
rodes glass.
Obs. Fluor spar occurs in veins in gneiss, mica slate,
clay slate, limestone,and sparingly inbeds ofcoal. It is the
gangue insome lead mines.
Cubic crystals ofa greenish color, over a foot each way,
have been obtained at Muscolonge Lake, St. Lawrence
county, N. Y. Near Shawneetown on the Ohio, a beautiful
purple fluor in grouped cubes of large size is obtained from
limestone and the soil of the region. At Westmoreland,
N. H., at the Notch in the White Mountains, Blue Hill Bay,
Maine, Putney, Vt., and Lockport, N. Y., are other locali-
ties. The chlorophane variety is found with topaz at Hun-
tington, Conn.
In Derbyshire, England, fluor spar is abundant, and hence
it has received the name of Derbyshire spar. It is a common
mineral in the mining districts ofSaxony.
Fluorid of calcium is also found in the enamel of teeth,
inbones and some other parts of animals ; also in certain
parts ofmany plants ; and by vegetable or animal decompo-
sition it is afforded to the soil, to rocks, and also to coal beds
in which it has been detected.
Uses. Massive fluor receives a high polish and is worked
into vases, candlesticks and various ornaments, in Derbyshire,
England. Some of the varieties from this locality, consisting
of rich purple shades banded with yellowish white, are very
What is said of the phosphorescence of calc spar? Of what does it
consist? What is chlorophane ? Howis fluor spar distinguished from
the gems? What are its uses ?
 FLUOR SPAR. 123

beautiful. The mineral is difficult to work on account of be-

ing brittle. It is usually turned in a lathe, and worked down
first with a fine steel tool ; then with a coarse stone, and
afterwards with pumice and emery. The crevices which
occur in the masses are sometimes concealed by filling them
with galena, a mineral often found with the fluor. Fluor
spar is also used for obtaining fluoric acid, which is employed
in etching. To etch glass, a picture, or whatever design it
is desired to etch, is traced in the thin coating of wax* with
which the glass is first covered ; a very small quantity of the
liquid fluoric acid is then washed over it ; on removing the
wax, in a fewminutes, the picture is found to be engraved on
the glass. The same process is used for etching seals, and
anysiliceous stone will be attacked with equal facility. Fluor
spar is also used as a flux to aid in reducing copper and
other ores, and hence the namefluor.
Hayesine orHydrous Borate of Lime. Occurs in snowy white inter-
woven fibers, with gypsum and alum on the plains of Iquique, S. A.
Hydroboracite. Ahydrous borate of lime and magnesia resembling
somewhat a white fibrous gypsum. It is of Caucasian origin.
Oxalate of Lime. Observed on calc spar in small oblique crystals.
Locality unknown.
Nitrate of Lime. In white delicate efflorescences ; deliquescent.
Also in solution in some waters . The salt is formed in calcareous
caverns and covered spots of earth where the soil is calcareous. It is
extensively used in the manufacture of saltpeter, (nitrate of potash.)
Occurs in the caverns ofKentucky and other Western States.
7. MAGNESIA .

The sulphates and nitrate of magnesia are soluble, and are

distinguished by their bitter taste. The other native mag-
nesian saltsare insoluble. The presence ofmagnesia when
no metallic oxyds are present is indicated by a blowpipe
experiment : after heating a fragment, moisten it with a solu-
tion ofnitrate ofcobalt, and then subject it again to the heat

How is glass etched by means of fluor spar ? What is the origin of

the name fluor ? What is said of the occurrence and uses of nitrate
of lime? What is the taste of soluble salts ofmagnesia ? What blow-
pipe test distinguishes them ?

*The best material is a mixture of bees wax and turpentine resin

melted together.
124 SALTS OF MAGNESIA.

of the blowpipe, and it will become pale-red,and deepen in

color by fusion.
Specific gravity of the species in this family, below 3.
Hardness of some species as high as 7.
EPSOM SALT.-Sulphate ofMagnesia.
Trimetric. In modified rhombic prisms, (fig. 8, page 26.)
M : M = 90° 38' . Cleavage perfect parallel with the shorter
diagonal. Usually in fibrous crusts, or botryoidal masses,
of a white color. Luster vitreous-earthy. Very soluble,
and taste bitter and saline.
Composition : magnesia 16.7, sulphuric acid 32.4, water
50.9. Deliquesces before the blowpipe. Does not effer-
vesce with acids.
Dif. The fine spicula-like crystalline grains of Epsom
salt, as it appears in the shops, distinguish it from Glauber
salt, which occurs usually in thick crystals.
Obs. The floors of the limestone caves of the West often
contain Epsom salt in minute crystals mingled with the
earth. In the Mammoth Cave, Ky., it adheres to the roofin
loose masses like snow-balls. It occurs as an efflorescence
on the east face of the Helderberg, 10 miles from Coeymans.
The fine efflorescences suggestedthe old name hair salt.
At Epsom in Surrey, England, it occurs dissolved in min-
eral springs, and from this place the salt derived the name
it bears. It occurs at Sedlitz, Arragon, and other places in
Europe ; also in the Cordilleras of Chili ; and in a grotto in
Southern Africa, where it forms a layer an inch and ahalf
thick.
Uses. Its medical uses are well known. It is obtained
for the arts from the bittern of sea-salt works, and quite
largely from magnesian carbonate of lime, by decomposing
it with sulphuric acid. The sulphuric acid takes the lime
and magnesia, expelling the carbonic acid ; and the sulphate
ofmagnesia remaining in solution is poured offfrom the sul-
phate of lime, which is insoluble. It is then crystallized by
evaporation.
MAGNESITE.- Carbonate of Magnesia.
Rhombohedral ; R : R=107° 22′. Cleavage rhombohe-
dral, perfect. Often in fibrous plates the surface of which
Of what does Epsom salt consist ? Where does it occur ? Whence
the name Epsom ?
 CARBONATE OF MAGNESIA. 125

frequently consists of minute acicular crystals ; also granular

and compact and in tuberous forms. Color white, yellow-
ish or grayish-white or brown. Luster vitreous ; fibrous
varieties often silky. Transparent to opaque. H=3-4.
Gr=2.8-3.
Composition : carbonic acid 51.7, and magnesia 48-3.
Infusible before the blowpipe. Dissolves slowly with little
effervescence in nitric or sulphuric acid.
Dif. Resembles some varieties of carbonate of lime and
dolomite ; but effervesces more feebly in acids, does not burn
to quicklime, and the light before theblowpipe is less intense.
The fibrous variety is distinguished from amianthus and other
fibrous minerals associated with it, by its greater hardness
and more vitreous luster, and from siliceous minerals gen-
erallybyits complete solubility in acids.
Obs. Magnesite is usually associated with magnesian
rocks, especially serpentine. At Hoboken, N. J., it occurs
in this rock in fibrous seams ; similarly at Lynnfield, Mass.;
and at Bolton, imperfectly fibrous, traversing white lime-
stone.
Uses. When abundant it is a convenient material for the
manufacture of sulphate ofmagnesia orEpsom salt, to make
which, requires simply treatment with sulphuric acid.
BRUCITE. Hydrate of Magnesia.
In foliated hexagonal prisms and plates. Structure thi
foliated, and thin laminæ easily separated and translucent :
flexible but not elastic. Color white and pearly, often gray-
ish or greenish. H= 1.5. Gr= 2.35.
Composition : magnesia 69-7, water 30.3. Infusible be-
fore theblowpipe, but becomes opaque and friable. Entirely
soluble in the acids without effervescence.
Dif. It resembles talc andgypsum, but is soluble in acids ;
it differs from heulandite and stilbite, also by its infusibility.
Obs. Occurs in serpentine at Hoboken, N. J., and Rich-
mond Co. , N. Y., also at Swinaness in Unst, one of the
Shetland Isles.
Nemalite is a fibrous hydrate ofmagnesia or brucite. The
following are its charicters ;

Ofwhat does magnesite consist? How is itdistinguishedfrom most

earthy minerals ? How from cale spar ? For what use is it fitted ?
What is the appearance of nemalite ? its composition ? its locality ?
11*
126 SALTS OF MAGNESIA.

Neatly fibrous and silky ; fibres brittle and easily sepera.

ble. Color whitish, grayish or bluish white ; transparent,
but becomes opaque and crumbling on exposure. H= 2.
Gr- 2-35-2-4.
Composition : magnesia62.0 ; protoxyd of iron 4.6 ; water
28.4; carbonic acid 4.1;-(Whitney.) In the flame of a
candle the fibres become opaque, brownish and rigid, and in
this state easily crumble in the fingers. Phosphoresces with
a yellow light when rubbed with apiece ofiron.
Dif. Resembles abestus or amianthus, but differs in
becoming brittle before the blowpipe.
Obs. Occurs in serpentine at Hoboken, N. J., in green-
stone at Piermont, Rockland Co., N. Y., and Bergen Hill,
N. J.
Hydromagnesite. Thisname isgiventoanearthywhitepul
verulenthydrous carbonate ofmagnesia, from Hoboken, N. J.
BORACITE.-Borate of Magnesia.
Monometric. Cleavage octahedral; but only in traces.
P
a
Usual in cubes with only the
alternate angles replaced ; or
P P P P
having all replaced, but four
of them different from the oth-
er four. The crystals are
translucent and seldom more than a quarter of an inch
through. Color white or grayish; sometimes yellowish or
greenish. Luster vitreous. H=7. Gr 2.97. Becomes
electric when heated, the opposite angles of the cube be-
coming of opposite poles, one north and the other south.
Composition : boracic acid 62.8, magnesia 37.2. Intu-
mesces before the blowpipe and forms a glassy globule,
which becomes crystalline and opaque on cooling.
Dif. Distinguished readily by its form, high hardness,
and pyro-electric properties.
Obs. Boracite is found only with gypsum and common
salt. It occurs near Luneberg in Lower Saxony, and near
Kiel in the adjoining dutchy of Holstein.
Nitrate of Magnesia. Occurs in white deliquescent efflorescences,
having abitter taste, associated with nitrate of lime, in limestone cav-

What is Brucite ? What is its appearance ? How is it distinguished

from talc, gypsum, and other minerals ? What is said of the crystals of
boracite ? What is stated of its electric properties ? What is its com-
position ? What is its mode of occurrence ?
 SALTS OF ALUMINA . 127

erns. It is used, like its associate, in the manufacture of saltpeter

(seepage 102.)
Polyhalite. Abrick-red saline mineral, with a weak bitter taste,
occurring in masses which have a somewhat fibrous appearance. Con-
sists of the sulphates of lime, potash and magnesia, with six per cent.
of water.
Wagnerite. A fluo-phosphate of magnesia, occurring in yellowish
or grayish oblique rhombic prisms. Insoluble. H=5-5.5. Gr= 3.1 .
From Saltzberg, Germany.
Rhodizite. Resembles boracite in its crystals, but tinges the blow-
pipe flame deep red. Occurs with the red tourmaline of Siberia.

8. ALUMΙΝΑ .

The compounds of alumina may often be distinguished by

a blowpipe experiment. If a fragment of alumina after
having been heated to redness be moistened with a solution
of nitrate of cobalt and again heated, it assumes before fu-
sion ablue color. This is a good test, and distinguishes
aluminous from magnesian minerals, except when the oxyds
of the metals are present.
The sulphates, fluorids and some of the phosphates, (tho
salts included in this family,) are soluble with more or less
difficulty, in the acids; and some of the sulphates (tho vari-
ous alums) dissolve readily in water.
The solution in acids takes place without effervescence,
and without forming ajelly like many silicates of alumina
(the zeolites, &c.)
Specific gravities of the species below 3.1. Hardness of
some species as high as 6.
NATIVE ALUM .

Monometric. Cleavage octahedral. Occurs in octahe-

drons; but usually in silky fibrous masses, or in
efflorescent crusts. Taste sweetish astringent. A
le

There are several kinds of native alum, dif- A

e

fering in one of the ingredients in their consti- AA

tution, but resembling one another in crystalli-
zing in octahedrons, and in containing the in-
gredients in exactly the same proportions. They all contain
What blowpipe experiment distinguishes alumina ? What is said of
the sulphates of alumina ? What is the composition of the alums ?
128 SALTS OF ALUMINA.

24parts ofwater to 1 part of sulphate ofalumina,and I part

of some other sulphate. In potash-alum, this sulphate is a
sulphate of potash. This is the common alum of the shops.
The corresponding sulphate inthe other alums is as fol
lows :-
Soda-alum, sulphate of soda;
Magnesia-alum, sulphate of magnesia ;
Ammonia-alum, sulphate of ammonia ;
Iron-alum, sulphate of iron ;
Manganese-alum, sulphate 'of manganese.
Besides these there is also a hydrous sulphate of alumina
without any other sulphate ; it is called feather-alum, and is
even of more common occurrence than any of the true
alums.
These alums are formed from thedecomposition ofpyrites,
in contact with clay. Iron pyrites is acompound of sulphur
and iron; in decomposition, its sulphur and iron unite with
oxygen derived from the moisture present, and it then be-
comes sulphate of iron, or a compound of sulphuric acid and
oxyd of iron. This sulphuric acid, or part of it, by uniting
with the alumina of the clay rock, produces a sulphate of
alumina. To form a true alum, a little potash, or soda, &c.
must be present in the clay. The iron of the iron alum pro-
ceeds from the pyrites which undergoes the decomposition.
These compounds differ but little in taste and appear-
ance.

Obs. Potash alum and more abundantly the sulphate of

alumina (or feather alum), and sulphate ofalumina and iron,
impregnate frequently clay-slates, which are then called
aluminous slates or shales. These alum rocks are often
quarried and lixiviated for the alum theycontain. The rock
is first slowly heated after piling it in heaps, in order to de-
compose the remaining pyrites and transfer the sulphuric
acid of any sulphate ofiron to the alumina and thus produce
the largest amount possible of sulphate of alumina. It is
next lixiviated in stone cisterns. The lye containing this sul-
phate is afterwards concentrated by evaporation, and then
the requisite proportion ofpotash (sulphate or muriate, alum
containing potash as well as alumina) is added to the lix-

What is the composition of common potash alum ? What of asoda

alum ? What are alum shales? Whence the alum orsulphate ofalum-
ina they contain ? How is alum obtain from alum shale ?
 ALUM STONE 129

ivium. A precipitate of alum falls which is afterwards wash-

ed and re-crystallized. The mother liquor left after the pre-
cipitation is also treated for more alum. This process is
carried on extensively in Germany, France, at Whitby in
Yorkshire, Hurlett and Campsie, near Glasgow, in Scot-
land. Cape Sable in Maryland, affords large quantities of
alum annually. The slates of coal beds are often used to
advantage in this manufacture, owing to the decomposing
pyrites present. At Whitby, 130 tons of calcined schist
give one ton of alum. In France, ammoniacal salts are
used instead of potash, and an ammoniacal alum is formed.
Soda alum has been observed at the Solfataras in Italy,
near Mendoza in South America, on the island of Milo in
the Grecian Archipelago. Magnesia alum forms large fib-
rous masses, delicately silky, near Iquique, S. A. This is
the Pickeringite of Mr. A. A. Hayes. Ammonia alum oc-
curs at Tschermig in Bohemia.
ALUM STONE .

Rhombohedral, with a perfect cleavage parallel with a,

(fig. 62, p. 39.) R : R=92° 50′. Also massive. Color
white, grayish or reddish. Luster of crystals vitreous, or a
littlepearly ona. Transparent to translucent. H=5. Gr=
2.58-2-75.
24.Composition : sulphuric acid 25.0, alumina 43-9, silica
34.0, potash 3.1, water and loss 4.00 100. Decrepitates
in the blowpipe flame and is infusible both alone and with
soda. In powder, soluble in sulphuric acid.
Dif. Distinguished by its infusibility, in connection with
its complete solubility in sulphuric acid without forming a
jelly.
Obs. Found in rocks of volcanic origin at Tolfa, near
Rome, and also at Beregh and elsewhere in Hungary.
Uses. At Tolfa, alum is obtained from it by repeatedly
roasting and lixiviating it and finally crystallizing by evapo-
ration. The variety found in Hungary is so hard as to ad-
mit of being used for millstones.
Websterite. Another sulphate of alumina, in compact reniform
masses and tasteless. From Newhaven in Sussex, Epernay in France,
and Halle in Prussia. It is called also aluminite.

What is the color and appearance of alum stone? What its compo-
sition ? What its use, and where is it extensively employed ?
130 SALTS OF ALUMINA.

WAVELLITE .

Trimetric. Usually in smallhemispheres a third or half

an inch across, attached to the
surface of rocks, and having a
finely radiated structure within ;
when broken off they leave a
stellate circle on the rock.
Sometimes in rhombic crystals.
Color white or yellowish and brownish, with a somewhat
pearly or resinous luster. Sometimes green, gray or black.
Translucent. H=3.5-4. Gr-2-23-2-37.
Composition : alumina 37.2, phosphoric acid 35.1, water
28.0. Whitens before the blowpipe but does not fuse. In
powder, dissolves in heated nitric or sulphuric acid.
Dif. Distinguished from the zeolites, some of which it
resembles, by giving the reaction ofphosphorus and also by
dissolvingin acids withoutgelatinizing. Cacoxene, to which
it is allied, becomes dark reddish-brown before the blowpipe,
and gives the reaction of iron.
Obs. Near Saxton's River, Bellows Falls, is the only
locality known in the United States. It was first discover-
edby Dr. Wavel, inclay slate inDevonshire. Occurs also
in Bohemia and Bavaria.
Fischerite is another hydrous phosphate of alumina containing less
phosphoric acid. Gr=2.46. Color dull green. Translucent. Some-
times in six-sided prisms. From the Ural.
TURQUOIS.

Inopaque reniform masses without cleavage, of a bluish

green color and somewhat waxy luster. H=6. Gr =
2.8-3.
Composition : phosphoric acid 30-9, alumina 44.5, oxyd of
copper 3-7, protoxyd of iron 1.8, water 19.0-99.9.
Before the blowpipe it is infusible, but colors the flame green
and in the inner cone becomes brown. Loses its blue color
in muriatic acid.
Dif. Distinguished from bluish green feldspar, which it
resembles, by its infusibility and the reaction ofphosphorus.
Obs. Turquois is brought from amountainous district in
What is theusual appearance of Wavellite ? What is its composi-
tion ? What distinguishes it from the zeolites ? What is the colorand
appearance of turquois ? Its constituents ? How is it distinguished
fromavariety of feldspar ? Where is it found ?
 GIBBSITE . 191

Persia, not far from Nichabour, and according to Agaphi

occurs in veins, that traverse the mountain in every direc-
tion.
The callais of Pliny was probably turquois. Pliny, in
his description of it, mentions the fable that it was found in
Asia, projecting from the surface of inaccessible rocks,
whence it was obtained by means of shings.
Uses. Turquois receives a fine polish and is highly es-
teemed as a gem. In Persia it is much admired, and the
Persian king is said to retain for himself, all the large and
more finely tinted specimens. The occidental or bone Tur-
quois, a much inferior and softer stone, is said to be phos-
phate of lime, colored with oxyd of copper. Green mala-
chite is sometimes substituted for turquois, but it is much soft-
er and has a different tint of color. The stone is so well
imitated by art as scarcely to be detected except by chemi-
cal tests. The imitation is much sofier than true turquois.
GIBBSITE. Hydrate of Alumina.
In small stalactitic shapes or mammillary and incrusting.
Color grayish or greenish white ; surface smooth but nearly
dull. Structure sometimes nearly fibrous. H=3-3.5.
Gr-2-3-2-4.
Composition : alumina64.8, water 35.7.-(Torrey.) Re-
cent examinations have detected a large per-centage ofphos-
phoric acid in some specimens ; but Prof. B. Silliman, Jr. has
also found, in specimens examined by him, as impurity a
proportion of silica without phosphoric acid. The mineral
has resulted from the decomposition of feldspar or some
aluminous mineral, and probably varies in composition. It
whitens but does not fuse before the blowpipe.
Dif. Resembles chalcedony but is softer.
Obs. Occurs in a bed of brown iron ore at Richmond,
Mass., and at Unionvale, Dutchess county, N. Y. This
species was named in honor of Col. George Gibbs.
Lazulite. In compact masses; rarely in prismatic crystals. Color
fine azure blue, and nearly opaque, with a vitreous luster. H= 5-6.
Gr=3-057. Brittle. Contains phosphoric acid 41.8, alumina 35-7
magnesia 9.3, silica 2.1 , protoxyd of iron 2.6, water 6.1=97-7. It in-
What issaid of its use? How is it distinguished from false or arti-
ficial turquois? What is the appearance of Gibbsite ? What is said
ofits composition? How is it distinguished from chalcedony? Wha
is the constitution of lazulite ? its color ?
132 SILICA.

tumesces before the blowpipe without fusing. Occurs in veins inclay

slate at Saltzberg and in Styria; in the United States,near Crowder
Mountain, Lincoln county, N. C.
Mellite or Honeystone. Insquare octahedrons, looking like ahoney-
yellow resin ; may be cut with a knife. It is mellate of alumine.
Found inPrussia and Austria.
Cryolite. In snow white masses,having rectangular cleavages, and
remarkable for melting, easily in the flame of a candle, to which its
name (fromthe Greek kruos, ice,) alludes. H=2-25-2.5. Gr-2-95.
It is a fluorid of aluminium and sodium. From Greenland.
Chiolite is near cryolite in composition and characters. H=3.5.
Gr
-2-6-2-77 . From Siberia.
Fluellite. From Cornwall, in minute white rhombic octahedrons.
Contains fluorine and aluminium.
Childrenite. Found in Derbyshire, Eng., in minute yellowish brown
crystals coating spathic iron. Supposed to consist of phosphoric acid,
alumina and iron.
Amblygoniie. A compound of phosphoric acid, alumina and lithia.
Found in Saxony, inpale green crystals.
Diaspore, orDihydrate of Alumina. Occurs in irregular lamellar
prisms, having a brilliant cleavage; color greenish gray or hair brown.
H=6-6.5. Gr=3-43. It decrepitates with violence before the blow-
pipe. From the Urals, in granular limestone.
CLASS VI.-EARTHY MINERALS.

1. SILICA .

QUARTZ .

Rhombohedral. Occurs usually in six-sidedprisms, more

or less modified, terminated with six-sided pyramids : R; R=
94° 15'. No cleavage apparent, seldomevenintraces; but
sometimes obtained byheating the crystal and plunging it
into cold
1
water. 2The following are some4of its forms :
3 5

R R

R a

R
R

Occurs sometimes in coarse radiated forms ; also coarse

and fine granular; also compact, either amorphous or pre-
senting stalactitic and mamillary shapes.
Crystals are often as pellucid as glass, and usually color-
What is the usual form ofquartz crystals?
 QUARTZ . 133

less; but sometimes present topaz-yellow, amethystine, rose

or smoky tints. Also of all degrees of transparency to
opacity, and of various shades of yellow, red, green, blue and
brown colors, to black. In some varieties the colors are in
bands, stripes, or clouds. H=7. Gr 2.6-2.7.
Composition : quartz is pure silica. Opaque varieties of-
ten contain oxyd of iron, clay, chlorite or some other mineral
disseminated through them. Alone before the blowpipe infu-
sible, but with soda melts readily with abrisk effervescence.
Dif. Quartz is a constituent ofmany rocks, and composes
most of the pebbles of the soil or gravel beds. There is no
mineral which takes on so many forms and colors, yet
none is more easily distinguished. A few simple trials
are all that is required.
1. Hardness-scratches glass with facinty.
2. Infusibility-not melting in any heat obtained with the
blowpipe.
3. Insolubility-not being attacked, like limestone, in any
way, by the three acids.
4. Absence of any thing like cleavage. One variety ap-
pears to be laminated, but it consists merely of apposed
plates, which are the result of having been formed or de-
posited in successive layers, and cannot be mistaken for
cleavage plates.
To these characteristics, its action with soda might be
added. In the crystallized varieties, the form alone is suffi-
cient to distinguish it.
VARIETIES.-The varieties of quartz owe their peculiar-
ities either to crystallization, mode of formation, or impuri-
ties, and they fall naturally into three series.
I. The vitreous varieties, distinguished by their glassy
fracture.
II. The chalcedonic varieties, having a subvitreous or
a waxy luster, and generally translucent.
III. The jaspery varieties, having barely a glimmering
luster and opaque.
1. VITREOUS VARIETIES.
Rock Crystal. Pure pellucid quartz.
This is the mineral to which the word crystal was first
applied by the ancients ; it is derived from the Greek krus-
Whatissaidofthe colorand appearance ofquartz? How is it dis-
tinguished ? What are the three classes of varieties ? What is the
origin of the word crystal ?.
12
134 SILICA.

tallos, meaning ice. The pure specimens are often cut and
used in jewelry, under the name of " white stone."
It is often used for optical instruments and spectacle glass,
and even in ancient times was made into cups and vases.
Nero is said to have dashed to pieces two cups of this kind
on hearing of the revolt that caused his ruin, one of which
cost him a sum equal to $3000.
Amethyst. A purple or bluish-violet variety of quartz-
crystal, often of great beauty. The color is owing to a
trace of oxyd of manganese. It was so called on account
of its supposed preservative powers against intoxication.
The amethyst, especially when large and finely colored,
is highly esteemed as a gem. It is always set in gold.
Rose Quartz. A pink or rose-colored quartz. It seldom
occurs in crystals, but generally in masses much fractured,
and imperfectly transparent. The color ſades on exposure
to the light, and on this account it is little used as an orna-
mental stone, yet is sometimes cut into cups and vases.
The color may be restored by leaving it in a moist place.
False Topaz. This name is applied to the light yellow
pellucid crystals. They are often cut and set for topazes.
The absence of cleavage distinguishes it from true topaz.
The name citrine, often applied to this variety, alludes to its
yellow color.
Smoky Quartz. A smoky-tinted quartz crystal. The
color is sometimes so dark as tobe nearlyblack and opaque
except in splinters. Crystals ofthe lighter shades are often
extremely beautiful and are used for seals and the less deli-
catekinds ofjewelry. It is the cairngorum stone.
Milky quartz. A milk-white, nearly opaque, massive
quartz, of very common occurrence. It has often a greasy
luster, and is thencalledgreasy quartz.
Prase. A leek-green massive quartz, resembling some
shades of beryl in tint, but easily distinguished by the ab-
sence of cleavage and its infusibility. It is supposed to be
coloredby a trace of iron.
Aventurine Quartz. Common quartz spangled throughout
with scales ofgolden-yellow mica. It is usuallytranslucent,
and gray, brown, or reddish brown, in color. The artificial
What use is made of rock crystal ? What is the color of amethyst ?
Why was it so called? What is rose quartz ? What is said of its
color ? What is false topaz ? How is it used? What is smoky quartz ?
What is milky quartz ? What is prase ? What is aventurine quartz ?
 QUARTZ. 135

imitations of this stone are more beautifu. than the natural

aventurine .
Ferruginous Quartz. Includes opaque, yellow, brownish-
yellow, and red crystals. The color is due to oxyd of iron.
These crystals are usually very regular in their forms, (fig
ure 2,) and not distorted like the limpid crystals. They are
sometimes minute and aggregated like the grains of sand in a
sandstone.
II . CHALCEDONIC VARIETIES.
Chalcedony. A translucent massive variety, with a glis-
tening and somewhat waxy luster ; usually of a pale grayish,
bluish, or light brownish shade. It often occurs lining or
filling cavities in amygdaloid and other rocks.
These cavities are nothing but little caverns, into which
siliciceous waters have filtrated at some period. The stalac-
tites are " icicles" of chalcedony, hung from the roof of the
cavity. Some of these chalcedony grottos are several feet
indiameter.
Chrysoprase. An apple-green chalcedony. It is colored
by nickel.
Carnelian. Abright red chalcedony, generally ofa clear
rich tint. It is cut and polished and much used in the more
commonjewelry. The colors are deepened by exposure of
several weeks to the sun's rays. It is often cut for seals and
beads. The Japanese cut great numbers into beads of the
form of the fruit of the olive.
Sard. A deep-brownish red chalcedony, of a blood-red
color by transmitted light.
Agate. A variegated chalcedony. The colors are dis-
tributed in clouds, spots, or concentric lines. These lines
take straight, circular, or zigzag forms ; and when the latter,
it is calledfortification agate, so named from the resemblance
to the angular outlines of a fortification. These lines are
the edges of layers of chalcedony, and these layers are the
successive deposits during the process of its formation.
Mocha stone or Moss agate is a brownish agate, consisting
of chalcedony with dendritic or moss-like delineations, ofan
opaque yellowish brown color. They arise from dissem-
inated oxyd of iron ; all the varieties of agate are beau-
What is ferruginous quartz ? Describe chalcedony. What is said
ofits formation? What is chrysoprase? What is carnelian? How is
its color deepened ? For what is it used ? What is sard ? Describe
agate.
136 SILICA.

tiful stones when polished, but are not much used in fine
jewelry. The colors may bedarkened by boiling the stone
in oil, and then dropping it into sulphuric acid. A little oil
is absorbed by some of the layers, which becomes blackened.
or charred by the acid.
Onyx. This is a kind of agate with the colors arranged
in flat horizontal layers. They are usually light clearbrown
and an opaque white. When the stone consists of sard
and white chalcedony in alternate layers, it is called sar-
donyx.
Onyx is the material used for cameos, and is well fitted
for this kind of miniature sculpture. The figure is carved
out of one layer and stands in relief on another. The most
noted of the ancient cameos is the Mantuan vase at Bruns.
wick. It was cut from a single stone, and has the form of a
creampot, about 7inches high and 2 broad. On its out-
side, which is of abrown color, there are white and yellow
groups ofraised figures, representing Ceres and Triptolemus
in search ofProserpine. The Museo Borbonico contains an
onyx measuring eleven inches by nine, representing the
apotheosis of Augustus ; and another exhibiting the apothe-
osis of Ptolemy on one side and the head of Medusa on the
other. Both are splendid specimens of the art, and the
former is supposed to be the largest in existence.
Cat's eye. This is a greenish-gray translucent chalcedo-
ny, having a peculiar opalescence, or glaring internal reflec-
tions, like the eye of a cat, when cut with a spheroidal sur-
face. The effect is owing to filaments of asbestus. It
comesfrom Ceylon and Malabar, ready cut and polished, and
is agem of considerable value.
Flint, Hornstone. Flint is massive compact silica, of dark
shades of smokygray, brown, or evenblack, and feebly trans-
lucent. It breaks with sharp cutting edges and a conchoid-
al surface. It is well known as the material of gun-flints.
It occurs in nodules in chalk : not unfrequently the nodules
are in part chalcedonic. Hornstone resembles flint, but is
more brittle, and therefore unfit for making into flints. It is
found in limestone, and one of these rocks is called cherty
limestone, from the abundance of it.
Plasma. This is a faintly translucent variety of chalce-
How may the colors of agate be deepened ? What is onyx? For
what is it used ? What are some of the remarkable camees ? What
is cat's eye ? What is flint? How does it differ from hornstone.
 QUARTZ. 187

dony approachingjasper, of a greenish color, sprinkled with

yellow and whitish dots.
III. JASPERY VARIETIES.
Jasper. A dull red or yellow siliceous rock, containing
some clay and yellow or red oxyd of iron. The yellow
Jasper becomes red by heat, owing to its rendering the iron
anhydrous. It also occurs of green and other shades. Ri-
bandjasper is ajasper consisting of broad stripes of green,
yellow, gray, red or brown. Egyptian jasper consists of
these colors in irregular concentric zones, and occurs in no-
dules, which are usually sawn across and polished. Ruin
jasper is a variety with delineations like ruins, of some
brownish or yellowish shade on a darkerground. Porcelain
jasper is nothing but abaked clay, anddiffers from jasper in
being fusible before the blowpipe. Redporphyry resembles
red jasper; but this is also fusible, andconsists almost purely
of feldspar.
Jasper admits of ahigh polish, and is ahandsome stone
for inlaid work, but is not used as a gem.
Bloodstone or Heliotrope. This is a deep green stone,
slightly translucent, containing spots of red, which have
some resemblance to drops of blood. It contains a few per
cent. of clay and oxyd of iron mechanically combined with
the silica. The red spots are colored with iron. There is
abust of Christ inthe royal collection at Paris, cut in this
stone, in which the red spots are so managed as to represent
drops of blood.
Lydian stone, Touchstone, Basanite. A velvet-black si-
liceous stone or flinty jasper, used on account of its hardness
and black color for trying the purity of the precious metals ;
this was done by comparing the color of the tracing left on
it with that of an alloy ofknown character.
Besides the above there are also two or three other varie-
ties, arising from structure.
Float stone. This variety consists of fibres or filaments,
aggregated in a spongy form, and so light as to float in wa-
ter. It comes from the chalk formations of Menil Montant,
near Paris.
Tabular quartz. Consists of thin plates, either parallel
or crossing one another and leaving large open cells.
Granular quartz. A rock consisting of quartz grains
compactly cemented. The colors are white, gray, flesh-red,
What isplasma? Whatis jasper ? What isbloodstone ? Lydian stone ?
12
*
138 SILICA.

yellowish or reddish brown. Sandstone often consists of

nearlypure quartz.
Silicified wood. Petrified wood often consists of quartz.
Some specimens, petrified with chalcedony or agate, are
remarkably beautiful when sawn across and polished, re-
taining all the texture or grain as perfect as inthe original
wood.
Penetrating substances. Quartz crystals are sometimes
penetrated by other minerals. Rutile, asbestus, actinolite,
topaz, tourmaline, chlorite and anthracite, are some of these
substances. The rutile often looks like needles or fine hairs
of a brown color passing through in every direction. They
are cut forjewelry, and in France pass by the name ofFlèches
d'amour, (love's arrows.) The crystals of Herkimer county,
N. Y., often contain anthracite. Other crystals contain
cavities filled with some fluid, as water, naphtha or somo
mineral solution.
Loc. Fine quartz crystals occur in Herkimer county,
New York, at Middlefield, Little Falls, Salisbury and New-
port, in the soil and in cavities in a sandstone. The beds of
iron ore at Fowler and Hermon, St. Lawrence county, af-
ford dodecahedral crystals. Diamond rock near Lansing-
burg is an old locality, but not affording at present good
specimens. Diamond Island, Lake George, Pelham and
Chesterfield, Mass., Paris and Perry, Me., and Meadow Mt.,
Md., are other localities. Small unpolished rhombohedrons,
the primary form, have been found at Chesterfield, Mass.
Rose quartz is found at Albany and Paris, Me., Acworth,
N. H., and Southbury, Conn.; smoky quartz at Goshen,
Mass., Paris, Me., and elsewhere ; amethyst at Bristol, R. I.,
and Kewenaw Point, Lake Superior ; chalcedony and agates
ofmoderate beauty nearNorthampton, and along the trap of
the Connecticut valley-but finer near Lake Superior, upon
some of the Western rivers, and in Oregon ; chryroprase
occurs at Belmont's lead mine, St. Lawrence county, N. Y.,
andagreen quartz (often called chryroprase) at New Fane,
Vt., along with fine drusy quartz ; red jasper occurs on the
banks of the Hudson at Troy, and at Saugus near Boston,
Mass.; yellow jasper is found with chalcedony at Chester,
Mass.; Heliotrope occupies veins in slate at Blooomingrove,
Orange county, N. Y.

What is granular quartz ? What is said of silicified wood ? What

are common penetrating substances ?
 SILICA. 139
1.

OPAL .

Compact and amorphous ; also in reniform and stalactitic

shapes. Presents internal reflections, often of several colors,
and the finest opals exhibit a rich play of colors of deli-
cate shades when turned in the hand. White, yellow, red,
brown, green and gray are some of the shades that occur,
and impure varieties are dark and opaque. Luster sub-
vitreous. H=5.5-6.5 . Gr. 2.21 .
Composition : opal consists of silica and 5 to 12 per cent.
ofwater.
VARIETIES.
Precious opal, Noble opal. External color usually milky,
but within there is a rich play of delicate tints. Composi-
tion, silica 90, water 10, (Klaproth.) This variety forms a
gem ofrare beauty. It is cut with a convex surface. The
largest mass of which we have any knowledge is in the im-
perial cabinet of Vienna ; it weighs 17 ounces, and is nearly
as large as a man's fist, but contains numerous fissures and
is not entirely disengaged from the matrix. This stone was
well known to the ancients and highly valued by them.
They called it paideros, or child beautiful as Love. The
noble opal is found near Cashau in Hungary, and in Hon-
duras, South America ; also on the Faroe Islands.
Fire opal, Girasol. An opal with yellow and bright hya-
cinth or fire-red reflections. It comes from Mexico and the
Faroe Islands.
Common opal, Semiopal. Common opal has the hardness
ofopal and is easily scratched by quartz, a character which
distinguishes it from some silicious stones often called semi-
opal. It has sometimes a milky opalescence, but does not
reflect a play of colors. The luster is slightly resinous, and
the colors are white, gray, yellow, bluish, greenish to dark
grayish green. Translucent to nearly opaque. Phillips
found nearly 8 per cent. of water in one specimen.
Hydrophane. This variety is opaque white or yellowish
when dry, but becomes translucent and opalescent when im-
mersed in water.
Cacholong. Opaque white, or bluish white, and usually

Describe opal. How does it differ from quartz in composition ? What

is said ofthe appearance and value of noble opal ? What is fire opal ?
common opal ?
140 SILICA.

associated with chalcedony. Much of what is so called is

nothing but chalcedony; but other specimens contain water,
and are allied to hydrophane. It contains also a little alum-
ina and adheres to the tongue. It was first brought from
the river Cach in Bucharia.
Hyalite, Muller's glass. A glassy transparent variety,
occurring in small concretions and occasionally stalactitic.
It resembles somewhat a transparent gum arabic. Com.
position, silica 92.00, water 6.33, (Bucholz.)
Menilite. A brown opaque variety, incompact reniform
masses, occasionally slaty. Composition, silica 85.5, water
11.0, (Klaproth.) It is found in slate at Menil Montant,
near Paris.
Wood opal. This is an impure opal, of a gray, brown or
black color, having the structure ofwood, and looking much
like common silicified wood. It is wood petrified with a
hydrated silica, (or opal,) instead of pure silica, and is dis
tinguished by its lightness and inferior hardness. Specific
gravity, 2.
Opal jasper. Resembles jasper in appearance, and con-
tains a few per cent. ofiron ; but it is not so hard owing to
the water it contains.
Siliceous sinter has often the composition of opal, though
sometimes simply silica. The name is given to a loose
porous siliceous rock usually of a grayish color. It is de.
posited around the Geysers of Iceland in cellular or compact
masses, sometimes in fibrous, stalactitic or cauliflower-like
shapes. Pearl sinter, or fiorite occurs in volcanic tufa in
smooth and shining globular or botryoidal masses, having a
pearly luster.
Tabasheer is a siliceous aggregation found in the joints of
the bamboo in India. It contains several percent. of water,
and has nearly the appearance ofhyalite.
Dif. Infusibility before the blowpipe is the best character
for distinguishing opal from pitchstone, pearlstone, and other
species it resembles. The absence of anything like cleav-
age or crystalline structure is another characteristic. Its
inferior hardness separates it from quartz.
Obs. Hyalite is the only variety of opal that has yet
been found in the United States. It occurs sparingly at the

What is hyalite ? wood opal ? siliceous sinter ? tabasheer? How is

opal distinguished from pitchstone and quartz ?
 TABULAR SPAR. 141

Phillips ore bed, Putnam county, N. Y., and in Burke and

Scriven counties, Georgia. The Suanna spring in Georgia
affords small quantities of siliceous sinter.
2. LIME.

The silicates and borosilicate of lime gelatinize readily

and perfectly with muriatic acid. In hardness they are not
above feldspar, (6,) and their specific gravities do not exceed
3. They fuse before the blowpipe with different degrees of
facility, affording no metallic reaction.
TABULAR SPAR.

Triclinate. Rarely in oblique rhomboidal prisms. Usual-

ly massive, cleaving easily in one direction, and showing a
lined or indistinctly columnar surface, with a vitreous luster
inclining to pearly.
Usually white, but sometimes tinged with yellow, red, or
brown. Translucent, or rarely subtransparent. Brittle.
H-4-5 . Gr 2.75-2.9.
Composition : silica 52, lime 48. Fuses with difficulty to
asubtransparent, colorless glass ; forms with borax a clear
glass.
Dif. Differs from any carbonates in not effervescing with
acids ; from asbestus and nemalite in its more vitreous ap-
pearance and fracture ; and from these and tremolite in its
forming a jelly with acids; from natrolite, scolecite and dys-
clasite in its very broad sub-fibrous cleavage surface and
more difficult fusibility ; from feldspar in the lined appear-
ance ofa cleavage surface and the action of acids.
Obs. Usually found in granite or granular limestone ;
occasially in basalt or lava.
At Willsboro', Lewis, Diana, and Roger's Rock, N. Y.,
it is abundant, of a white color, along with garnet. At
Boonville, it is found in boulders with garnet and pyroxene.
Grenville, Lower Canada, and Bucks county, Pennsylvania,
are other localities. Occurs also at Kewenaw Point, Lake
Superior.

What are the prominent characters of the silicates and borosilicate

of lime? What isthe color and appearance oftabular spar ? Of what
does it consist ? How does it differ from the carbonates? how from
asbestus, tremolite, and feldspar ?
142 LIME.

DATHOLITE-Borosilicate of Lime.
Monoclinate. In modified oblique rhombic prisms. M :
M=77° 30′ . Crystals without distinct cleavage ; small and
glassy. Also botryoidal, with a columnar structure, and then
called botryolite. Color white, occasionally grayish, green-
ish, yellowish or reddish. Translucent. H = 5-5.5.
Gr-2-9-3.
Composition : silica 37.4, lime 35.7, boracic acid 21.3,
water 5.7. Botryolite contains twice the proportion ofwater.
Rendered friable in the flame of a candle. Before the blow-
pipe becomes opaque, intumesces and melts to a glassy
globule coloring the flame green. Forms ajelly easily with
nitric acid.
Dif. Its small glassy complex crystallizations without
cleavage are unlike any other mineral that gelatinizes with
acid, except some chabazites, from which it is distinguished
by tinging the blowpipe flame green, and having greater
hardness.
Obs. Occurs inamygdaloid and gneiss. In Connecticut,
the finest come from Roaring brook, 14 miles from New
Haven. The Rocky Hill quarry near Hartford, Berlin, Mid-
dlefield Falls, Conn., and Bergen Hill and Patterson in New
Jersey, are other localities ; also in great abundance at
Eagle Harbor in the copper region, Lake Superior.
Uses. Where abundant, as near Lake Superior, it may
be profitably employed in the manufacture of boracic acid.
It is suggested by Dr. C. T. Jackson as agood flux for the
copper ores.

Dysclasite.
Dysclasite. In white fibrousseams or masses consisting ofdelicate
fibers,andsingularly tough under the hammer ; color whitish, yellowish
or bluish. H= 4.5. Gr-2-28-2.36. Composition, silica 57.0, lime
26.4, water 16.6. Fuses on the edges. Gelatinizes easily in muriatic
acid. From the Faroe Islands in trap. The variety okenite is from
Greenland.
Pectolite. Divergent, fibrous and resembling dysclasite. Luster weak
pearly. H=4-5. Gr=2.69 Composition, silica 51·3, lime 33-8,
soda8-3, potash 1.6, water (hygrometric 1) 3.9. Fuses to a white trans-
parent glass. From the Tyrol and Fassa-thal. Amineral from Bergen
Hill, which has been called stellite is near pectolite in appearance, and
chemical composition.

What is said of the crystals ofdatholite ? How much boracic acid

does datholite contain ? How is it distinguished ?
 TALC. 143

Edelforsite. A fibrous or feathery silicate of lime,consisting ofsilica

61-8, lime 38-2. From Aedelfors in Smaland.

3. MAGNESIA .

The blowpipe test for distinguishing magnesia when not

disguised by the presence of a metallic oxyd, is given on
page 123. None of the silicates of magnesia gelatinize with
acids. The species vary in hardness from 1 to 8.*
1. Hydrous Silicates of Magnesia. †
TALC.

Trimetric. In right rhombic or hexagonal prisms. M :

M= 120° Usually in pearly foliated masses, separating
easily into thin translucent folia. Sometimes stellate, or
divergent, consisting of radiating laminæ ; often massive, con-
sisting of minute pearly scales ; also crystalline granular, or
ofa fine impalpable texture.
Luster eminently pearly, and feel unctuous. Color some
shade of light green or greenish white; occasionally silvery
white ; also grayish green and dark olive green. H= 1-
1.5; easily impressed with the nail. Gr=2.7-2.9. Lam-
inæ flexible, but not elastic.
VARIETIES.
Foliated talc. The purest talc, occurring in foliated masses,
of a white or greenish white color, and having an unctuous
feel.
Soapstone, or Steatite. A gray or grayish green massive
talc, showing when broken a fine crystalline texture.
Potstone, or Lapis ollaris. An impure talc, of grayish
green and dark green colors and slaty structure. Feel
unctuous.

Do any silicates of magnesia gelatinize with acids? Describe talc.

What is steatite? What is potstone ?

*Thebasemagnesia is replaceable by protoxyd of iron, protoxyd of

manganese, or lime,as illustrated in the species pyroxene, and conse-
quently this group embraces compounds which are not purely silicates
ofmagnesia.
†Talc
regard is often
tothe anhydrous
peculiar ; but since
isomorphism the discoveries
of water ofScheerer with
and magnesia, there is no
sufficient reasonwhich
hydrous species for removing
follow.
this species fromchlorite andtheallied
144 MAGNESIA.

Indurated talc. A slaty talc, of compact texture, and

above the usual hardness, owing to impurities. Feel some-
what unctuous. This passes into talcose slate, still less
pure and less unctuous in its feel, and coarser in its slaty
structure .
Rensselaerite. This name has been given by Professor
Emmons to a kind of soapstone from St. Lawrence, Jeffer-
son county, N. Y., which has a very compact structure, a
soapy feel, slight translucency, and hardness 3 to 4. It oc-
curs of white, yellow, or grayish white colors, and even
black. It works up with a very smooth and handsome sur-
face, and is made into inkstands.
Composition of foliated talc, silica 62.8, magnesia 32.4,
with protoxyd of iron 1.6, alumina 1.0, water 2.3. Water
is considered by some chemists an essential ingredient, and
4 per cent. have been detected in some talcs.
Composition of steatite, silica 63.1, magnesia 34·3, pro-
toxyd of iron 2.3. Before the blowpipe talc loses it color
and fuses with great difficulty.
Dif. The unctuous feel, foliated structure, and pearly
luster of talc are good characteristics. It differs from mica
also in being inelastic, although flexible ; from chlorite,
saponite and serpentine in yielding no water when heated
inaglass tube. Only the massive varieties resemble the last
mentioned species, and chlorite has a dark olive-green color.
Obs. Handsome foliated talc occurs at Bridgewater, Vt.;
Smithfield, R. I.; Dexter, Me.; Lockwood, Newton and
Sparta, N. J., and Amity, N. Y. On Staten Island, near
the quarantine, boththe common and indurated are obtained;
at Cooptown, Md., green, blue and rose colored talc occur.
Steatite or soapstone is abundant, and is quarried at Graf-
ton, Vt., and an adjacent town ; at Francestown and Orford,
N. H. It also occurs at Keene and Richmond, N. H.; at
Marlboro and New Fane, Vt.; at Middlefield, Mass.; in
Loudon county, Va., and at many other places.
Uses. Steatite may be sawn into slabs and turned in a
lathe. It is used for fire stones in furnaces and stoves, and
for jambs for fire-places. It receives a polish after being
heated, and has then a deep olive-green color. It is bored
out for conveying water, in place of lead tubes. Steatite is

How does talc differ from mica ? Of what does talc consist ? Why
is ituseful for fire stones? What other uses has it?
 CHLORITE . 145

also used.n the manufacture ofporcelain , it makes the bis-

cuit semi-transparent, but brittle and apt to break with slight
changes of heat. It forms a polishing material for serpen-
tine, alabaster and glass ; and removes grease spots from
cloth. When ground up, it is employed for diminishing the
friction of machinery. Potstone is worked into vessels for
culinary purposes, at Como in Lombardy.
CHLORITE.

Usually in dark olive-green masses, having a granular

texture : rarely in hexagonal crystals, foliated like talc and
inradiated forms. Luster a little pearly. Rarely subtrans-
parent ; subtranslucent to opaque. Laminæ inelastic. H=
1.5. Gr-2-65-2.85. Feel scarcely unctuous.
Composition : silica 30.4, alumina 17, magnesia 34.0,
protoxyd of iron 4.4, water 12.6. Fuses with difficulty on
the thinnest edges. Yields water when heated in a glass
tube.
This species has lately been subdivided on chemical
grounds, and the name Ripidolite applied to the new species
instituted.
Dif. Its olive green color and granular texture when
massive are characteristic, and the latter character will dis-
tinguish it from serpentine and potstone. From talc and its
varieties it is distinguished also by yielding water in a glass
tube ; from green iron earth in its difficult fusibility.
Obs. Chlorite and chlorite slate, the latter an impure
slaty variety, form extensive deposits in primitive regions,
and the latter often contains crystals of magnetic iron, horn-
blende or tourmaline.
Saponite. Soft and almost like butter, but brittle on drying ; color
white, or tinged with yellow, blue or red. Composition, silica 45.0,
magnesia 24.7, alumina 9.3, peroxyd of iron 1.0, potash, 0.7, water
18-0-98-7 . From Lizard's Point, Cornwall. It may be kneaded like
dough when first extracted.
SERPENTINE .

Rarely in right rectangular prisms. Cleavage indistinct.

Usually massive and compact in texture, of a dark oil green,
olive-green, or blackish-green color. Occurs also fibrous
What effect has it in porcelain ? Whatisthe color and usual appear-
ance ofchlorite ? How is chlorite distinguished from green iron earth ?
Whatis the color and appearance ofserpentine ?
13
146 MAGNESIA.

and lamellar. The lamellar varieties consist of thin folia,

sometimes separable, but brittle ; colors greenish-white, and
light to dark-green.
Luster weak ; resinous, inclining togreasy. Finer varie-
ties translucent ; also opaque. H=21-4. May be cut
with aknife. Gr=2.5-2.6. Becomes yellowish-gray on
exposure. Feel sometimes a little unctuous.
VARIETIES AND COMPOSITION.
Precious serpentine. Purer specimens ofarich oil green
color, and translucent, breaking with a splintery fracture.
It is a beautiful stone when polished. Composition : silica
42.3, magnesia 44.2, protoxyd of iron 0.2, carbonic acid 0.9,
water 12.4. Gives off water when heated ; becomes brown-
ish-red before the blowpipe, but fuses only on the edges.
Common serpentine. Opaque of dark green shades of
color.
Picrolite, Schiller asbestus. A fibrous serpentine, of an
olive-green color, constituting seams in serpentine. The
fibersare coarse or fine, and brittle. Resembles some forms
of asbestus, but differs in its difficult fusibility. Thomson's
Baltimorite belongs here.
Marmolite. A foliated serpentine, of greenish white and
light green shades of color, and pearly luster, consisting of
thin folia rather easily separable. The folia are brittle, and
the variety is thus distinguished from talc and brucite.
Composition : silica 40.1, magnesia 4.1.4, protoxyd of iron
2.7, water 15-7, (Shepard.)
Kerolite. Near marmolite, but folia not separable.
Dif. Precious and common serpentine are easily distin-
guished from other green minerals by theirdull resinous lus-
ter and compact structure, in connection with their softness,
being easily cut with a knife, and their low specific gravity,
Obs. Serpentine occurs as a rock, and the several varie-
ties mentioned either constitute the rock or occur in it.
Occasionally it is disseminated through granular limestone,
giving the latter a clouded green color : this is the verd an-
tique marble.
Good Serpentine is found in the United States at Phil-

What is the hardness of serpentine? Of what does it consist ? What

is precious serpentine ? What are the peculiarities of marmolite and
kerolite ? How is serpentine distinguished? How does serpentine
occur ?
 NEPHRITE . 147

lipstown, Port Henry, Gouverneur, Warwick, N. Y.; New

buryport, Westfield, and Blandford, Mass.; at Kellyvale and
New Fane, Vt.; Deer Isle, Maine ; New Haven, Conn.;
Bare Hills, Md., &c. Marmolite and kerolite, at Hoboken,
N. J., and Blandford, Mass. The quarries of Milford and
New Haven, Ct., afford a beautiful verd-antique, and have
beenwrought ; but the works are now suspended.
Uses. Serpentine forms a handsome marble when pol
ished, especially when mixed with limestone, constituting
verd-antique marble. Its colors are often beautifully clouded,
and it is much sought for, as a material for tables, jambs for
fire-places, and ornamental in-door work. Exposed to the
weather, it wears uneven, and soon loses its polish. Chromic
iron is usually disseminated through it, and increases the
variety of its shades. Dr. C. T. Jackson ofBoston has lately
shown that Epsom salts (sulphate ofmagnesia) may be prof-
itably manufactured from serpentine.
NEPHRITE .-Jade.

Massive, and very tough and compact ; greenish or bluish

to white. Translucent to subtranslucent. Luster vitreous.
H= 6.5-7.5. Gr=2 ･9-3.03.
Composition : contains silica, magnesia, and some water,
with or without alumina, oxyd of iron, and lime. It varies
in constitution, and has been lately considered a massive
tremolite. Infusible alone before the blowpipe.
Dif. Differs from beryl in having no cleavage ; and from
quartz by its finely uneven surface of fracture, instead of
smooth and glassy.
Obs. A sky-blue variety ofnephrite occurs at Smithfield,
R. I., and a greenish and reddish-grayvariety is found at
Easton, Pa., and Stoneham, Mass.
Nephrite is made into images, and was formerly worn as
acharm. It was supposed to be a cure for diseases of the
kidney, whence the name, from the Greek nephros, kidney.
In New Zealand, China and Western America, it is carved
by the inhabitants or polished down into various fanciful
shapes. Much of the mineral from China called jade is
prehnite.

What is verd-antique ? What are the uses of serpentine ? What

are the characters of nephrite ? What is the origin of the name ?
148 MAGNESIA .

MEERSCHAUM.-Sea Froth.

Dull white, opaque and earthy, nearly like clay. H=2

Gr-2.6-3.4 .
Composition of a variety from Anatolia: silica 42, mag.
nesia 30.5, water 23, lime 2.3, alumina 2, (Thomson.)
When heated it gives out water and a fetid odor, and be-
comes hard and perfectly white. When first dug up it is
soft, has a greasy feel and lathers like soap; and on this
account it is used by the Tartars in washing their linen. It
is used for making the bowls ofTurkish pipes, by a process
like that for pottery ware. When imported into Germany,
the bowls of the pipes are prepared for sale by softening
them first in tallow, then in wax, and finallypolishing them.
Aphrodite is another meerschaum from Longbanshyttan.
Quincite is a variety or related species ofa reddish color.
SCHILLER SPAR.

Triclinate. Occurs massive, with cleavage in two direc-

tions, producing a thin foliated structure. Folia brittle and
separable. Color olive and blackish-green, inclining on the
cleavage face to pinchbeck-brown. Luster metallic-pearly
on a cleavageface ; vitreous in other directions. H = 3.5-
4. Sectile. Gr= 2.5-2.7.
Composition : silica 43.9, magnesia 25.9, oxyd of iron and
chromium 13.0, water 12.4, alumina 1.3, lime 2.6, protoxyd
of manganese 0.5. Gives off water, and becomes pinch-
beck-brown and magnetic before the blowpipe, but fuses
only on the thinnest edges..
Dif. Distinguished from diallage, which also occurs in
serpentine, and is the only species with which it can be
confounded, by its yielding water before the blowpipe.
Marmolite is much softer. Talc and mica are flexible.
Obs. Occurs imbedded in serpentine. Baste in the Hartz
is a foreign locality. Blandford and Westfield, Mass., and
Amity, N. Y., are given as American localities.
Clintonite. In oblique crystals: but usually massive, thin foliated,
and brittle, with a submetallic luster, and reddish or yellowish-brown,
or copper-red color. Streak yellowish-gray. Composition, silica 17.0,
alumina 37-6, magnesia 24-3, lime 10-7, protoxyd of iron 5.0, water

What is meerschaum ? its appearance ? What is the structure of

Schiller spar ? its luster? What does it occur with ? How does it
differ from diallage ?
 SCHILLER SPAR . 149

3.6, (Clemson.) Infusible. Affords a transparent bead with borax.

Acted onby the acids when pulverised. Occurs in limestone with ser-
pentine at Amity, N. Y. It was named in honor of De Witt Clinton.
Ithas also been called Seybertite.
Xanthophyllite is considered by Rose, its describer, as identical with
Clintonite.

Pennine. Near chlorite; occurs in hexagonal tables, secondary to

a rhombohedron of 118°. From the PennineAlps.
Picrosmine. A green or greenish-white mineral, either fibrous like
asbestus, or in rectangular prisms. H=2.5-3. Gr=2.59-2.7 . Gives
out water when heated, and has an argillaceous odor when moistened
with the breath. Near serpentine in composition. From an iron mine
in Bohemia.
Monradite is a cleavable yellowish mineral near picrosmine in com-
position.
Retinalite. A massive mineral, having a resinous appearance, found ,
with and allied to serpentine. From Granville, Upper Canada.
Dermatine. Occurs massive, reniform or in crusts on serpentine, of a
resinous luster and green color. Feel greasy. Odor when moistened
argillaceous.
Villarsite. Occurs in yellowish rhombic octahedrons in dolomite at
Traversella, in Piedmont. Allied in composition to serpentine.
Antigorite. Abrownish or leek green mineral, in foliated masses and
resembling Schiller spar.
Spadaite. A flesh-red mineral, near Schiller spar.
Pyrallolite: A white or greenish cleavable mineral, dull and a little
resinous in luster. Becomes black and then white again before the
blowpipe, whence the name, from the Greek pyr, fire, allos, other, and
lithos, stone. From Pargas,Finland.
Pyrosclerite. A hydrous silicate ofmagnesiaand alumina, of a light
green color. From Elba.
Kammererite. A related species, occuring in six-sided prisms, red-
dish violet within. Transverse cleavage,perfect. H=2. Gr=2.76.
Pyrophyllite. Foliated and pearly like talc ; plates more or less
radiating ; verysoft. Color white or greenish . It swells up and spreads
out in fan-like shapes before the blowpipe. Occurs inthe Urals.
Vermiculite is probably identical with pyrophyllite. It looks and
feels like steatite; but when heated before the blowpipe, worm-like
projections shoot out, owing to a separation ofthe thin leaves composing
the grains, arising from the vaporization of the water present. Occurs
at Milbury, Massachusets.
Periclase. Occurs at Vesuvius in small transparent octahedrons,
and is supposed to be pure magnesia. Luster vitreous ; nearly as hard
as feldspar. Gr=3.75.
Steatitic pseudomorphs. Pseudomorphous crystals often consist of a
kind of steatite. Apseudomorph of this kind from Warwick, N. Y. ,
having the form of hornblende, but so soft as to be easily cut with a
knife, afforded Beck, silica 34-7, alumina 25.3, lime 5.1, magnesia 25.2,
water 9.1 . These crystals have been produced by a change of the
original hornblende. Others have the form of spinel, &c.
The Rensselaerite of Emmons is believed to be a steatitic pseudo-
morph, or altered pyroxene.
13*
150 MAGNESIA.

2. Anhydrous Silicates of Magnesia, and Compounds

Isormorphous with them.
PYROXENE .

Monoclinate. In modified oblique rhombic prisms ; M :

M=87' 6'. Cleavage perfect parallel with the sides ofthe
prisms, and alsodistinct parallel with the diagonals.
a
Usually in thick and stout prisms, of 6 or 8 sides,
Mi M terminating
a= 120° 39', in two
M : faces
è= 133°meeting
33 , Mat: an
ē=edge
136 ' ; 27'.
a;
Occurs also in oblique octahedrons, much modified.
Massive varieties of a coarse lamellar structure ;
also fibrous, usually very fine and often long capillary ; also
granular, usually in coarse angular grains and friable, some-
times round ; sometimes fine and compact.
Colors green of various shades, verging to white on one
side and brown and black on the other, passing through blue
shades, but not yellow. Luster vitreous, inclining to resin-
ous or pearly; the latter especially in fibrous varieties.
Transparent to opaque. H=5-6. Brittle. Gr=3.2-
3.5.
Pyroxene consists of silica and magnesia, combined with
one or more of the bases, lime, protoxyd of iron, or protoxyd
of manganese. These bases replace one another in a com-
pound without changing the crystalline form, and have the
same form nearly in their own crystallizations, as explained
on page 74. The varieties of pyroxene arise from the va-
riations incomposition dependent on this isomorphism, and
they differ much in appearance.
Varieties and Composition. The varieties may be divided
into three sections-the light colored, the dark colored, and
the thin foliated.
I. White malacolite or white augite-includes white or
grayish-white crystals or crystalline masses. Diopside , in
greenish-white or grayish-green crystals, and cleavable
masses cleaving with a bright smooth surface. Sahlite ; of
amore dingy green color, less luster and coarser structure
than diopside, but otherwise similar ; named from the place
What is the character of the crystals of pyroxene? What is a com-
mon form ? What is said of its massive varieties? its colors and lus-
ter ? What are the constituents of pyroxene ?
 PYROXENE . 151

Sahla, where it occurs. Fassaile; in crystals of rich green

shades and smooth and lustrous exterior. The name is de-
rived from the foreign locality Fassa. Alalite ; a diopside
from Piedmont. Coccolite is ageneral name for granular
varieties, derived from the Greek coccos, grain. The green
is called green coccolite, the white, white coccolite. The
specific gravity of these varieties varies from 3.25 to 3.3.
Composition : silica 55-3, lime 27.0, magnesia 17.0, pro-
toxyd of manganese 1.6, protoxyd of iron 2.2. Fuse before
the blowpipe to a colorless glass ; with borax or soda form a
transparent glass.
Asbestus. This name includes fibrous varieties of both
pyroxene and hornblende ; it is more particularly noticed
under the latter species.
II. Augite includes black and greenish-black crystals,
mostly presenting the form figured above. Specific gravity
3.3-3.4. Hedenbergite is a greenish-black opaque variety,
in cleavable masses affording a greenish-brown streak.
Specific gravity 3.5. Polylite, Hudsonite, and Jeffersonite
fall here.
The varieties in this section contain alarge proportion of
iron or iron and manganese. Composition of one variety,
silica 54.1, lime 23.5, magnesia 11.5, protoxyd of iron 10.0,
protoxyd of manganese 0.6= 99.7 . Fuse like the prece-
ding, but the globule obtained is colored with iron.
III. Diallage is a thin-foliated, clear green variety, occur-
ring imbedded in serpentine ; foliathin, brittle, translucent.
Bronzite occurs in serpentine and greenstone, and is similar-
ly foliated ; its colors are dark green, or greenish brown,
with a metallic-pearly luster, or like bronze. Specific grav-
ity 3-25. Hypersthene is less thinly foliated than bronzite,
but cleaves readily; color grayish or greenish black, and
luster metallic-pearlyGr 2·39. The Labrador hornblende,
and Metalloidal diallage are here included.
Composition of hypersthene, silica 54-25, lime 1.5, magne-
sia 14.0, protoxyd of iron 24.5, protoxyd of manganese a
trace, alumina 2.25, water 1.0. The edges fuse with diffi-
culty to a grayish green semi-opaque glass ; some varieties
wholly fuse. Other hypersthenes contain much less iron and
a large proportion of lime.
Dif. Resembles hornblende, but is distinct in cleavage
What is coccolite ? What is the appearance of asbestus ? What
is diallage? What is hypersthene }
152 MAGNESIA.

and in the angles of its crystals. Moreover, the crystals are

usually stout and thick, and never have the slender bladed
form common with hornblende. Some fibrous varieties,
however, can scarcely be distinguished except by analysis ;
yet it is a general fact, that asbestus occurring where pyrox-
ene abounds, belongs to this species, and that with hornblende
pertains tohornblende. White crystals of scapolitemaybe
mistaken for this species, especially where two of the pyra-
midal faces in a crystal of scapolite are enlarged so as to
resemble the oblique roof-like termination of crystals of py-
roxene ; but the angle between these faces in the former is
136° 7' , while it is 120° 39 in pyroxene. Their relations
to schiller spar and serpentine have already been stated.
The species is never yellowish green like epidote.
Obs. Pyroxene is one of the most common minerals.
It occurs in granite, granular limestone, serpentine, basalt
and lavas. In basalt and lavas the crystals are generally
small andblack or greenish black. Inthe other rocks, they
occur of all the shades of color given, and of all sizes to a
nge county,
foot or more in length. One crystal fromOrange
measured 6 inches in length, and 10 in circumference.
White crystals occur at Canaan, Conn., Kingsbridge, New
York county, and the Singsing quarries, Westchester coun-
ty, N. Y., in Orange county at several localities; green
crystals at Trumbull, Ct., at various places in Orange coun-
ty, N. Y., Roger's Rock and other localities in Essex, Lew-
is, andSt. Lawrence Co's. Dark green or black crystals
are met with near Edenville, N. Y., Diana, Lewis county.
Green coccolite is found at Roger's Rock, Long Pond, and
Willsboro, N. Y.; black coccolite, in the forest of Dean,
Orange county, N. Y. Diopside, at Raymondand Rumford,
Me., Hustis's farm, Phillipstown, N. Y.
Pyrożene was thus named by Hauy from the Greek pur
fire, and xenos stranger, in allusion to its occurring in lavas,
where, according to a mistake of Hany, it did not belong
The name augite is from the Greek auge, luster.
HORNBLENDE .

Monoclinate. In oblique rhombic prisms more or

What is said of the occurrence of pyroxene ? How does it differ

from hornblende ? how from scapolite ? What is the derivation of the
names pyroxene and augite.
 HORNBLENDE . 153

less modified ; M : M = 124° 30'. Cleavage perfect par-

1 3
allel with the sides of the prism. Of-
ten in long slender flat rhombic prisms, ŏ

(fig.
4, 6,3) breaking
and8 sided easily
prismstransversely
with oblique; also
ex- M M
tremities. ě : ě= 148° 30′. Occurs also
2
frequently columnar, with abladed struc-
ture ; often fibrous, the fibers coarse or
fine and frequently like flax, with a pearly
or silky luster ; also lamellar; also granu- MM
ar, either coarse or fine ; generally firmly
compact ; rarely friable.
Colors from white to black passing through bluish green,
grayish green, green, and brownish green shades, toblack.
Luster vitreous, with the cleavage face inclining to pearly.
Nearly transparent to opaque. H=5-6. Gr= 2.9-3.4.
Varieties and Composition. This species, like pyroxene,
has numerous varieties, differing much in external appear-
ance, and arising from the same causes-isomorphism and
crystallization. Alumina enters into the constitution of some
and replaces part of the other ingredients. The following
are the most important :
1. LIGHT COLORED VARIETIES.
Tremolite, Grammatite. Tremolite comprises the white,
grayish, and light greenish slender crystallizations, usually
inblades or long crystals, penetrating the gangue or aggre-
gated into coarse columnar forms. Sometimes nearly trans-
parent. Gr= 2.93. The name is from the foreign locality,
Tremola in Switzerland.
Actinolite. The light green varieties. Glassy actinolite
includes the bright glassy crystals, ofa rich green color, usu-
ally long and slender (fig. 3) and penetrating the gangue
like tremolite. Radiated actinolite includes olive green
masses, consisting of aggregations of coarse acicular fibers,
radiating or divergent. Asbestiform actinolite resembles the
radiated, but the fibers are more delicate. Massive actino-
lite consists of angular grains instead of fibers. Gr= 3.02
-3:03. The name actinolite alludes to the radiated struc-

What is the crystallization of hornblende ? Whatare common forms ?

What is said of the columnar and fibrous varieties? What are its col-
ors ? On what do the characters of its varieties depend ? What is tre-
molite? what actinolite ? Mention the characters of the varieties of
actinolite ?
154 MAGNESIA.

ture of some varieties, and is derived from the Greek aktin,

aray of the sun. It is often mispelt actynolite.
Asbestus. In slender fibers easily separable, and some-
times like flax. Either green or white. Amianthus in-
cludes the asbestus that occurs in narrow seams, with a rich
satin luster. Ligniform asbestus is compact and hard ; it
occurs ofbrownish and yellowish colors,and looks somewhat
like petrified wood. Mountain leather occurs in thin tough
sheets, looking and feeling a little like kid leather. It con-
sists of interlaced fibers of asbestus, and forms thin seams
between layers or in fissures of rocks. Mountain cork is
similar, but is in thicker masses; it has the elasticity of
cork, and is usually white or grayish-white.
The preceding light colored varieties contain little or no
alumina or iron. Composition of glassy actinolite, silica
59.75, magnesia 21.1, lime 14.25, protoxyd of iron 3.9, pro-
toxyd of manganese 0.3, hydrofluoric acid 0.8, (Bonsdorf.)
2. DARK COLORED VARIETIES.
Pargasite. This name is applied to dark green crystals,
short and stout, (resembling fig. 1,) with bright luster, of
which Pargas in Finland is a noted locality. Gr = 3.11.
Hornblende. The black and greenish-black crystals and
massive specimens. Often in slender crystallizations like acti-
nolite ; also short and stout like figures 1 and 2, the latter more
especially. It contains a large per-centage of oxyd of iron,
and to this owes its dark color. It is a tough mineral, as is
implied in the name it bears. This character however is
best seen in the massive specimens. Pargasite and horn-
blende containboth alumina and iron.
Composition of hornblende, silica 48.8, magnesia 13.6,
lime 10.2, alumina 7.5, protoxyd of iron 18.75, protoxyd of
manganese 1.15, hydrofluoric acid and water 0.9, (Bons-
dorf.)
Composition of pargasite, silica 46.3, magnesia 19.0, lime
14.0, alumina 11.5, protoxyd of iron 3.5, protoxyd of man-
ganese 0.4, hydrofluoric acid and water 2.2.
Amphibole is a name often given to this species.
The varieties of hornblende fuse easily with some ebulli-
tion, the white varieties forming a colorless glass and the
green a globule more or less colored by iron.
What is asbestus and amianthus ? mountain leather and mountain
cork? What is the peculiarity in composition of the light colored va-
rieties of hornblende ? what of the dark varieties ?
 HORNBLENDE . 155

Dif. Distinguished from pyroxene as statedunder that

species; the black variety from black tourmaline by its per-
fect cleavage, (tourmaline having none,) and also by the
form of its crystals ; the fibrous varieties from picrosmine,
nemalite, and tabular spar, as stated under those species ;
from the fibrous zeolites by not gelatinizing, and, when
in limestone or serpentine, by its gangue.
Obs. Hornblende is an essential constituent of certain
rocks, as syenite, trap and hornblende slate. Actinolite is
usually found in magnesian rocks, as talc, steatite or serpen-
tine; tremolite in granular limestone and dolomite ; ashes-
tus in the above rocks and also in serpentine. Black crys-
tals of hornblende occur at Franconia, N. H., Chester, Mass.,
Thomaston, Me., Willsboro', N. Y. in Orange county, N.
Y., and elsewhere. Pargasite occurs at Phipsburg and Par-
sonsfield, Me.; glassy actinolite, in steatite or talc, at Wind-
ham, Readsboro', and New Fane, Vt., Middlefield andBland-
ford, Mass.; and radiated varieties at the same localites and
manyothers. Tremolite andgray hornblende occur at Ca-
naan, Ct. , Lee, Newburgh, Mass., in Thomaston and Ray-
mond, Me., Lee and Great Barrington, Mass., Dover, Kings-
bridge, and in St. Lawrence county, N. Y., at Chesnut Hill,
Penn., at the Bare Hills, Md. Asbestus at many of the
above localities; also at Milford, Conn., Brighton and Shef-
field, Mass., Cotton Rock and Hustis's farm, Phillipstown,
N. Y., near the quarantine,Richmond county, N. Y. Moun-
tainleather is met with at the Milford quarries, and also at
Brunswick, N. J.
Uses. Asbestus is the only variety of this species ofany
use in the arts. The flax-like variety is sometimes wo-
ven into cloth ; it has been proposed of late to use clothes
of it for firemen, and patents have been taken out. Its in-
combustibility and slow conduction of heat, render it acom-
plete protection against the flames. It is often made into
gloves. Agarment when dirty, need only be thrown into
the fire for a few minutes to be white again. The ancients,
who were acquainted with its properties, are said to have
used it for napkins, on account of the ease with which it
was cleaned. It was also the wicks of the lamps in the an-
cient temples ; and because it maintained a perpetual flame
How does the species hornblende differ from tourmaline and other
minerals mentioned ? What is said of the occurrence of hornblende ?
What are the uses of ashestus ? Why was it so called ?
156 MAGNESIA.

without being consumed, they named it asbestos, uncon-

sumed. It is now used for the same purpose by the native
of Greenland. The name amianthus alludes to the ease of
cleaning it, and is derived from amiantos, undefiled. Asbes-
tus is now extensively used for lining iron safes. The best
locality for collecting asbestus in the United States, is that
near the quarantine, in Richmond county, N. Y.
Anthophyllite. In oblong grayish, greenish, or brownish crystals, or
inneedles, imbedded in mica slate, or penetrating it. Cleavage paral-
lel to the lateral surfaces of a rhombic prism, and also to both diago-
nals. Brittle ; fibers sharp. Gr-2-9-3.16. Resembles hornblende,
and may be a variety of it. Occurs at Haddam and Guilford, Conn.,
and Chesterfield, Chester, and Blandford, Mass.
Cummingtonite. Fibrous ; the fibers divergent, stellular or scopi-
form. Rather incoherent. Color ash-gray. Luster a little silky.
Translucent to opaque. H=6-6.5. Gr-3.2. Considered a variety
of hornblende. From Cummington and Plainfield, Mass., in mica
slate.
CHRYSOLITE.- Olivine.
Trimetric. In right rectangular prisins, having perfect
cleavage parallel with the smaller lateral plane. Usually
in imbedded grains of an olive green color, looking like green
bottle glass. Also yellowish-green. Transparent to trans-
lucent. H= 6.5-7. Gr= 3.3-3.5. Looks much like
glass in the fracture, except in the direction of the cleavage.
Composition : silica 38.5, magnesia 48.4, protoxyd of
iron 11.2, oxyd of manganese 0.3, alumina 0-2. Darkens
before the blowpipe but (except certain varieties) does not
fuse. Forms a green glass with borax.
Dif. Distinguished from green quartz by its occurring
disseminated inbasaltic rocks, which never so occurs ; also
in its cleavage. On account of its gangue it cannot be mis-
taken for beryl. From obsidian or volcanic glass it differs
in its infusibility.
Obs. Occurs disseminated through basalt and lavas,
and is a characteristic mineral of some varieties of these
rocks.
Uses. Sometimes used as a gem, but it is too soft to be
valued, and is not delicate in its shade of color.

What is the crystallization of chrysolite ? whatis its colorand appear-

ance ? How does it act before the blowpipe ? of what does it consist ?.
What is its mode of occurrence? How does it differ from green
quartz ? from obsidian or volcanic glass ?
 CHONDRODITE . 157

CHONDRODITE .

Usually in imbedded grains or small rounded or flattened

kernels or nodules in limestone, and appearing brittle
Structure finely granular without cleavage. Color brownish
yellow, or brown , sometimes reddish or greenish, and oc-
casionally black. Luster vitreous, inclining a little to resin-
ous. Streak rarely colored. Translucent or subtranslucent.
Fracture uneven. H= 6-6.5 . Gr= 3.1-3.2 .
Composition : silica 33.1, magnesia 55-5, protoxyd of iron
3.6, fluorine 7.6. From NewJersey. Fuses with difficulty
on the edges. With borax fuses easily to ayellowish-green
glass.
Dif. As it occurs only in limestone it will hardly be con-
founded with any species resembling it in color when the
gangue is present. The specific gravity is less than that of
tourmaline or garnet, some brownish-yellow varieties of
which it approaches in appearance ; moreover, it is seldom
in crystals, and when so, the faces are not polished. This
mineral has been called Brucite ; but chondrodite is of
prior authority ; it is from the Greek chondros, a grain.
Obs. Has been found only in granular limestone. It is
abundant in the adjoining counties, Sussex N. J. and Orange,
N. Y. , occurring at Sparta, and Bryam, N. J., and in War-
wick and other places in New York.
Arfwedsonite. Resembles black hornblende and occurs massive with
one eminent cleavage. Gr=3.2-3.4. Perhaps a variety of horn-
blende . From Greenland.
Acmite. In long highly polished prisms, of adark brown or reddish-
brown color, with a pointed extremity,penetrating granite,near Kongs-
berg in Norway. M : M=86° 56'. Resembles pyroxene and may be
avariety of that species. Fuses easily before the blowpipe.
Babingtonite. Resembles some dark varieties of pyroxene. It oc-
curs in greenish-black splendent crystals in quartz at Arendal in Nor-
way. It has been said to occur at Gouverneur, N. Y.
Breislakite. In capillary crystallizations, looking like reddish or
brownish wool. It is supposed to be near hornblende. Occurs in lava
atVesuvius.
Forsterite. Near chrysolite. It occurs at Vesuvius, in small color-
less prismatic crystals.
Boltonite. Massive with a granular structure or in yellowish or blu-
ash-gray grains . Cleavage in one direction. Luster vitreous. Trans-

What is theusual color and appearance of chondrodite ? What is its

hardness? its composition? its mode of occurrence ? How does it
differ from tourmaline and garnet ?
14
158 ALUMINΑ.

parent to translucent. H=5-6. Gr 2.8-2.9. Composition : silica

46.1 ;magnesia 38-1 ;alumina5-7; protoxyd of iron 8.6. Bleaches and
becomes transparent before the blowpipe, but does not fuse.
Occurs disseminated through limestone, at Bolton, Mass., also at
Boxborough and Littleton, Mass.,and Ridgefield and Reading, Conn.
Resembles chondrodite in its color and mode of occurrence, but
differs in its infusibility, structure and color.

4. ALUMΙΝΑ .

1. Uncombined.
SAPPHIRE .

Rhombohedral. R : R=86 ' 8'. Cleavage sometimes

perfect parallel with a. Usual in six-sided
a R
prisms, often with uneven surfaces, and
a
sometimes so irregular that the form is
scarcelytraceable. Occurs also granular.
Colors blue, and grayish-blue most com-
mon ; also red, yellow, brown, and nearly
black ; often bright. When polished on the surface a, a star
of six rays, corresponding with the six-sided form of the
prism, is sometimes seen within the crystal. Transparent
to translucent. H = 9, or next to the diamond. Exceed-
ingly tough, when compact. Gr-3.9-4.16.
Composition : pure alumina. It remains unaltered before
the blowpipe both alone and with soda. Fuses with diffi-
culty with borax.
Varieties. The name sapphire is sometimes restricted in
common language to clear crystals of bright colors, used as
gems; while dull, dingy-colored crystals and masses are
called corundum, and the granular variety of bluish-gray and
blackish colors is called emery.
Blue is the true sapphire color. When of other bright
tints, it receives other names ; as oriental ruby, when red ;
oriental topaz, whenyellow ; oriental emerald, when green ;
oriental amethyst, when violet; and adamantine spar, when
hair-brown. Crystals with a radiate chatoyant interior are
often very beautiful, and are called asteria, or asteriated
sapphire.
What is the usual form of crystals of sapphire ? What are their
colors ? hardness ? Of what does sapphire consist ? What are the red,
yellow and green varieties called? What the hair-brown variety ?
What are corundum and emery ? What is asteriated sapphire ?
 SAPPHIRE . 159

Dif. Distinguished readily by its hardness, exceeding all

species except the diamond, and scratching quartz crystals
with great facility.
Obs. The sapphire is usually found loose in the soil:
primitive rocks, and especially gneissoid mica slate, talcose
rock and granular limestone, appear to be its usual matrix.
It is met with in several localities in the United States, but
seldom sufficiently fine for a gem. A blue variety occurs at
Newton, N. J., in crystals sometimes several inches long ;
bluish and pink, at Warwick, N. Y.; white, blue and red-
dish crystals, at Amity, N. Y.; grayish, in large crystals in
Delaware and Chester counties, Pennsylvania; pale blue
crystals have been found in boulders at West Farms and
Litchfield, Ct. It occurs also in considerable quantities in
North Carolina; also in Chester county, Georgia, where a
fine red sapphire has been obtained.
The principal foreign localities are as follows : blue, from
Ceylon; the finest red from the Capelan Mountains in the
kingdom of Ava, and smaller crystals from Saxony, Bohemia
andAuvergne ; corundum, from the Carnatic, on the Malabar
coast, and elsewhere in the East Indies; adamantine spar,
from the Malabar coast ; emery, in large boulders from near
Smyrna, and also at Naxos and several of the Grecian
islands.
The name sapphire is from the Greek word sappheiros,
the name of a blue gem. It is doubted whether it included
the sapphire of the presentday.
Uses. Next to the diamond, the sapphire in some of its
varieties is the most costlyofgems. The red sapphire is much
more highly esteemed than those of other colors. A crystal
weighing 34 carats, perfect in transparency and color, has
beenvalued at the price ofadiamond ofthe same size. They
seldom exceed half an inch in their dimensions. Two splen-
did red crystals, as long as the little finger and about an inch
indiameter, are said to be in the possession of the king of
Arracan.
Blue sapphires occur of much larger size. According to
Allan, Sir Abram Hume possesses a crystal which is three
inches long ; and in Mr. Hope's collection of precious stones

How is the species sapphire distinguished ? In what rocks does the

sapphire occur ? What are some of the American localities ? what are
the principal foreign ? What is said of the value of sapphires ?
160 ALUMINA.

there is one crystal formerly belonging to the Jardin do

Plantes of Paris, for which he gave £3000 sterling.
The largest oriental ruby known was brought from China
to Prince Gargarin, governor of Siberia ; it afterwards came
into the possession ofPrince Menzikoff, and constitutes now
ajewel in the imperial crown of Russia.
2. Combined with bases,forming Aluminates.
SPINEL .

Monometric. In octahedrons, more or less modified, and

dodecahedrons. Figure 1, is the octahedron with truncated
1 2 3 4

A
A E E a A
A A A
E a
A A E A
AA

edges ; figure 3, the same with beveled edges ; figure 2, the

dodecahedron. Occurs only in crystals ; cleavage octahedral,
but difficult. Figure 4 represents a'twin crystal.
Color red, passing into blue, green, yellow, brown and
black. The red shades often transparent and bright ; the
dark shades usually opaque. Luster vitreous. H=8 .
Gr-3.5-3.6.
Composition : ofa spinel, from Haddam, Ct., alumina 75.5,
magnesia 17.9, peroxyd of iron 4.1, silica 0.96. Essentially
alumina and magnesia. Infusible alone, and with difficulty
with borax.
Varieties. The following are the varieties ofthis species
that have received distinct names : The scarlet or bright
red crystals, spinel ruby; the rose-red, balas-ruby ; the
orange-red, rubicelle ; the violet, almandine-ruby ; the green,
chlorospinel ; while the black varieties are called pleonaste.
Pleonaste crystals contain sometimes 16 to 20 per cent. of
oxyd of iron.
Dif. The form of the crystals and their hardness dis-
rnet is fusible. Magnetic iron ore
tinguish the species. Garnet
What is the usual crystalline form ofspinel ? What is its hardness ?
What are its colors ? Ofwhat does it essentially consist ? Mention the
colors and names of some ofthe varieties ?
 SPINEL. 161

is attracted by the magnet. Zircon has a high specific

gravityand is not so hard.
Obs. Occurs in granular limestone ; also in gneiss and
volcanic rocks. At numerous places in the adjoining coun-
ties ofSussex in New Jersey, and Orange county, of various
colors from red to brown and black ; especially at Franklin,
Newton and Sparta, in the former, and in Warwick, Amity
and Edenville, in the latter. The crystals are octahedrons,
and often grouped or disseminated singly in granular lime-
stone. One crystal found at Amity by Dr. Heron, weighs
49 pounds. The limestone quarries of Bolton, Boxborough,
Chelmsford and Littleton, Mass., afford a few crystals.
Crystals ofspinel are occasionally soft, having undergone
a change of composition, and approaching steatite in all
characters except form. They are true pseudomorphs. Thes
are met with in Sussex and Orange counties.
Uses. The fine colored spinels are much used as gems.
The red is the common ruby of jewelry, the oriental rubies
being sapphire. Crystals weighing 4 carats have been
valued at halfthe price ofa diamond ofthe same size.
Automolite. A variety of spinel, containing 34.8 per cent. of oxyd
ofzinc. Color dark green or black. H=7.5-8. Gr=4.26. With
soda it forms at first a dark scoria, and when fused again with more
soda, a ring of oxyd of zinc is deposited on the charcoal. Infusible
alone, and nearly so with borax.
Occurs in granite at Haddam with beryl, chrysoberyl, garnet, &c. In
Sweden, near Fahlun, in talcose slate.
Dysluite. A variety of the species spinel, containing oxyd of
iron and zinc. Color yellowish or grayish-brown. H=7.5-8 . G
4:55. Composition, alumina 30.5, oxyd of zinc 16.8, peroxyd of iron
41.9, protoxyd of manganese 7.6, silica 3, moisture 0.4. Becomes red
before the blowpipe, but loses the color on cooling. Infusible alone
with borax affords a translucentbead of a deep garnet-red color. The
name dysluite is from the Greek dus, with difficulty, and luo, to dis-
solve. From Sterling, N. J., with Franklinite and Troostite.
Hercinite. A spinel consisting ofalumina and protoxyd of iron, with
only 2.9 per cent. ofmagnesia.

3. Hydrous combinations with Silica.

HALLOYLITE.-Hydrous Silicate of Alumina.
Massive and earthy, resembling a compact steatite.
Yields to the nail, and may be polished by it.
How is spinel distinguished from magnetic iron ? from garnet ? from
zircon ? For what are spinels used ? What is automolite ? What is
the appearance of halloylite ?
14
*
162 ALUMINA..

Color white or bluish. Adheres to the tongue, and small

pieces become transparent in water. Gr=1.8-2.1 .
Composition : silica 39.5, alumina 34.0, water 26.5. Dis-
solves in sulphuric acid, yielding a jelly. Becomes milk-
white before the blowpipe.
Obs. From Liege and Bayonne, France. Named in
honor of the geologist, Omalius d' Holly.
NOTE. There are several other hydrous silicates of alumina allied to
halloylite, having the following names : Pholerite, kollyrite, cimolite,
hole, fettbol, rock soap, rosite,groppite, malthacite, and smclite. They
are in general
general soft and earthy, often clay-like, and are distinguished
from similar magnesian species by the blowpipe test foralumina.
There are also stalactitic hydrous silicates,found in volcanic and other
gneous rocks, and formed by the decomposition of feldspar or other in-
gredients. Such silico-aluminous stalactites are not uncommon in the
Pacific Islands. They are of mixed composition, as necessarily results
from their mode of origin. Gibbsite is in some cases of this character.
When containing an alkali they become zeolites.
Allophane. Reniform and massive, occasionally with traces of crys-
tallization ; sometimes almost pulverulent. Color pale blue;sometimes
green, brown or yellow. Luster vitreous or resinous. Splendent and
waxy internally. Streak white. H=3. Gr= 1.85-1.90. Compo-
sition, alumina 29-2, silica 21.9, water 44.2, mixed clay 4.7. Becomes
opaque, colorless and pulverulent before the blowpipe, intumesces a lit-
tle and tinges the flame green. Forms a jelly with acids. In marl in
Thuringia and Saxony, and in chalk at Beauvais in France.
The name allophane is from the Greek allos, other, and phaino, to
appear, alluding to its changes ofappearance before the blowpipe.
Schrætterite, or opal allophane, resembles allophane; it consists of
silica 12-0, alumina 46.3, water 36-2, with some iron, copper and
lime.

PINITE .

In hexagonal prisms. Color gray, greenish, brownish.

Luster resinous, inclining to pearly. Opaque and nearlydull.
H=2.25. Gr=2.76-2-78 .
Composition : silica 56, alumina 25.5, potash with some
soda 8, peroxyd of iron 5.5, magnesia with manganese 3.8,
water 1.4. Whitens before the blowpipe, and fuses on the
edges or not at all.
Obs. Occurs in Auvergne, in feldspar porphyry, and in
granite in Saxony and Cornwall.
CHLOROPHYLLITE .

In six and twelve-sided prisms, highly foliated, parallel to

Ofwhat does halloylite consist ?
 ZEOLITES. 163

the base. Folia soft and brittle, of a grayish-green to dark

olive-green color, andpearly luster. Gr=2.7.
Composition : silica 45.2, alumina 27.6, magnesia 9.6,
protoxyd of iron 8.2, protoxyd ofmanganese 4.1, water 3.6,
(Jackson.) Yields water before the blowpipe and becomes
bluish-gray, but fuses only onthe edges.
Dif. It is distinguished from tale by affording water be-
fore the blowpipe, and readily by its association with iolite,
and its large hexagonal forms, with brittle folia.
Obs. Occurs with iolite in granite at Haddam, Ct., and at
Unity, N. H. The iolite andchlorophyllite are often interlami-
nated, and the latter appears to result from the alteration of
the former, in which the principal change is the addition of
water. A variety from Brevig, in Norway, has been called
esmarkite.
The name chlorophyllite, given to this species by Dr.
Jackson, is derived from the Greek chlôros, green, and phul-
lon, leaf.
The following species, like chlorophyllite in crystallization, appear
also to have proceeded from the alteration of iolite .
Fahlunite. Color dull green, brown or black. H=3 . Gr=2.6-
2-79. Contains 13.5 per cent. of water. From Fahlun, Sweden .
Gigantolite. Color greenish to dull steel gray. Gr=2.85-2.88.
From Tamela, Finland. Iberite is near gigantolite. Color pale grayish
green. Gr=2.89. Hydrousiolite of Bonsdorf, differs from chlorophyllite
in containing one per cent. more of water.
Aspasiolite is another hydrous mineral allied to the above, and found
associated with iolite. It usually resembles a light green serpentine,
and occurs in six-sided prisms.
ZEOLITE FAMILY.

NOTE. The following species from heulandite to chaba-

zite, inclusive, constitute what has been called the zeolite
family, so named because the species generally melt and intu-
mesce before the blowpipe, the term being derived from the
Greek zeo, to boil. They consist essentially ofsilica, alum-
ina and some alkali, with more or less water. The most of
them gelatinize in acids, owing to the separation of the
silica in a gelatinous state.
They occur filling cavities in rocks, constituting narrow
seams, or implanted on the surface, and rarely in imbed.
ded crystals ; and never disseminated through the body of
a rock like crystals of garnet or tourmaline. All occur
What is the meaning of the word zeolite ? What is the constitution
of the zeolites ? their mode of occurrence ?
164 ALUMINA.

in amygdaloid, and some ofthem occasionally in granite or

gneiss. The first four, heulandite, laumonite, apophyllite,
stilbite, have a strong pearly cleavage, and do not occur in
fine fibrous crystallizations ; when columnar, the structure is
thin lamellar. Excepting laumonite,these species dissolve
in the strong acids, but do not gelatinize. The species
natrolite, scolecite, stellite, and thomsonite, are often fibrous,
and the crystallizations generally slender. The remaining
species, harmotome, analcime, sodalite, hauyne, lapis lazuli,
and chabazite, occur in short or stout glassy crystals, and are
seldom fibrous. To the second division above given might
be added the species dysclasite and pectolite, described under
Lime. They have a more pearly or silky luster than
natrolite.

HEULANDITE .

Monoclinate. In right rhomboidal prisms and their modi-

fications. Pon Mor T-90 '. M : T=130° 30′.
T Cleavage highly perfect, parallel to P. Luster of
P
cleavage facepearly, of other faces vitreous. Color
white ; sometimes reddish, gray, brown. Transpa-
M rent to subtranslucent. Folia brittle. H=3.5-4.
Gr -2.2.
Composition : silica 59.1, alumina 17.9, lime 7.6,
water 15.4. Intumesces and fuses, and becomes phospho-
rescent. Dissolves in acid without gelatizing.
Dif. Distinguished from gypsum by its hardness and the
action of acids and the blowpipe ; from apophyllite and stil-
bite by its crystals.
Obs. Found in amygdaloid ; occasionally in gneiss, and
in some metalliferous veins.
Occurs at Bergen Hill, N. J., in trap ; at Hadlyme, Ct.,
and Chester, Massachusetts, on gneiss ; near Baltimore, on
a syenitic schist ; at Peter's Point and Cape Blomidon,
Nova Scotia, in trap.
The species was named by Brooke in honor of Mr. Heu-
land, of London. Lincolnite is here included.
Brewsterite. Crystals right rhomboidal prisms, with a perfect
pearly cleavage like heulandite ; but M : T=93° 40′ . H=5-5.
Gr-2-1-2.5. From Argyleshire and the Giant's Causeway.

What is the appearance and structure of heulandite ? How is it

distinguished from gypsum ? how from apophyllite and stilbite ?
 APOPHYLLITE . 165

STILBITE .

In right rectangular prisms, more or less modified ; cleav-

age perfect parallel with M. The prism is usually તે a

lattened parallel with the cleavage face, (annex-

ed figure,) and terminates in a pyramid ; a : a =
119" . Also in sheath like aggregations and thin M M
columnar.
Color white ; sometimes yellow, brown or red.
Luster of cleavage face pearly, of other faces vitreous. Sub-
transparent to translucent. H = 3.5-4. Gr= 2.13-2.15.
Composition : silica 52-25, alumina 18.75, lime 7.4, soda
2.4, water 18-75. Before the blowpipe fuses with intumes-
cence to a colorless glass. Does not gelatinize except after
jong boiling in nitric acid.
Dif. Distinguished from gypsum like heulandite ; and
from heulandite by its crystals, which are usually thin, elon-
gated rectangular prisms, with pyramidal terminations, often
uneven in surface .
Obs. Occurs mostly in amygdaloid; also on gneiss and
granite.
It is found sparingly at the Chester and Charlestown sy.
enite quarries, Mass., at Thatchersville and Hadlyme, Ct. ,
at Phillipstown, N. Y., at Bergen Hill, N. J., in trap, in the
copper region of Lake Superior, in amygdaloid. In beauti-
ful crystallizations at Partridge Island, Nova Scotia.
The name stilbite is derived from the Greek stilbè, luster.
APOPHYLLITE .

Dimetric. In right square prisms or octahedrons. Cleav-

age parallel with the base highly perfect. Prisms
often terminate in a sharp pyramid, (annexed fig- a a

ure,) a : a= 104' 2' and 121. Massive and fo-

liated. Color white or grayish ; sometimes with
a shade of green, yellow, or red. Luster of P MM
pearly : of the other faces vitreous. Transparent
to opaque. H = 4.5-5. Gr 2.3-2.4.
Composition : silica 51.9, lime 25.2, potash 5.1, water
16.0. Exfoliates and ultimately fuses to a white vesicular
glass. In nitric acid separates into flakes and becomes
somewhat gelatinous and subtransparent.
What is the crystallization of stilbite ? What are its general char-
acteristics ? How is it distinguished ? What is the form and cleavage
of crystals of apophyllite ? What are its other characters ?
166 ALUMINA.

Dif. The acute pyramidal terminations of its glassy

crystals at once distinguish it from the preceding, as also its
cleavage across the prism.
Thename alludes to its exfoliationbefore the blowpipe.
Obs. Found in amygdaloidal trap and basalt.
Occurs in fine crystallizations at Peter's Point and Part.
ridge Island, Nova Scotia, and at Bergen Hill, N. J.
LAUMONITE .

Monoclinate . In oblique rhombic prisms ; M : M-86°

15 , P : M=66° 30′. Cleavage parallel to the acute lateral
edge ; also massive, with a radiating or divergent structure.
Color white, passing into yellow or gray. Luster vitre-
ous, inclining to pearly on the cleavage face. Transparent
to translucent. H=3.5-4. Gr=2.3. Becomes opaque
on exposure, and readily crumbles.
Composition : silica 48-3, alumina 22-7, lime 12-1, water
16.0. Intumesces and fuses to a white frothy mass. Ge-
latinizes with nitric or muriatic acid, but is not affected by
sulphuric unless heated.
Dif. The alteration this species undergoes on exposure
to the air, at once distinguishes it. This result may be pre
vented with cabinet specimens, by dipping them into a solu
tion of gum arabic.
Obs. Found in amygdaloid and also in gneiss, porphyry,
and clay slate. Peter's Point, Nova Scotia, is a fine locality
of this species. Occurs also at Phipsburg, Me.; Charles-
town syenite quarries, Mass.; Bergen Hill, N. J.; in the
amygdaloid of the copper region, Lake Superior.
Leonhardite resembleslaumonite ; it contains silica55, alumina24.1,
lime 10.5, water and loss 12.30.
NATROLITE.

Trimetric. In right rhombic prisms, usually slender and

terminated by ashort pyramid ; M : M=91° 10' ; e :
e=143° 14', M : e=116° 37' . Cleavage perfect
parallel with M. Also in globular, stellated, and di-
MMvergent groups, consisting ofdelicate acicular fibers,
the fibers often terminating in acicular prismatic
crystals.
Color white, or inclining to yellow, gray, or red.
How is apophyllite distinguished? What are the characters of lau-
monite ? What takes place when it is exposed to the air ? What is
the crystallization of natrolite ? mention other characters.
 THOMSONITE . 167

Luster vitreous. Transparent totranslucent. H=4.5-5.5.

Brittle. Gr=2・ 14-2・23.
Composition : silica 48.0, alumina 26.5, soda 16.2, water
33. Becomes opaque before the blowpipe and fuses to a
glassy globule. Forms a thick jelly in the acids, after heat-
ing as well as before.
Dif. Distinguished from scolecite by its action before the
lowpipe.
Obs. Found in amygdaloidal trap, basalt and volcanic
ocks. The name natrolite is from natron, soda.
Occurs in the trap of Nova Scotia and Bergen Hill, N. J.
Scolecite resembles natrolite, and differs in containing lime in place
of soda. The luster is vitreous or a little pearly. Before the blowpipe
it curls up like a worm (whence the name from the Greek skolex a
worm) and then melts. From Staffa,Iceland, Finland, Hindostan.
Poohnahlite is a related species, from Poohnah, Hindostan. M : M=
92
° 20′.
Mesole is another related species, occurring usually in implanted glo-
bules, having a flat columnar or lamellar radiated structure, with a
pearly or silky luster. Gr=2.35-2.4. Fuses easily before the blow-
pipe and gelatinizes readily with acids. From the Faroe islands and
Greenland. Harringtonite from the north of Ireland, and Brevicite
from Brevig, Norway, appear to be identical with mesole.
Natrolite, scolecite, mesole, and some other zeolites, together corres-
pond to the old species mesotype.
THOMSONITE.

Trimetric. In right rectangular prisms. Usually in

masses, having a radiated structure within, and consisting of
long fibers or acicular crystals ; also amorphous.
Color snow-white. Luster vitreous, inclining to pearly.
Transparent to translucent. H=4.75. Brittle. Gr=2.3
-2.4.
Composition : silica 38-3, alumina 30.7, lime 13.5, soda
4.5, water 13.1. Intumesces and becomes opaque ; but the
edges merely are rounded at a highheat. When pulverized,
it gelatinizes with nitric or muriatic acids.
Dif. Distinguished from natrolite and other zeolites by
its difficult fusibility.
Obs. Occurs in amygdaloid, near Kilpatrick, Scotland ;
in lavas at Vesuvius ; in clinkstone in Bohemia. Alsoat Pe-
ter's Point, Nova Scotia, in trap.
The species was named in honor of Dr. Thomas Thom.
son, of Glasgow.
Thespecies comptonite and mowenite are identical with thomsonite.
168 ALUMINA.

HARMOTOME .

Trimetric. In modified rectangular prisms ; and very

commonly twin crystals similar to the annexed
figure.
Color white ; sometimes grayish, yellowish,
M
or brownish. Subtransparent to translucent.
Luster vitreous. H=4-4.5. Brittle. Gr
2-39-2.45.
Composition : silica 46.6, alumina 16.8, ba-
ryta 20-3, lime 0.3, potash 1.0, water 15.0.
Fuses without intumescence to a clear globule. Phospho-
resces with a yellow light when heated. Scarcely attacked
by the acids unless they are heated.
Dif. Its twin crystals, when distinct, cannot be mistaken
for any other species except phillipsite. It is much more
fusible than glassy feldspar or scapolite ; it does not gelati-
nize in cold acids like thomsonite.
Obs. Occurs in amygdaloid, gneiss, and metalliferous
veins. Fine crystallizations are found at Strontian in Ar-
gyleshire, Andreasberg in the Hartz, and Kongsberg in
Norway.
The name harmotome is from the Greek harmos a joint,
and temno to cleave.
Phillipsite. Near harmotome in its cruciform crystals and other
characters ; but differing in containing lime in place of baryta. It dif-
fers also in gelatinizing with acids and in fusing with some intumes-
cence. It also occurs in sheaf-like aggregations and in radiated crys-
tallizations. From the Giant's Causeway, Capo di Bove, and Vesuvius.
Gismondine and zeagonite, from the last two localities mentioned, are
identical with Phillipsite.
ANALCIME .

Monometric.
1
Occurs usually in trapezohedrons, (fig. 1,)
2
also fig. 2 ; cleavage cubic and
a only in traces. P

Often colorless and transparent,

a
also milk-white, grayish and red- P P

dish-white, and sometimes opaque.

The appearance sometimes seen
in polarized light is shown in figure 96, page 61.
Luster vitreous. H= 5-5.5. Gr=2-07-2.28 .

What is the common form of harmotome ? what its color and ap-
pearance ? What are its distinguishing characters ? What is the form
of crystals of analcime ? the color and other characters ?
 CHABAZITE . 169

Composition : silica 55.1, alumina 23, soda 13.5, water

8.3. Fuses before the blowpipe on charcoal without intu-
mescence to a clear glassyglobule. Gelatinizes in muriatic
acid.
Dif. Characterized by its crystallization, without cleav.
age. Distinguished from quartz and leucite by its inferior
hardness ; from calc spar by its fusibility, and by not effer-
vescing with acids ; from chabazite and its varieties by fu-
sing without intumescence to aglassy globule, and by the
crystalline form.
Obs. Found in amygdaloid and lavas; also in gneiss.
Occurs in fine crystallizations in Nova Scotia ; also at
Bergen Hill, N. J.; Perry, Me.; and in the amygdaloid of
the copper region, Lake Superior. The Faroe Ids., Iceland,
Vicentine, the Hartz, Sicily, and Vesuvius are some of the
foreign localities.
The name analcime is from the Greek analkis, weak, al-
luding to its weak electric power when heated or rubbed.
CHABAZITE.

Rhombohedral. Often in rhombohedrons, much resem-

bling cubes. (Fig. 1.) R : R=94° 46′. Cleavage paral-
1 2 3

a
R R
a
a'
R R
R a am

lel to the primary faces. Also in complex modifications of

this form, and double six-sided pyramids or short six-sided
prisms terminating in truncated pyramids. (Fig. 2.) Also
in compound crystals, (fig. 3.) Never massive or fibrous.
Color white, also yellowish and red. Luster vitreous.
Transparenttotranslucent. H= 4-4.5. Gr= 2·06-2.17.
Composition : silica 48.4, alumina 19.3, lime 8.7, potash
2.5, water 21.1 .
This species includes gmelinite, occurring in small glassy
crystals of the form in figure 2 ; also levyne, occurring in
compound crystals (fig. 3;) also ledercrite, which has the form

Mention some of the distinctive characters of analcime. What is

said of the crystallization of chabazite? mention other characters.
15
170 ALUMINA.

ofgmelinite, but appears to differ in containingjust one third

the proportion of water ; also phacolite, occurring in small
glassy crystals having the form ofdouble six-sidedpyramids.
The acadiolite is a redvariety from Nova Scotia. Herschel.
ite is another variety in small hexagonal tables.
The varieties intumesce and whiten before the blowpipe.
Gmelinite forms ajelly with acids.
Dif. The nearly cubicalform oftenpresented bythe crystals
ofchabazite is a striking character. It is distinguished from
analcime as stated under that species; from calc spar by its
hardness and action with acids ; from fluor spar by its form
andcleavage, and its showing no phosphorescence.
Obs. Found in trap, gneiss, and syenite. Chabazite is
met with in the trap of the Connecticut valley, but in poor
specimens ; also at Hadlyme,and Stonington, Ct., at Charles-
town, Mass., Bergen Hill, N. J., Piermont, N. Y. Nova
Scotia affords common chabazite and also the ledererite. The
Faroe Islands, Iceland, and Giant's Causeway are some of
the foreign localities. Gmelinite comes fromthe Vicentine ;
also the county of Antrim, Ireland ; levyne from Glenarm,
Scotland ; also Iceland, Faroe, &c..
Haydenite. Resembles chabazite in the appearance of its crystals,
but isdescribed as having an oblique rhombic prism ; P : M=96° 5',
M : M=98° 22'. Occurs with heulandite at Jones's Falls, near Balti-
more.

PREHNITE .

Primary form aright rhombic prism ; M : M =99° 56'.

Cleavage,basal. Usually in six-sided prisms, round-
ed so as to be barrel-shaped, and composed of a
series of united plates ; also in thin rhombic or
hexagonal plates. Often reniform and botryoidal ;
texture compact.
Color light green to colorless. Luster vitreous,
except the face P, which is somewhat pearly. Subtranspa-
rent to translucent. H = 6-6.5. Gr= 2.8-2.96.
Composition : silica 43.0, alumina 23-25, lime 26.0, pro-
toxyds of iron and manganese 2.25, water 4.0. On char-
coal before the blowpipe froths and melts to a slag of a light
green color. Dissolves slowly in muriatic acid without ge-
latinizing, leaving a flaky residue.
How is chabazite distinguished from calc spar? how from fluor spar ?
What is the usual form and structure of prehnite ? What is its
color ? luster ? hardness ?
 PREHNITE 171

Dif. Distinguished from beryl, greenquartz, and chalce-

dony by fusing before the blowpipe, and from the zeolites by
its superior hardness. The ordinary broken appearance of
its crystals is quite characteristic.
Obs. Found in trap, gneiss, and granite.
Occurs in the trap of Farmington, and Woodbury, Ct.,
West Springfield, Mass., and Patterson and Bergen Hill, N.
J.; in gneiss at Bellows Falls, Vt.; in syenite at Charlestown,
Mass.; and very abundant, forming a large vein, in the cop-
per region of Lake Superior, three miles south of Cat har-
bor, and elsewhere.
The Fassa valley in the Tyrol, St. Crystophe in Dauphi-
ny, and the Salisbury Crag, near Edinburgh, are some ofthe
foreign localities.
Uses. Prehnite receives ahandsome polish and is some-
times used for inlaid work. In China it is polished for orna-
ments, and large slabs have been cut from masses brought
from there.

Epistilbite. A hydrous silicate of alumina and lime. Occurs in

thin rhombic prisms, of a white color, with a perfect pearly cleavage
like stilbite. H=4:45. Gr=2-25. Before the blowpipe froths and
forms a vesicular enamel. Does not gelatinize. From Iceland and
Hindostan, and sparingly at Bergen Hill, N. J.
Stellite. In fibrous stellar groups like mesole ; luster silky and shi-
ning. H=3.25. Gr=2.612 . Fuses to a white enamel. Gelatinizes
with muriatic acid. From Kilsyth, Scotland.
Antrimolite. A stalactitic zeolite, from Antrim, Ireland.
Edingtonite. In small right square prisms, with lateral cleavage.
Nearly colorless; luster vitreous. H=44.5. Gr=27-2-75. Ос-
curs with thomsonite at Dumbartonshire .
Carpholite. In minute radiated and stellate tufts of a straw yellow
color, and silky luster. From the tin mines of Schlackenwald, Aus-
tria, with fluor.
Diphanite. In six-sided prisms with a distinct basal cleavage; vit-
reous luster, transparent. H=5-5.5. Gr=3-3.1. A silicate of
alumina and lime, and near prehnite. From the Ural, with emerald.
Hydrous anthophyllite. In divergent fibers having a silky luster.
H=2.5. Gr=291 . Color white, greenish-yellow or bluish. Occurs
inatalcose rock at Fishkill, N. Y., and also above New York city.
Faujasite. A hydrous silicate of alumina, lime and soda. Crystals
square octahedrons . A : A= 111 ° 30′ and 105° 30′ Scratches glass.
Occurs with augite, at Kaiserstuhl.
Glottalite. A hydrous silicate of alumina and lime, said to be mon-
ometric in crystallization. H=3.5. Gr= 2.18. Color white. Luster
vitreous. Translucent. From Scotland.

Where does prehnite occur ? How is it distinguished from the zeo-

lites and quartz ? What are its uses ?
172 ALUMINA.

Zeuxite. A hydrous silicate of alumina and iron, in small brown

prismatic crystals, of a vitreous luster. H=4:25. Gr=3.05. From
Cornwall, in the Huel Unity Mine.
Damourite. Occurs in lamellar pearly crystals, a little harder than
talc. Gr=2.7-2.82. It is a hydrous silicate of alumina and potash.
Reported from Leiperville; Penn., and Chesterfield, Mass.
Chloritoid. A coarsely foliated mineral, folia bent, brittle ; color
greenish-black. H=55-Gr=3.55. Infusible before the blowpipe,
but becomes finally black and magnetic. From the Ural.
Masonite. Near chloritoid ; coarsely foliated or tabular; color dark
gray; luster nearly pearly; folia brittle and often curved. H=6.
Gr-3.45. Fuses with difficulty on the edges. From the vicinity of
Natic village, Rhode Island.

4. Anhydrous combinations with Silica.

SILLIMANITE.

In long, slender rhombic prisms, often much flattened,

penetrating the gangue. M : M= 110°-98°. A brilliant
and easycleavage, parallel to the longer diagonal. Also in
masses, consisting of aggregated crystals or fibers.
Color hair-brown or grayish-brown. Luster vitreous, in-
clining to pearly. Translucent crystals break easily. H=
7-7.5 . Gr-3-2-3.3 .
Composition : silica 37·70, alumina 62.75, oxyd of iron
2.28, (Norton.) Identical therefore with kyanite. Infu-
sible alone and with borax.
Dif. Distinguished from tremolite and the varieties gen-
erally of hornblende by its brilliant diagonal cleavage, and
its infusibility ; from kyanite by its brilliant cleavage, and a
rhombic, instead of flat-bladed crystallization.
Obs. Found in gneiss at Chester, Ct., and the Falls of
the Yantic, near Norwich, Ct. The long, slender prisms
penetrate the gangue in every direction. Also in Yorktown,
Westchester county, N. Y.
This species was named by Bowen in honor of Prof. B.
Silliman ofYale College.
Bucholzite. This species is near Sillimanite in its acicular crystal-
lizations and physical characters. Composition, silica 46.4, alumina
52.9, (Thomson.) A specimen from Chester, Penn., gave Erdmann,
silica 40-1, alumina 58.9, protoxyd ofmanganese. From Fassa, Tyrol ;
also from Chester, Penn.; Munroe, Orange county, N. Y.; Worcester,
Mass.; and Humphreysville, Conn.

What is the crystallization and appearance of Sillimanite ? What is

its hardness ? How is it distinguished from tremolite and kyanite ?
 KYANITE . 173

Theanalyses of bucholzite, ifaccurate, indicate that different species

are included under that name. The American mineral so called, is
evidently identical with Sillimanite.
KYANITE .

Triclinate. Usually in long thin-bladed crystals aggre-

gated together, or penetrating the gangue. The annexed
figure is a portion of one ofthese crystals. Crystals
sometimes short and stout. Lateral cleavage, dis-
tinct. Sometimes fine fibrous.
Color usually light blue, sometimes white, or a
blue center with awhite margin ; sometimes gray,
green, or even black. Luster of flat face a little
pearly. H=5-7. Rather brittle, but less so than
Sillimanite. Gr-3.6-3.7 .
Composition : silica 37.0, alumina 62.5. Unaltered alone
before the blowpipe. With borax forms slowly a transparent
colorlessglass.
Dif. Distinguished by its infusibility from varieties of
the hornblende family. The short crystals have some re-
semblance to staurotide, but their sides and terminations are
usually irregular ; they differ also in their cleavage and
luster.
Obs. Found in gneiss and mica slate, and often accom-
panied by garnet and staurotide.
Occurs in long-bladed crystallizations at Chesterfield and
Worthington, Mass.; at Litchfield and Washington, Conn.;
near Philadelphia ; near Wilmington, Delaware ; and in
Buckingham and Spotsylvania counties, Va. Short crystals.
(sometimes called improperlyfibrolite) occur in gneiss at
Bellows Falls, Vt., and at Westfield and Lancaster, Mass .
In Europe, transparent crystals are met with at St. Goth-
ard in Switzerland, and in Styria, Carinthia, and Bohemia.
Villa Rica in South America, affords fine specimens.
The name .kyanite is from the Greek kuanos, sky-blue.
It is also called sappar, a corruption of sapphire ; also dis-
thene,and when white, rhætizite.
Uses. Kyanite is sometimes used as a gem, and has
some resemblance to sapphire.
Warthite. Resembles kyanite, but gives off water before the blow-
pipe. It may be an altered kyanite. From St. Petersburg.

Describe kyanite ? What is the origin of the name ? For what is

it used?
15*
174 ALUMINA.

ANDALUSITE .

Trimetric. In right rhombic prisms. M : M=91° 33′.

Cleavage lateral, distinct ; also massive and
indistinctly coarse columnar, but never fine
fibrous.
M M Colors gray and flesh-red. Luster vitreous,
or inclining to pearly. Translucent to opaque.
Tough. H=7.5. Gr-3-1-3.32.
Composition : silica 36.5, alumina 60-5, per-
oxyd of iron 4.0. Infusible. With borax fuses with ex-
treme difficulty.
Varieties. Chiastolite and macle are names given to
crystals of andalusite which show atesselated or
cruciform structure when broken across and pol-
ished. The annexed figure represents one from
Lancaster, Mass. The structure is owing to im-
purities, (usually the material of the gangue,) disseminated
by the powers of crystallization in aregular manner along
the sides, edges and diagonals of the crystal. Their hard-
ness is sometimes as low as 3. The same structure has
been observed by Dr. Jackson in staurotide crystals.
Dif. Distinguished from pyroxene, scapolite, spodumene
and feldspar, by its infusibility, hardness and form.
Obs. Found in granite and gneiss.
Westford, Mass.; Litchfield and Washington, Ct.; Ban-
gor, Me.; Chester, Penn., are some of its American locali-
ties. Chiastolite occurs at Sterling and Lancaster, Mass.,
and near Bellows Falls, Vermont. This species was first
found at Andalusia in Spain.
STAUROTIDE .

Trimetric. In right rhombic and six-sided prisms. M :

1 2
P
M-129° 20′. Cleavage imperfect.
a P : a=124 ° 38', M : ě- 115° 20'.
MM
Figure 2 is a common cruciform
MM crystal, (consisting of two prisms
crossing one another.) Never in
massive forms or slender crystalli-
zations.

What is the appearance ofandalusite ? What is chiastolite or macle ?

How is andalusite distinguished from pyroxene and spodumene ? What
crystalline forms are presented by staurotide ? Is it ever foundmassive ?
 LEUCITE . 175

Color dark brown or black. Luster vitreous, inclining to

resinous ; sometimes bright, but often dull. Translucent to
opaque. H=7-7.5. Gr=3.65-3.73.
Composition : silica 37.5, alumina 41.0, protoxyd of iron
18-25, protoxyd of manganese and magnesia 1.0. Before
the blowpipe it darkens, but does not fuse.
Dif. Distinguished from tourmaline and garnet by its
infusibility and form.
Obs. Found in mica slate and gneiss, in imbedded
crystals.
Very abundant through the mica slate of New England.
Franconia, Vt.; Windham, Me.; Lisbon, N. H.; Chester-
field, Mass.; Bolton and Tolland, Ct.; on the Wichichon,
eight miles from Philadelphia, and near New York city, are
some of the localities. St. Gothard in Switzerland, and the
Greiner mountain, Tyrol, are noted foreign localities.
The name staurotide is from the Greek stauros, a cross.
LEUCITE.

Occurs only underthe form ofthe trapezohedron, as in the

annexed figure. Cleavage imperfect. Usually a
in dull glassy crystals, of a grayish color; some. aaa
times opaque-white, disseminated through lava.
aa
Translucent to opaque. H=5.5-6. Brittle .
Gr-2-48-2.49.
Composition : silica 54, alumina 23, potash 22, (Klaproth. )
Infusible except with borax or carbonate of lime, and then
with difficulty to a clear globule. A fine blue color, with
cobalt solution.
Dif. Distinguished from analcime by its hardness and
infusibility.
Obs. In lavas, especially those of Italy. Abundant at
Vesuvius. Crystals from a pin's head to an inch in di-
ameter.
The name leucite is from the Greek leukos, white.
Saccharite resembles a granularfeldspar, of a white or greenish-white
color, but has the constitution of leucite. Infusible alone, and with
great difficulty with soda. From Silesia.

What are the colors and hardness of staurotide ? What is its con-
stitution ? What is its mode of occurrence? How is it distinguished
from tourmaline ? Describe the forms and appearance of leucite. How
does it differ from analcime ?
176 ALUMINA.

FELDSPAR. *

Monoclinate. In modified oblique rhombic prisms. T :

T=118° 49', P : T=67° 15' ; T : ē=120° 40'. Usually
2
1 in thick prisms, often rectangular, (fig. 2,)
and also in modified tables, (fig. 1.)
Cleavage perfect parallel with e, the P
४
TT shorter diagonal ; also distinct parallel
P
to P. Also massive, with a granular
structure, or coarse lamellar. Colors light;
white, gray, and flesh-red common; also greenish and bluish
white and green. Luster vitreous ; sometimes a little pearly
onthe face of perfect cleavage. Transparent to subtranslu-
cent. H=6. Gr 2·39-2.62 .
Composition : silica 64-20, alumina 18.40, potash 16.95,
Fuses only on the edges. With borax forms slowly a trans-
parent glass. Not acted upon by the acids.
Varieties. Common feldspar includes the common sub-
translucent varieties ; adularia, the white or colorless sub-
transparent specimens. The name is derived from Adula,
one of the highest peaks of St. Gothard. Glassy feldspar
and ice-spar include transparent vitreous crystals, found in
lavas. Some crystals called by these names belong to the
species anorthite, or ryacolite.
Moonstone is an opalescent variety of adularia, having
when polished peculiar pearly reflections. Sunstone is simi-
lar; but contains minute scales of mica. Aventurine feld-
spar often owes its iridescence to minute crystals of specular
or titanic iron.
Dif. Distinguished from scapolite by its more difficult
fusibility, and by a slight tendency to a fibrous appearance
in the cleavage surface of the latter, especially in massive
varieties ; from spodumene by its blowpipe characters.
Obs. Feldspar is one of the constituents of granite,
gneiss, mica slate, porphyry and basalt, and often occurs in
these rocks in crystals. St. Lawrence county, N. Y., affords
fine crystals ; also Orange county, N. Y.; Haddam and
What is the crystallization and appearance of feldspar ? What is its
hardness ? what its composition ? Mention the principal varieties, with
their peculiarities ? In what rocks is feldspar an ingredient ?

* The following species, from feldspar to nepheline inclusive, form a

natural group called the feldsparfamily.
 FELDSPAR. 177

Middletown, Conn.; South Royalston and Barre, Mass.,

besides numerous other localities. Green feldspar occurs at
Mount Desert, Me.; an aventurine feldspar at Leyperville,
Penn.; Adularia at Haddam and Norwich, Conn., and Par-
sonsfield, Me. A fetid feldspar (sometimes called necronite)
is found at Rogers' Rock, Essex county ; at Thomson's
quarry, near 196th street New York city, and 21 miles from
Baltimore. Carlsbad and Elbogen in Bohemia, Baveno in
Piedmont, St. Gothard, Arendal in Norway, Land's End, and
the Mourne mountains, Ireland, are some ofthe more inter-
esting foreign localities.
The name feldspar is from the German wordfeld, mean-
ingfield.
Uses. Feldspar is used extensively in the manufacture of
Porcelain. Moonstone and Sunstone are often set in jewelry.
They are polished with a rounded surface, and look some-
what like cat's-eye, but are much softer.
Kaolin. This name is applied to the clay that results
from the decomposition of feldspar. It is the material used
for making porcelain or china ware. The change the feld-
spar undergoes in producing kaolin consists principally in a
removal of the alkali, potash, with part of the silica and the
addition of water. Composition ofa specimen from Schnee-
berg, silica 43.6, alumina 37.7, peroxyd of iron 1.5, water
12-6, (Berthier.) It occurs in extensive beds in granite re-
gions, where it has been derived from the decomposition of
this rock. A granite containing talc seems to be the most
common source ofit. See farther, the chapter on Rocks.
ALBITE .

Triclinate. In modified oblique rhomboidal prisms.

M : T=117 ° 53 ′, P : T= 115° 5' ; P : M=93° P
50' . The crystals are usually more or less thick
and tabular. Also massive, with a granular or T
jamellar structure. Laminæ brittle.
Color white ; occasionally light tints ofbluish
white, grayish, reddish and greenish. Luster
vitreous to pearly, and sometimes a bluish opalescence is
exhibited. Transparent to subtranslucent. H=6. Gr=
2.6-2.7 .

What are the uses of feldspar ? What is kaolin, and for what is it
used ? What is the crystallization and appearance of albite ?
178 ALUMINA .

Composition : silica 68.5, alumina 19.3, peroxyd of iron

and manganese 0.3, lime 0.7, soda 9.1. Acts like feldspat
before the blowpipe, but tinges the flame yellow.
Cleavelandite is a lamellar variety occurring in wedge.
shaped masses at the Chesterfield albite vein, Mass.
Dif. Albite differs from feldspar in containing a large
proportion ofsoda. It maygenerally be distinguished when
associated with that species by its uniform white color ; also
by the form of the crystals, which are more oblique and ir-
regular, often tabular, with two ofthe edges very acute ; also
by the yellow tinge given the blowpipe flame.
Obs. Albite like feldspar is aconstituent of manyrocks,
replacing feldspar. Albite granite is commonly lighter
colored than feldspar granite, arising from the usual white-
ness of the albite. Fine crystals occur at Middletown and
Haddam, Conn., at Goshen, Mass., and Granville, N. Y.
The name albite is from the Latin albus, white.
Ryacolite. Resemblesalbite, occurring in transparentglassy crystals
H=6. Gr=2.5-2.7. Crystals oblique rhombic, nearly like those of
feldspar. M : M= 119° 21′. Contains 10 per cent. of soda, and like
albite tinges the flame before the blowpipe yellow. It fuses rather more
easily than feldspar. From Mount Somma and the Eifel.
Anorthite. Near albite. The primary is an oblique rhomboidal
prism, P : T= 110° 57′ T : T=120° 30′. Its crystals are glassy and
tabular in form. H= 6 . Gr=2.6-2.8. Differs from albite in not
tinging the blowpipe flame deep yellow, nor affording a clear glass with
soda. From Mount Somma, near Naples.
Loxoclase. Has the form of feldspar very nearly, but is distinguished
by a cleavage parallel with the longer diagonal, T : T= 119° 30′.
H=6-6.5. Gr=2.6-2.62. Contains 8-8 per cent. of soda and 3-2
of potash. From Hammond, N. Y., where it occurs with pyroxene,
graphite and calc spar.

LABRADORITE .

Triclinate. P : M=93 ° 28', P : T= 114° 48′, M : T=

P
119° 16' . Cleavage parallel with P, nearly per-
fect ; M distinct. Usually in cleavable massive
M T
forms.
Color dark gray, brown, or greenish brown ;
and usually a series of bright chatoyant colors
from internal reflections, especially blue and green, with
more or less of yellow, red and pearl-gray. Translucent,
How does albite differ from feldspar ? What is cleavelandite ? What
is peculiar in the colors of labradorite ? Mention other characters.
 LABRADORITE . 179

subtranslucent. Luster of principal cleavage face pearly

other faces vitreous. H=6. Gr=2.69-2-76.
Composition : silica 55.75, alumina 26.5, peroxyd of iron
1.25, lime 11.0, soda 4.0, water 0.5. Like feldspar before
the blowpipe, but fuses with a little less difficulty to a color-
less glass. Entirely dissolved by muriatic acid.
Dif. Differs from feldspar and albite in containing a
large percentage of lime, and it is farther distinguished by
dissolving in muriatic acid, and generally by its chatoyant
reflections.
Obs. A constituent of some granites, and was originally
from Labrador. It is abundant in Essex county, N. Y., at
Moriah, Westport and Lewis.
Uses. Labradorite receives a fine polish, and owing to
the chatoyant reflections ofrich anddelicate colors, the speci-
mens are often highly beautiful. It is sometimes used in
jewelry.
Glaucolite. Considered by Frankenheim identical with Labradorite.
Color lavender-blue, passing into green. From near Lake Baikal in
Siberia.
Oligoclase. A feldspar-like mineral, with a distinctcleavage, nearly
white color, of imperfectly vitreous to somewhat greasy luster. H= 6.
Gr-2-64-2.67. Composition, silica 63-5, alumina 23.1, lime 2-4,
potash 2-2, soda 9.4, magnesia 0.8. Fuses with difficulty, and not at-
tacked by acids. Occurs at Stockholm in granite, and at Arendal,
Norway, and elsewhere, in granular limestone.
Lime-oligoclase is an allied mineral from Iceland.
Couzeranite, another allied species from the Pyrenees, of a gray or
greenish gray color. Composition near that of Labradorite.
Latrobite. Resembles some reddish scapolites, but occurs in oblique
rhomboidal prisms, like the feldspars ; P : M=91° 9′, P : T=98° 30′,
M : T-93 ° 30′. Also in cleavable masses. H= 6 . Gr 2.7-2.8:
Composition, silica 41.8, alumina 32-8, lime 9.8, oxyd of manganese
with magnesia 5.8, potash 6.6, water, 2.0. Fuses with some intu-
mescence. From Labrador in granite.
Amphodelite is united with the species anorthite.
NEPHELINE .

In hexagonal prisms. Also massive ; some-

times thin columnar.
Color white, or gray, yellowish, greenish, bluish- им M
red. Luster vitreous or greasy. Transparent to
opaque. H=5.5-6. Gr 2.4-2.65.
Varieties and Composition . Nepheline includes
How does it differ from feldspar and albite ? For what is it used ?
What is the form ofcrystals ofnepheline ? Mention its colorsandluster.
180 ALUMINA

glassy crystals from Vesuvius, which become clouded in

nitricacid. The name is from the Greek nephelè, a cloud.
Eleolite (from elaion, oil) includes the dingy translucent
orsubtranslucent cleavable masses having a strong greasy
luster. Crystals from Greenland have been calledgieseckite.
Cancrinite is a bluish variety.
Nepheline contains silica 43-4, alumina 33-5, peroxyd
of iron 1.5, lime 0.9, soda 13.4, potash 7.1, water 1.4.
Rounded on the edges before the blowpipe : some varieties
fuse readily. In nitric acid, fragments become clouded and
gelatinize.
Dif. Distinguished from scapolite and feldspar by the
greasy luster when massive, and forming ajelly with acids ;
from apatite by the same characters, and also its hardness.
Obs. Nepheline occurs at Vesuvius and near Rome, in
lava. Eleolite is obtained at Brevig and other places in
Norway ; also in Siberia. It is also found in the Ozark
mountains in Arkansas, and at Litchfield in Maine.
SCAPOLITE .

Dimetric. In modified square prisms, often terminating in

pyramids ; a : a= 136° 7' . Cleavage rather
indistinct parallel with M and e. Also mas-
sive, sublamellar or subfibrous.
6
Colors light ; white, pale blue, green or red.
M
Streak uncolored. Transparent to nearly
opaque. Luster usually a little pearly. H=
5-6. Gr= 2.6-2.75 .
Composition : silica 41.25, alumina 33.6,
lime 20.4, protoxyd of manganese 0.5, water 3.2. Before
the blowpipe it fuses slowly with intumescence. With borax
dissolves with effervescence to a transparent glass.
Dif. Its square prisms and the angle of the pyramid at
summit are characteristic. In cleavable masses it resembles
feldspar, but there is a slight fibrous appearance often dis-
tinguished on the cleavage surface of scapolite, which is
peculiar. It is more fusible than feldspar, and has higher
specific gravity. Spodumene has a much higher specific
gravity, and differs in its action before the blowpipe. Tabu-
What have specimens with agreasyluster been called ? What is the
effect of nitric acid ? What is the usual form of scapolite crystals ?
What are its colors and hardness ? What is its composition ? How
does it differ from feldspar and tabular spar ?
 SPODUMΕΝΕ . 181

lar spar is more fibrous in the appearance of the surface,

and is less hard; it is also phosphorescent, and gelatinizes
with acids.
Obs. Found mostly in the older crystalline rocks, and
also in some volcanic rocks. It is especially common in
granular limestone. Fine crystals occur at Gouverneur, N.
Y., and at Two ponds and Amity, N. Y.; at Bolton,
Boxborough and Littleton, Mass.; at Franklin and Newton,
N. J. It occurs massive at Marlboro', Vt.; Westfield, Mass.;
Monroe, Ct. Foreign localities are at Arendal, Norway ;
Wärmland, Sweden; Pargas in Finland, and also at Vesu-'
vius, whence comes the small crystals called meionite.
Nuttallite, Wernerite, and Meionite are varieties of this species.
Dipyre from the Pyrenees, occurring in four or eight-sided prisms, has
also been considered one of its varieties. It however contains silica
55.5, alumina 24.8, lime 9.6, with 9.4 per cent. of soda, and is more
allied in composition to the feldspars. Sp. gr. 2.65. Occurs with talc
and chlorite.
Gehlenite. Crystals square prisms like meionite: color gray; nearly
opaque. H=5.5-6. Gr=29-3.1. Composition, silica 29-6, alum-
ina 24-8, lime 35.3, protoxyd of iron 6.6, water 3.3 . Infusible. With
borax fuses with difficulty. Gelatinizes in muriatic acid. From the
Fassa valley, Tyrol.
Humboldtilite. Crystals asabove. Cleavage basal, distinct. Color
brown or yellow ; luster vitreous. H=5. Gr-2-9-3.2. Composi-
tion, silica 44.0, alumina 11-2, lime 32.0, magnesia 6.1, protoxyd of
iron 2-3, soda 4.3, potash 0.4. Gelatinizes with nitric acid. From
Vesuvius in lava. Somervillite and mellilite are here included.

SPODUMENE .

In cleavable masses, yielding rhombic prisms of 93°.

Surface of cleavage pearly. Color grayish or greenish.
Translucent to subtranslucent. H = 6.5-7. Gr=3 ·1-
3.19 .
Composition : silica 65-3, alumina 25.3, lithia 6.8, oxyd of
iron 2.8. Intumesces before the blowpipe, and fuses to
a transparent glass. In fine powder mixed with bisulphate
of potash and fluor, and fused on platinum foil, it tinges the
flame red, owing to the lithia contained.
Dif. Resembles somewhat, feldspar and scapolite, but
has a higher specific gravity and a more pearly luster, and
affords rhombic prisms by cleavage.

Inwhat rocks does it occur ? Mention the characters of spodumene.

How much lithiadoes it contain ? How does it differ from feldspar and
scapolite ?
16
182 ALUMINA.

Obs. Occurs in granite at Goshen ; also at Chesterfield,

Chester and Sterling, Mass.; at Windham, Me.; at Brook-
field, Ct. It is found at Utön in Sweden, Sterzing in the
Tyrol, and at Killiney bay, near Dublin.
Triphane is another common name ofthis mineral.
Uses. This mineral is remarkable for the lithhia it con-
tains, and has been used for obtaining this rare earth.
PETALITE .

In imperfectly cleavablemasses, affording a prism of 95°.

Colorwhite or gray, or with pale reddish or greenish shades.
Luster vitreous to subpearly. Translucent. H=6-6.5 .
Gr-2-4-2.45.
Composition : silica 79.2, alumina 17-2, lithia 5.8. Phcs-
phoresces when gently heated. Fuses with difficulty on the
edges. Gives the reaction of lithia like spodumene.
Dif. Its lithia reaction allies it to spodumene ; but
it differs from that mineral in luster, specific gravity, and
greater fusibility.
Weissite. A somewhat pearly, massive mineral, of an ash-gray or
brownish color, consisting of silica 53.7, alumina 21.7, magnesia 9.0,
potash 4.1, soda 0-7, protoxyds of iron, manganese and zinc 2-1 . From
Fahlun. Glaucophane affords nearly the same composition. Occura
in cleavable masses of adull bluish color, and in thin prisms. Trans-
lucent. Gr=1.08 . H= 5.5. Fuses easily. Contains silica 56.5,
alumina 12.2, protoxyd of iron 10.9, protoxyd of manganese 0.5, mag-
nesia8.0, lime 2-2, soda 9.3. From the Island of Syra.
Wichtine is a black mineral rectangularly cleavable in two direc-
tions. Contains silica 56.3, alumina 13.3, protoxyd of iron 13.0, per-
oxyd of iron 4.0, soda 3.5, line 6.0, magnesia 3.0. From Wichty in
Finland.

EPIDOTE .

Monoclinate. In right rhomboidal prisms more or less

modified, often with six or more sides. M : T=115° 24'.
T : ě 128° 19′ ; ă : ă=109° č
27' ; ě : a=125° 16′
Cleavage parallel to M; less M

MT distinct parallel to T.-Also C

T
massive granular and of a co-
lumnar structure.

Describe petalite. What is the proportion oflithia in its constitution ?

How does it differ from spodumene ? Where does it occur ? What is
the form of epidote ?
 EPIDOTE . 183

Color yellowish-green (pistachio-green) ana ash or hair

brown. Streak uncolored. Translucent to opaque. Lus.
ter vitreous, a little pearly on M ; often brilliant on the faces
of crystals. Brittle. H=6-7. Gr-3.25-3.46.
Varieties and Composition. There are three prominent
varieties of this species ; one of a yellowish-green color,
another called zoisite, of a grayish-brown or hair-brown ; a
third of dark reddish shades, which contains 14 per cent. of
oxyd of manganese, and is called Manganesian epidote.
Thulite is another red variety, of paler color.
The yellowish-green epidote is sometimes called Pistacite.
The mineral Bucklandite is an iron-epidote.
The green epidote consists of silica 37.0, alumina 26.6,
lime 20.0, protoxyd of iron 13.0, protoxyd of manganese 0.6,
water 1.8 .
Zoisite consists of silica 40.2, alumina 30-3, lime 22.5,
peroxyd of iron 4.5, water 2.0. Before the blowpipe, epidote
and zoisite fuse on the edges and swell up, but do not liquefy.
The manganesian epidote and thulite fuse readily to a black
glass.
Dif. The peculiar yellowish-green color of ordinary ep-
idote distinguishes it at once. The prisms of zoisite are
often longitudinally striated or fluted, and they have not the
form or brittleness of tremolite.
Obs. Occurs in crystalline rocks, and also in some sedi-
mentary rocks that have been heated by the passage ofdykes
of trap or basalt. Splendid crystals, six inches long, and
with brilliant faces and rich color, have been obtained at
Haddam, Ct. Crystallized specimens are also found at Fran-
conia, N. H., Hadlyme, Chester, Newbury and Athol, Mass.,
near Unity and Monroe, N. Y., Franklin and Warwick, N.
J. Zoisite in columnar masses is found at Willsboro and
Montpelier, Vt., at Chester, Goshen, Chesterfield, and else-
where in Massachusetts ; at Milford, Ct.
The name epidote was derived by Haüy from the Greek
epididomi, to increase, in allusion to the fact that the base of
the primary is frequently much enlarged in some of the se.
condary forms. Zoisite was named incompliment to its dis-
coverer, Baron von Zois.

What are the colors and other characters of epidote ? What is the col-
or of the variety zoisite ? What is the composition of epidote ? what
are its distinguishing characters ?
184 ALUMINA .

IDOCRASE .

Dimetric. In square prisms usually modified. P : a=

a
142° 53' ; a : a=129° 28', a : e=127° 07′.
Cleavage not very distinct parallel with M. Also
MM found massive granular and subcolumnar.
Color brown ; sometimes passing into green.
a
In some varieties the color is oil-green in the direc-
tion of the axis and yellowish-green at right angles
with it. Streak uncolored. Subtransparent to nearly opaque.
H=6.5. Gr-3.33-3.4.
Composition : silica 37.4, alumina 23.5, protoxyd of iron
4.0, lime 29.7, magnesia and protoxyd of manganese 5.2.
Before the blowpipe fuses with effervescence to a yellow
translucent globule.
Dif. Resembles some brown varieties of garnet, tourma-
line and epidote, but besides its difference of crystallization,
it is much more fusible.
Obs. Idocrase was first found inthe lavas of Vesuvius,
and hence called Vesuvian . It has since been obtained in
Piedmont, near Christiania, Norway, in Siberia, also in the
Fassa valley. Specimens of a brown color from Eger, Bo-
hemia, have been called egeran. Cyprine includes blue
crystals from Tellemarken, Norway; supposed to be colored
bycopper.
In the United States, idocrase occurs in fine crystals at
Phipsburg and Rumford, Parsonsfield and Poland, Me.;
Newton, N. J.; Amity, N. Y., and sparingly at Worcester,
Mass. The xanthite of Amity is nothing but idocrase.
The name idocrase is from the Greek eido, to see, and
krasis, mixture ; because its crystalline forms have much re-
semblance to those of other species.
Uses. This mineral is of little value except as a minera-
logical curiosity. It is sometimes cut as a gem for rings.
GARNET .

Monometric. Common in dodecahedrons, (fig. 1,) also in

trapezohedrons, (fig. 2,) and both forms are sometimes vari-
ously modified. Cleavage parallel to the faces of the dode-

What is the crystallization of idocrase ? its color, hardness, and lus-

ter? its composition ? How does it differ from garnet and tourmaline ?
What is the usual form of garnet ?
 GARNET. 185

cahedron rather distinct. Also found massive granular, and

coarse lamellar.
Color1 deep red, prevalent
2
; also 3
brown, black,
4.
green,
a
0
aaa e
aaa a
P
aa' a

white. Transparent to opaque. Luster vitreous. Brittle.

H=6.5-7.5 . Gr=3.5-4.3 .
Varieties and Composition. Garnetis a compound of three
or four silicates, the silicates of alumina, lime, iron, and
manganese, and the varieties of color arise from their vari-
ous combinations. Oxyd ofchrome is sometimes present, pro-
ducing an emerald-green variety.
Precious garnet or almandine is clear deep red variety,
a

and is used much injewelry. A specimen from New York

afforded Wachtmeister, silica 42.5, alumina 19.15, protoxyd
of iron 33.6, protoxyd of manganese 5.5.
Common garnet has a brownish red color. and is imper-
fectly translucent or opaque.
Cinnamon stone, called also essonite, is of a light cinna-
mon-yellow color and high luster. It differs from the pre-
ceding principally in containing but 5 or 6 per cent. of iron
and 30 to 33 percent. oflime. Topazolite is another yellow
variety, approaching topaz in color, and presenting the form
in figure 3.
Melanite (from the Greek melas, black) is ablack garnet,
containing 15 to 25 per cent. of the oxyds of iron andman-
ganese. Pyrenäite is another name fora black variety from
France.
Manganesian garnet has a deep red color, and is usually
quite brittle. A Haddam specimen afforded Seybert, silica
35-8, alumina 18.1, protoxyd of iron 14.9, protoxyd of man-
ganese 31.0.
Grossularite occurs in greenish trapezohedrons ; and con-
tains 30 to 34 per cent. of lime with but little iron .
Ouvarovite is a chrome garnet, containing 22.5 percent. of
oxyd of chromium, and having the rich color of the emerald.
What is the color and hardness of garnet ? of what does it consist ?
what is precious garnet ? What is cinnamon stone ? What is ouvaro-
vite?
16*
186 ALUMINA .

Colophonite (from the Greek kolophonia, a resin) is a

coarse granular variety, usually presenting iridescent hues
and a resinous luster.
Aplome is a deep brown garnet, sometimes inclining to
orange. It presents the form in figure 4, andhas a cleavage
parallel to the shorter diagonal of the faces. For this rea-
son it has been separated from the species garnet, and a cube
is considered its primary form.
The different varieties fuse with more or less difficulty to
a dark vitreous globule.
Dif. The vitreous luster of fractured garnet, without a
prismatic structure even in traces, and its usual dodecahedral
forms, are easy characters for distinguishing it. Staurotide
differs in being infusible ; tourmaline has less specific grav-
ity; idocrase fuses much more readily.
Obs. Garnet occurs abundantly in micaslate, hornblende
slate, and gneiss, and somewhat less frequently in granite
andgranular limestone ; sometimes in serpentine and lava.
The bestprecious garnets are from Ceylon andGreenland;
cinnamon stone comes from Ceylon and Sweden ; grossularite
occurs in the Wilui river, Siberia, and at Tellemarken in Nor-
way ; green garnets are found at Swartzenberg, Saxony ;
melanite, in the Vesuvian lavas ; ouvarovite, at Bissersk in
Russia; topazolite, at Mussa, Piedmont ; aplome, in Siberia,
on the Lena, and at Swartzenberg.
In the United States, precious garnets, ofsmall size, occur
at Hanover, N. H.; and a clear and deep red variety, some-
times called pyrope, comes from Green's creek, Delaware
county, Penn. Dodecahedrons, of a dark red color, occur at
Haverhill, N. H.; some 1½ inches through ; also at New
Fane, Vt., still larger ; also Lyme, Conn.; at Unity, Bruns-
wick, Streaked Mountain, and elsewhere, Maine ; at Monroe,
Conn.; Bedford, Chesterfield, Barre, Brookfield, and Brim-
field, Mass.; Dover, Dutchess county, Roger's rock, Crown
Point, Essex county, Franklin, N. J. Cinnamon colored
crystals occur at Carlisle, Mass:, transparent, and also at
Boxborough ; with idocrase at Parsonsfield, Phippsburg and
Rumford, Me.; at Amherst, N. H.; at Amity, N. Y., and
Franklin, N. J., ; at Dixon's quarry, seven miles from Wil-
mington, Del., in fine trapezohedral crystals. Melanite is
found at Franklin, N. J., and Germantown, Penn. Coloph-

What is colophonite ? What isaplome ? How is garnet distinguished ?

 TOURMALINE . 187

mite is abundant at Willsborough and Lewis, Essex county,

N. Y.; it occurs also at North Madison, Conn.
The garnet is the carbuncle of the ancients. The ala-
bandiccarbuncles ofPliny were so called because cut and
polished at Alabanda, and hence the name Almandine now
inuse. The garnet is also supposed to have been the hya-
cinth of the ancients.
Uses. The clear deep red garnets make a rich gem,
and are much used. Those ofPegu are most highly valued.
They are cut quite thin, on account of their depth of color.
An octagonal garnet, measuring 8 lines by 6t has sold for
near $700. The cinnamon stone is also employed for the
same purpose. Pulverized garnet is sometimes employed as
asubstitute for emery. When abundant, as in some parts of
Germany, garnet is used as a flux to some iron ores.
Pliny describes vessels, of the capacity of a pint, form-
ed from large carbuncles, " devoid of luster and transparen-
cy, and of adingy color," which probably were large gar-
nets.

Pyrope or Bohemian garnet. Occurs usually in rounded grains, re-

sembling arich garnet, but the primary form is supposed tobe the cube.
Cleavage none. H=7.5. Gr=3.69-3.8. Composition : silica43-0,
alumina 22-3, oxyd of chromium 1.8, magnesia 18-5, protoxyd of iron
8-7, lime 5-7 ; and, according to Apjohn, there are also 3 per cent. of
yttria. From Bohemia, in trap tufa.
Helvin, a wax yellow garnet-like mineral, occurring in tetrahedral
crystals. From Saxony and Norway.
TOURMALINE .

Rhombohedral. Usual in1prisms terminating in3alow

2
pyramid. R : R= 133 '
26'. R : e= 113° 17′ ; R
R : á= 141 ° 40' ; e : e = B R
R
155° 9'. The crystals are a
B

hemihedrally modified, or a al e a

have unlike secondary

planes at the two extrem-
ities, as shown in figure
3. They are commonly long, and often there are but three
prismatic sides, which are convex and strongly furrowed.

How is garnet distinguished ? What are its uses? What is said of

the ancient carbuncle ? What is pyrope ? What are the usual forms and
appearance of tourmaline ?
188 ALUMINA.

Occurs also compact massive, and coarse columnar, the col-

umns sometimes radiating or divergent from a center.
Color black, blue-black, and dark brown, common ; alsc
bright and pale red, grass-green, cinnamon-brown, yellow,
gray, and white. Sometimes red within and green external.
ly, or one color at one extremity and another at the other.
Transparent ; usually translucent to nearly opaque. Luster
vitreous, inclining to resinous on a surface of fracture.
Streak uncolored. Brittle ; the crystals often fractured
across and breaking very easily. H=7.8. Gr= 3-3.1 .
Electrically polar when heated, (page 62.)
Varieties and Composition. Tourmalines of different col-
ors have been designated by different names, as follows :-
Rubellite is red tourmaline.
Indicolite is blue and bluish-black tourmaline.
Schorl, formerly included the common black tourmaline,
but the name is not now used.
A black variety afforded, on analysis, silica 33.0, alumina
38-2, lime 0.8, protoxyd of iron, 23-8, soda 3-2, boracic acid
1.9.
A red variety from Siberia, silica 39.4, alumina 44.0, pot-
ash 1.3, boracic acid 4.2, lithia 2.5, peroxyd of manganese
5.0. The presence of boracic acid is the most remarkable
point in the constitution ofthis mineral. It is also observed
that lithia is sometimes present ; over 4 per cent. have been
obtained from a green tourmaline from Utön, Sweden.
Before the blowpipe the dark varieties intumesce, and fuse
with difficulty ; the red and light-green only become milk-
white and a little slaggy on the surface.
Dif. The black and the dark varieties generally, are
readily distinguished by the form and luster and absence of
distinct cleavage, together with their difficult fusibility. The
black when fractured often appear a little like ablack resin.
The brown variety resembles zoisite, though very dis-
tinct in crystallization. The light brown looks like garnet
or idocrase, but is more infusible. The red, green, and yel-
low varieties are distinguished from any species they resem-
ble, by the crystalline form, the prism of tourmaline always
having 3, 6, 9, or 12 prismatic sides, (or some multiple of

What is the color and hardness of tourmaline ? what has been called
schorl ? What is rubellite ? What are the distinctive characters of
tourmaline ?
 TOURMALINE. 189

3.) The electric polarity of the crystals, when heated, is

another remarkable character of this mineral .
Obs. Tourmalines are common in granite, gneiss, mica
slate, chlorite slate, steatite, and granular limestone. They
usually occur penetrating the gangue. The black crystals
are often highly polished and attimes a foot in length, though
perhaps of no larger dimensions than a pipe-stem, or even
more slender. This mineral has also been observed in
sandstones near basaltic or trap dikes.
Red and green tourmalines, over an inch in diameter and
transparent, have been obtained at Paris, Me., besides pink
and blue crystals. These several varieties occuralso, ofless
beauty, at Chesterfield and Goshen, Mass. Good black tour-
malines are found at Norwich, New Braintree, and Carlisle,
Mass.; Alsted, Acworth, and Saddleback Mountain, N. H.;
Haddam, Conn.; Saratoga and Edenville, N. Y.; Franklin
and Newton, N. J.
Dark brown tourmalines are obtained at Orford, N. H.; in
thin black crystals in micaat Grafton, N. H.; Monroe, Ct.;
Gouverneur and Amity, N. Y.; Franklin and Newton, N.
J. A fine cinnamon brown variety occurs at Kingsbridge,
Amity, and also south inNew Jersey. A gray or bluish-
grayandgreen variety occurs near Edenville.
The word tourmaline is acorruption of the name in Ceylon,
whence it was first brought to Europe. Lyncurium is sup-
posed to be the ancient name for common tourmaline ; and
the red variety was probably called hyacinth.
Uses. The red tourmalines, when transparent and free
from cracks, such as have been obtained at Paris, Me., are
of great value and afford gems of remarkable beauty. They
have all the richness of color and luster belonging to the
ruby, though measuring an inch across. A Siberian speci-
men of this variety, now inthe British museum, is valued at
£500. The yellow tourmaline, from Ceylon is but little in-
ferior to the real topaz, and is often sold for that gem. The
green specimens, when clear and fine, are also valuable for
gems. A stone measuring 6 lines by 4, of a deep green
color, is valued at Paris at $15 to $20. The thin crystals
of Grafton, N. H. are transparent, and may be used as sug-
gested by B. Silliman, Jr., in polarizing instruments.
Where have fine specimens of red and green tourmaline been found
in the United States ? What is said of yellow tourmaline ? What is
the value of tourmaline as a gem ?
190 ALUMINA.

AXINITE .

Triclinate. In acute edged oblique rhomboida, prisms ;

P : M= 134 40', P : T = 115° 5', M : T =
ε
P 135° 10'. Cleavage indistinct. Also rarely
massive or lamellar.
T
M Color clove brown; differing somewhat in
shade in two directions. Luster vitreous. Trans-
parent to subtranslucent. Brittle. H= 6.5-
7. Gr=3-27. Pyro-electric.
Composition : silica 45, alumina 19, lime 12.5, peroxyd of
iron 12-25, peroxyd ofmanganese 9, boracic acid 2.0, mag-
nesia 0-2. In another specimen 5-6 per cent. of boracic
acid were found. Before the blowpipe fuses readilywith in-
tumescence to a dark green glass, which becomes black in
the oxydating flame.
Dif. Remarkable for the sharp thin edges of its crystals,
and its glassy brilliant appearance, without cleavage. The
crystalsare implanted, and notdisseminated like garnet. In
one or all ofthese particulars, and also in blowpipe reaction,
it differs from any of the titanium ores.
Obs. St. Cristophe in Dauphiny, is a fine locality of this
mineral. It occurs also at Kongsberg in Norway, Normark
in Sweden, and Cornwall, England; also Thum in Saxony,
whence the name Thummerstein and Thumite.
In the United States, it has been found at Phippsburg in
Maine, by Dr. C. T. Jackson.
IOLITE.-Dichroite, Cordierite.
Trimetric. In rhombic and hexagonal prisms. Usually
occurs in six or twelve-sided prisms, or disseminated in
masses without distinct form. Cleavage indistinct ; but
crystals often separable into layers parallel to the base.
Color various shades of blue ; often deep blue in the di-
rection of the axis, and yellowish-gray transversely. Streak
uncolored. Luster and appearance much like that of glass.
Transparent to translucent. Brittle. H = 7-7.5. Gr=
2-6-2-7 .
Composition of a specimen from Haddam, Ct. : silica48.3,
What is the form and color of axinite ? What characters distinguish
it ? Why was it so called ? What are the forms of iolite ? What
are itscolors, appearance and hardness ?
 MICA. 191

alumina 32.5, magnesia 10, protoxyd of iron 6.0, protoxyd

of manganese 0.1, water (hygrometric) 3.1. Before the
blowpipe fuses on the edges with difficulty to a blue glass
resembling the mineral.
Dif. The glassy appearance ofiolite is so peculiar that
it can be confounded with nothing but blue quartz, from
which it is distinguished by its fusing on the edges. It is
easily scratched by sapphire.
Obs. Found at Haddarn, Conn., in granite ; also in gneiss
at Brimfield, Mass.; at Richmond, N. H., in talcose rock.
The principal foreign localities are at Bodenmais in Bava-
ria ; Arendal, Norway; Capo de Gata, Spain ; Tunaberg,
Finland ; also Norway, Greenland and Ceylon.
The name iolite is from the Greek iodes, violet, alluding
to its color ; it is also called dichroite, from dis, twice, and
chroa, color, owing to its having different colors in two
directions.
Uses. Occasionally employed as an ornamental stone ;
when cut it presents different shades of color in different
directions .

NOTE. Iolite exposed to the air and moisture undergoes a, gradual

alteration, becoming a hydrate (absorbing water) and assuming a foli-
ated micaceous structure, so as to resemble talc, though more brittle
and hardly greasy in feel. Hydrous iolite, chlorophyllite, and esmark-
ite, are names that have been given to the altered iolite; andfahlunite
andgigantolite areprobably ofthe same origin. (See pages 162,163.)
MICA.- Muscovite.
Monoclinate. In oblique rhombic prisms of about 120°
and 60°, Pon M 98° 40' ; sometimes
114-115°. Crystals usually with the P

acute edge replaced. Cleavage eminent,

parallel to P, yielding easily thin elastic
laminæ ofextreme tenuity. Usually inthinly foliated masses,
plates or scales. Sometimes in radiated groups of aggre-
gated scales or small folia.
Colors from white through green, yellowish and brownish
shades to black. Luster more or less pearly. Transparent
or translucent. Tough and elastic. H=2-2.5. Gr=
2.8-3 .
Composition : silica 46.3, alumina 36.8, potash 9.2, per-
How is iolite distinguished from quartz and sapphire ? Why was it
called iolite and dichroite ? Describe mica. What is its composition ?
192 ALUMINA.

oxyd of iron 4.5, fluoric acid 0.7, water 1.8. Before the
blowpipe infusible, but becomes opaque white.
Varieties. A variety in which the scales are arranged in
a plumose form is called plumose mica ; another, in which
the plates have a transverse cleavage, has been termedpris-
matic mica.
Dif. Mica differs from talc in affording thinner folia and
being elastic ; also in not having the greasy feel of that
mineral. The same characters, excepting the last, distin-
guish it from gypsum ; besides, it does not crumble so readily
onheating.
Obs. Mica is one of the constituents of granite, gneiss
and mica slate, and gives to the latter its laminate structure.
It also occurs in granular limestone. Plates two and three
fect in diameter, and perfectly transparent, are obtained at
Alstead, Acworth and Grafton, New Hampshire. Other
good localities are Paris, Me.; Chesterfield, Barre, Brim-
field, and South Royalston, Mass.; nearGreenwood furnace,
Warwick and Edenville, Orange county, and in Jefferson
and St. Lawrence counties, N. Y.; Newton and Franklin,
N. J.; near Germantown, Pa., and Jones's Falls, Maryland.
Oblique prisms from near Greenwood are sometimes six or
seven inches in diameter.
Agreen variety occurs at Unity, Maine, near Baltimore,
Md., and at Chestnut Hill, Pa. Prismatic mica is found at
Russel, Mass.
Uses. Mica, on account of the toughness, transparency
and the thinness of its folia, has been used in Siberia for glass
in windows : whence it has been called Muscovy glass. It
was formerly employed in the Russian navy, because not
liable to fracture from concussion. It is in common use for
lanterns, and also for the doors of stoves. It affords a con-
venient material for preserving minute objects for the micros-
cope, and is sometimes used for holding minerals before the
blowpipe flame.
The best localities of the mineral in this country for the
arts, are those of New Hampshire.
Lepidolite, or Lithia mica. Occurs in crystals or lamine, ofa pur-
plish color, and often in masses consisting of aggregated scales. A
specimen from the Ural consisted, according to Rosales, of silica 47.7,

How does mica differ from tale and gypsum ? Of what rocks is
it a constituent ? What are its uses ? What is the peculiarity of
lepidolite ?
 MICA. 193

alumina 20·3, lime 61, protoxyd of manganese 4-7, potash 11·0, lithia
2-8, soda 2-2, fluorine 10-2, chlorine 1.2.
Lepidolite occurs at the albite vein in Chesterfield, Mass., and at
Goshen in the same state; also at Paris, Me., with red tourmalines, and
near Middletown, Ct.
Fuchsite. A green mica from the Zillerthal, containing nearly 4
per cent. of oxyd of chromium.
From the crystallization of mica, two additional species have been
made out of the old species so called. The common mica, as above
described, has an oblique prism for its primary. Many micas, when in
perfect crystals, have the form ofa hexagonal prism,
P
andbut one axis of polarization, (see page 60,) this
last fact proving the primary to be a regularhexago-
nal prism. This species is properly distinguished,
andhas been called hexagonal mica. The mica of
Middletown, Conn., and of many other localities not yet particularly
ascertained, belongs to this species. So also the dark colored micas ot
Siberia, andthe brilliant hexagonal crystals ofVesuvius.
There are also hexagonal crystals which have been found by Dovè
to have two axes ofpolarization, this indicating that
the lateral axes of the primary are unequal, and that P
the form is a rhombic prism with the acute edges
truncated. These crystals are from Henderson, Jef-
ferson county, N. Y. The species is called rhombic
mica , or phlogophite.
Margarite, or Pearl mica. In hexagonal prisms, having the struc-
ture of mica; and also in intersecting lamine. Luster pearly, approach-
ing talc, but differing from that mineral in being a silicate of alumina
instead ofmagnesia. Color nearly white, or gray. It intumesces and
fuses before theblowpipe. From Sterzing in the Tyrol, associated with
chlorite.
Emerylite and Euphyllite are new species related somewhat to mar-
ganite, and found associated with porundum in Pennsylvania and else-
where. Ihey are rather brittle.
Nacrite. Different compounds are included under this name, which
agree in reseinbling a whitish soft earthy tale, witha greasy feel, and in
containing no magnesia, or but a few per cent. only ofthat earth. Occurs
massive, consisting of minute scales. A kind from Brunswick, Me. ,
contains silica 64-5, alumina 28.9, protoxyd of iron 4.4; another from
theAlps, consists of silica 50.0, alumina 26.0, potash 17.5, lime 1.5,
peroxyd ofiron 5.0.
Margarodite, or Schistose talc of Zillerthal is a variety ofcommon
mica.
Lepidomelane. A black iron-mica, occurring in six-sided scales or
tables aggregated together. It contains silica 37.4, alumina 11-6, per-
oxyd of iron 27.7, protoxyd of iron 12-4, magnesia and lime 0.3, potash
9.2, water 0-6. From Warmland. Ottrelite (which includes the phyl-
lite from Sterling, Mass.,) is an allied mineral occurring in black scales,
disseminated through the rock.

What are other kinds of mica ?

17
194 ALUMINA.

5. Combination ofa Silicate and Fluorid.

TOPAZ .

Trimetric. In right rhombic prisms, usually differently

modified at the two extremities. Pyro-electric. e

M : M=124° 19'. Cleavage perfect, parallel to e e

the base.
Color pale yellow ; sometimes greenish, blu-
ish, or reddish. Streak white. Luster vitreous. Mм
Transparent to subtranslucent. Fracture sub-
conchoidal, uneven.
Composition : silica 34.2, alumina 57.5, fluoric acid 7.8.
Infusible alone on charcoal before the blowpipe. Some
varieties are changed by heat to a wine yellow or pink tinge.
Dif. Topaz is readily distinguished from tourmaline
and other minerals it resembles by its brilliant transverse
cleavage.
Obs. Pycnite has been separated from this species. It
differs from topaz mainly in the state of aggregation of the
particles, it presenting a thin columnar structure and forming
masses imbedded in quartz. The physalite or pyrophysalite
of Hisinger, is a coarse, nearly opaque variety, found in
yellowish-white crystals of considerable dimensions This
variety intumesces when heated, and hence its name from
phusao, toblow.
Topaz is confined to primitive regions, and commonly
occurs in granite, associated with tourmaline, beryl, occa-
sionallywithapatite, fluor spar,andtin. With quartz, tour-
maline, and lithomarge, it forms the mixture called topaz
rock by Werner.
Fine topazes are brought from the Uralian and Altai
mountains, Siberia, and from Kamschatka, where they occur
ofgreen andblue colors. In Brazil they are found of adeep
yellow color, either in veins or nests in lithomarge, or in
loose crystals or pebbles. Magnificent crystals of a sky-blue
colorhave been obtained in the district of Cairngorum, in
Aberdeenshire. The tin mines ofSchlaggenwald, Zinnwald,
and Ehrenfriedersdorf in Bohemia, St. Michael's Mount in

What are the forms and cleavage oftopaz crystals ? What are their
colors ? their luster and hardness? their composition ? How is topaz
distinguished from tourmaline and other minerals ? How does topaz
occur ?
 TOPAZ. 195

Cornwall, etc., afford smaller crystals. The physalite varie-

ty occurs in crystals of immense size at Finbo, Sweden, in
a granite quarry, and at Broddbo, in a boulder. A well
defined crystal from this locality, in the possession of the
College of Mines of Stockholm, weighs eighty pounds. Al-
tenberg in Saxony, is the principal locality ofpycnite. It is
there associated with quartz and mica.
Trumbull, Conn., is the principal locality ofthis species in
the United States. It seldomaffords fine transparent crystals,
except of a small size : these are usually white ; occa-
sionally with a tinge ofgreen or yellow. The large coarse
crystals sometimes attain a diameter of several inches,
(rarely six or seven,) but they are deficient in luster, usually
of a dull yellow color, though occasionally white, and often
are nearly opaque.
The ancient topazion was found on an island in the Red
Sea, which was often surrounded with fog, and therefore
difficult to find. It was hence named from topazo, to seek.
This name, like most of the mineralogical terms of the an-
cients, was applied to several distinct species. Pliny de-
scribes a statue of Arsinoe, the wife of Ptolemy Philadelphus,
four cubits high, which was made of topazion, or topaz, but
evidently not the topaz of the present day, nor chrysolite,
which has been supposed to be the ancient topaz. It has
beenconjectured that it was a jasper or agate ; others have
imagined it to be prase, or chrysoprase.
Uses. Topaz is employed in jewelry, and for this purpose
its color is often altered by heat. The variety from Brazil
assumes a pink or red hue, so nearly resembling the Balas
ruby, that it can only be distinguished by the facility with
which it becomes electric by friction. The finest crystals for
the lapidary are brought from Minas Novas, inBrazil. From
their peculiar limpidity, topaz pebbles are sometimes denomi-
nated gouttes d'eau. When cut with facets and set in rings,
theyare readily mistaken, ifviewed by daylight, for diamonds.
The coarse varieties of topaz may be employed as a substi-
tute for emery in grinding and polishing hard substances.
Topaz is cut on aleaden wheel, and is polished on a cop-
per wheel with rotten stone. It is usually cut in the form
of the brilliant or table, and is set either with gold foil or à
jour. The white and rose-red are most esteemed.

What are the uses oftopaz? What is the effect of heat ?

196 ALUMINA.

6. Combination of a Silicate and Sulphate.

LAPIS-LAZULI.-Ultramarine.

Monometric. In dodecahedrons. Cleavage imperfect.

Also massive. Color rich Berlin or azure
TC E blue. Luster vitreous. Translucent to opaque.
H=5.5 . Gr-2.5-2.9.
F
E
Composition : silica 45.5, alumina 31.8,
C
soda 9.1, lime 3.5, iron 0.8, sulphuric acid
5.9, sulphur 0.9, chlorine 0.4, water 0-1 .
Fuses to a white translucent or opaque glass, and ifcalcined
and reduced to powder loses its color in acids. The color
of the mineral is supposed to be due to sulphuret of sodium.
Dif. Distinguished from azurite by its hardness and by
giving no indications of copper before the blowpipe ; and
from lazulite by its fusibility, hardness, and not giving the
reaction of phosphoric acid.
Obs. Found in granite and granular limestone, and is
brought from Persia, China, Siberia, and Bucharia. The
specimens often contain scales of mica and disseminated
pyrites.
Uses. The richly-colored lapis lazuli is highly esteemed
for costly vases, and for inlaid work in ornamental furniture.
Magnificent slabs are contained in some of the Italian cath-
edrals. It is also used in the manufacture of mosaics.
When powdered it constitutes the most beautiful and most
durable of blue paints,called ultramarine, andhas been one
of the most costly colors. The late discovery ofa mode of
making an artificial ultramarine, quite equal to the native,
has afforded a substitute at a comparatively cheap rate.
This artificial ultramarine consists of silica 45.6, alumina
23-3, soda 21.5, potash 1.7, lime trace, sulphuric acid 3.8,
sulphur 1.7, iron 1.1, and chlorine a small quantity unde-
termined. It has takenthe place inthe arts, entirely, of the
native lapis lazuli.
Hauyne, (including nosean and spinellane.) In dodecahedrons, and
allied to the preceding. Color bright blue, occasionally greenish.
Transparent to translucent. H= 6. Gr=2.68-3.35. Composition,

What is the crystalline form of lapis lazuli ? What is its color ? its
hardness? its composition ? How is it distinguished from apatite and
lazulite ? How does it occur ? What are itsuses ? What is said of
the artificial ultramarine ?
 BERYL . 197

silica 35.0, alumina 27.4, soda 9.1, lime 12-6, sulphuric acid 12-6, with
traces of chlorine, sulphur and water. The nosean afforded silica 35-9 ,
alumina 32-6, soda 17.8, sulphuric acid 9.2, with a small per-centage
of other ingredients. A variety from Litchfield, Maine, afforded Dr.
Jackson nearly the same proportions-silica 35.4, alumina 31.75, soda
17.6, sulphuric acid 6.5, with oxyd of manganese 4.4, and lime 1.8.
Hauyne comes from the Vesuvian lavas and near Rome. The nosean
is found inblocks with feldspar mica and zircon on the Rhine, near
the Laacher See. Also at Litchfield, Maine.

7. Silicate with a Chlorid.

SODALITE .

Indodecahedrons like lapis-lazuli. Color brown, gray, or

blue. H= 6. Gr 2.25-2.3.
Composition : silica 36, alumina 32.6, soda 26.5, muriatic
acid 5.3.
From Greenland, Vesuvius and Brisgau.

5. GLUCINA .

The minerals containing glucina are above quartz (7)

in hardness, excepting one, (leucophane,) which contains
largely of lime. The specific gravity is between 2.7 and
3.75. Excepting leucophane, they fuse before the blowpipe
with extreme difficulty, or not at all.
BERYL.-Emerald.

Hexagonal. In hexagonal prisms. Usually in long, stout

prisms, without regular terminations. Cleavage
basal, not very distinct ; rarely massive.
Color green, passing into blue and yellow ;
color rather pale, excepting the deep and rich MM M
green ofthe emerald. Streak uncolored. Luster
vitreous ; sometimes resinous. Transparent to
subtranslucent. Brittle. H=7.5-8. Gr=
2.65-2-75 .
Varieties and Composition. The emerald includes the
rich green variety; it owes its color to oxyd of chrome.
Beryl especially includes the paler varieties, which are col-

What is sodalite ? What is said of minerals containing glucina ?

What is the crystalline form ofberyl ? it colors and hardness ?
17*
198 GLUCINA .

ored by oxyd of iron. Aquamarine includes clear beryls of

asea-green, or pale-bluish or bluish-green tint.
The beryl consists of silica 66.5, alumina 16.8, glucina
15.5, peroxyd of iron 0.6. Emerald contains less than one
per cent. of oxyd of chromium. Before the blowpipe be-
comes clouded, but fuses on the edges with difficulty.
Dif. The hardness distinguishes this species from apa-
tite; and this character, and also the form of the crystals,
from green tourmaline ; the imperfect cleavage,from euclase
and topaz.
Obs. The finest emeralds come from Grenada, where
they occur in dolomite. A crystal from this locality, two
inches long and about an inch in diameter, is in the cabinet
ef the Duke of Devonshire. It weighs 8 oz. 18 dwts., and
though containing numerous flaws, and therefore but partially
fit for jewelry, has been valued at 150 guineas. Amore
splendid specimen, but weighing only 6 oz., is in the pos-
session of Mr. Hope of London. It cost £500. Emeralds
ofless beauty, but of gigantic size, occur in Siberia. One
specimen in the royal collection of Russia measures 44
inches in length and 12 in breadth, and weighs 264 pounds
troy. Another is 7 inches long and 4 broad, and weighs 6
pounds. Mount Zalora in Upper Egypt, affords a less dis-
tinct variety.
The finest beryls (aquamarines,) come from Siberia, Hin-
dostan and Brazil. One specimen belonging to Don Pedro
is as large as the head of a calf, and weighs 225 ounces, or
more than 18 pounds troy; it is transparent and without a
flaw.
In the United States, beryls of enormous size have been
obtained, but seldom transparent crystals. They occur in
granite or gneiss. One hexagonal prism from Acworth, N.
H., weighed 240 pounds andmeasured 4 feet in length, with
the lateral faces 54 inches in breadth; it color was bluish-
green, excepting a part at one extremity, which was dull
green and yellow. At Royalston, Mass., one crystal has
been obtained a foot long, and pellucid crystals are some-
times met with. Haddam, Conn., has afforded fine crystals,
What is the composition of beryl ? What are the different varieties
and their distinctions ? How is beryl distinguished from apatite and
tourmaline ? Where are the finest emeralds brought from ? What is
said of the Siberian emeralds ? What of the finest beryls ? What is
the size ofsome beryls found in the United States ?
 EUCLASE . 199

(see the figure.) Other localities are Barre, Fitchburg,

Goshen, Mass.; Albany, Norwich, Bowdoinham and Topham,
Me.; Wilmot, N. H.; Monroe, Conn.; Leyperville, Penn.
The name beryl is from the Greek beryllos.
EUCLASE .

Triclinate. In right rhomboidal prisms ; M : T= 130°

50'. Cleavage in one direction highly perfect, affording
smooth polished faces.
Color pale green. Luster vitreous ; transparent. Very
brittle. H=7.5. Gr= 2.9-3.1. Pyro-electric.
Composition : silica 43-2, alumina 30.6, glucina 21-8, per-
oxyd of iron 2-2, oxyd oftin 0.7. Before the blowpipe with a
strongheat it intumesces, and finally fuses to a white enamel.
Dif. The very perfect cleavage ofthis glassy mineral is
like that of topaz, and at once distinguishes it from tourma-
line and beryl. It differs from topaz in its very oblique
crystals.
Obs. Occurs in Peru, and with topaz in Brazil.
Uses. The crystals of this mineral are elegant gems of
themselves, but they are seldom cut for jewelry on account
of their brittleness.
CHRYSOBERYL .

Trimetric. In modified rectangular prisms. M : ĕ=120S

1 7. м : е=125° 20'. Cleavage 2

४
not very distinct, parallel to M.
Also in compound crystals, as in
M fig. 2. Crystals sometimes thick ;
often tabular.
Color bright green, from a light
shade to emerald green ; rarely
raspberry or columbine red by transmitted light. Streak
uncolored. Luster vitreous. Transparent to translucent.
H-8.5. Gr= 3.5-3.8 .
Composition of a species from Haddam, according to
Seybert, alumina 73.6, glucina 15-8, silica 4.0, protoxyd of
iron 3.4. Infusible and unaltered before the blowpipe.
Alexandrite is a name given to an emerald-green variety
from the Urals, which is supposed to be colored by chrome,
What is the form and cleavage ofeuclase ? whatthe color and luster ?
How is it distinguished ? What are its uses ? What is the appearance
of chrysoberyl ? its hardness? its composition ? What is alexandrite ?
200 ZIRCONIA.

and to bear the same relation to ordinary chrysoberyl as

emerald to beryl.
Dif. Near beryl, but distinct in its often tabular crystal-
lizations, and its entire infusibility.
Obs. Chrysoberyl occurs in the United States in granite
at Haddam, Conn., and Greenfield, near Saratoga, N. Y.,
associated with beryl, garnet, etc.
The name chrysoberyl is from the Greek chrysos, golden,
and beryllos, beryl. Cymophane is another name of the
species, alluding to its opalescence, and derived from the
Greekkuma, wave, and phaino, to appear.
Uses. The crystals are seldom sufficiently pellucid and
clear from flaws to be valued in jewelry ; but when of fine
quality, it forms a beautiful gem, and is often opalescent.
Phenacite. Colorless or bright wine-yellow, inclining to red, of
vitreousluster and transparent toopaque. Crystalsandcleavagerhom-
bohedral. H=8 . Gr=2.97. Composition, silica 55.1, glucina44.5,
with atrace ofmagnesia and alumina. Unaltered before the blowpipe.
From Perm, Siberia, with emerald.
Leucophane. Resembles somewhat a light green apatite. H=3.5.
Gr
-2-97. Powder phosphorescent. Pyro-electric. Composition, silica
47-8, glucina 11-5, lime 25-0, protoxyd of manganese 1.01, potassium
0-3, sodium 7-6, fluorine 6-2. From Norway in syenite, accompanying
albite and eleolite.
Helvin. Helvin occurs in Saxony and Norway in tetrahedrons of a
wax yellow or brownish color. H=6-6.5. Gr-3-1-3.3. Luster
vitreous. It contains silica, oxyds of iron and manganese, sulphuret of
manganese, withglucina and alumina.

6. ZIRCONIA .

ZIRCON.

Dimetric. In square prisms and octahedrons. M : e=

132° 10' ; e : e = 123 ' 19'. Cleavage parallel to
M,but not stronglymarked. Usually in crystals ;
but also granular.
M
Color brownish-red, brown, and red, of clear
Mtints ; also yellow, gray and white. Streak un-
colored. Luster more or less adamantine. Often
transparent ; also nearly opaque. Fracture con-
choidal, brilliant. H=7.5. Gr=4.5-4.8.
How does chrysoberyl differ from beryl ? Where and how does it
occur ? What is the origin of the name chrysoberyl ? What are its
uses? Describe zircon ?
 ZIRCON. 201

Varieties and Composition. Transparent red specimens

are called hyacinth. A colorless variety from Ceylon, hav-
ing a smoky tinge, is called jargon; it is sold for inferior
diamonds, which it resembles, though much less hard. The
name zirconite is sometimes applied to crystals of gray or
brownish tints. Consists of silica 33.5, zirconia 67.2. In-
fusible before the blowpipe, but loses color. Forms with
borax a diaphanous glass.
Dif. The hyacinth is readily distinguished from spinel
by its prismatic form and specific gravity, as well as its
adamantine luster and a less clear shade of red. Its infusi-
bility, hardness, and other characters, distinguish it from
tourmaline, idocrase, staurotide, and the minerals it re-
sembles.
Obs. The zircon is confined to the crystalline rocks, in-
cluding lavas and granular limestone. Hyacinth occurs
mostly ingrains, and comes from Ceylon, Auvergne, Bohe-
mia, and elsewhere in Europe. Siberia affords crystals as
large as walnuts. Splendid specimens come fromGreenland.
In the United States, fine crystals of zircon occur in Bun-
combe county, N. C.; ofa cinnamon red color in Moria, Es-
sex county, N. Y.; also at Two ponds and elsewhere, Orange
county, in crystals sometimes an inch and a half long ; in
Hammond, St. Lawrence county, and Johnsbury, Warren
county, N. Y.; at Franklin, N. J.; in Litchfield, Me.; Mid-
dlebury, Vt.; Haddam and Norwich, Conn.
The name hyacinth is from the Greek huakinthos. But
it is doubtful whether it was appliedby the ancients to stones
of the zircon species.
Uses. The clear crystals (hyacinths) are ofcommonuse
in jewelry. When heated in a crucible with lime, they lose
their color, and resemble a pale straw-yellow diamond, for
which they are substituted. Zircon is also used injewelling
watches. The hyacinth of commerce is to a great extent
cinnamon stone, a variety of garnet.
The earth zirconia is also found in the rare minerals eudialyte and
wohlerite ; also in polymignite, æschynite, ærstedite ; also sparingly in
fergusonite:

What is the composition of zircon? What are its varieties? How

does it differ from spinel and other minerals ? How does it occur ?
What is said of its uses? Does the earth zirconia occur in other min-
erals?
202 METALS.

Eudialyte. In modified acute rhombohedrons ; vitreous andofa red

color. R : R-73° 40′. Transverse cleavage, perfect; opaque or
nearly so. Itis a silicate ofzirconia, lime, soda and iron, and gelatin-
izes in acids. From West Greenland, in white feldspar.
Wohlerite. In tabular crystals of light yellow and brownish shades;
sometimes transparent. Consists mainly of silica,columbic acid, zirco-
nia, (15 per cent.,) lime and soda. From Brevig, Norway.
Æschynite. A titanate of zirconia and oxyd of cerium, with some
lime and oxyd of iron. Black and submetallic, or resinous in luster.
H-5-6. Gr-5.1-5.7. From the Ural .
Erstedite. A titanate and silicate of zirconia. Color brown.
H=6.5. Gr=3.629 . In brilliant crystals from Arendal, Norway.
Malacone. Contains silica 31.3. zirconia 63.4, with water 3. Form
that of zircon. Gr=3.9 . H=6. Appears to be a zircon containing
water. Color bluish white, brownish, reddish. Streak colorless.
7. THORIA.
The earth Thoria has been found only in arare mineral
named from its constitution thorite, and in the ores monazite,
(p. 206,) and pyrochlore, (p. 208.)
Thorite is a hydrous silicate of thoria. It is a black
vitreous mineral resembling gadolinite. Gr= 4.63. From
Norway.

CLASS VII.-METALS AND METALLIC ORES.

General condition ofMetalsand Metallic Ores in nature.-
Metals are found either native, or mineralized by combination
with other substances. The common ores are compounds
of the metals with oxygen, sulphur, arsenic, carbonic acid,
or silica. For example, the oxyds and carbonate of iron are
the common workable iron ores ; sulphuret of lead (called
galena) is the lead ore of the arts ; arsenical cobalt is the
principal source ofcobalt and arsenic.
Only a few of the metals occur native* in the rocks. Of
these, gold, platinum, palladium, iridium, and rhodium, are
with a rare exception, found only native. The bismuth
What is said of thoria? How do metals occur ? What are ores ?
Give examples from ores of iron, lead, cobalt ? What metals occur
principally native ?
*Bynative is understood eitherpure, or alloyed with other metals, ex-
cluding those metals, like arsenic or tellurium, which destroy the mal-
leability ofthe metal and disguise its character. Native gold is much of
itanalloyofgold and silver. Butaurotellurite,acompound ofgoldand
tellurium with some lead and silver, is properly mineralized gold.
 METALLIC ORES . 203

ofthe shops is obtained from native bismuth. Native silver,

native mercury, and native copper, are sometimes abundant,
but are far from being the main sources of these metals.
The other native metals are mineralogical rarities. Perhaps
we should except from this remark native iron, which con-
stitutes large meteoric masses, though very rarely if ever
seen of terrestrial origin.
Their associations and impurities. The ores of the
metals are often much disguised by mixtures with one an-
other or with earthy material. Thus a large part of the
iron ore worked in England and this country is so mixed
with clay or silica,that its real character might not be sus-
pected without some experience in ores.
Occasionally ores contain phosphate of iron or some arsen-
ical ores or certain sulphurets, scattered through them ; and
on account ofthe difficulty of separating the phosphorus, sul-
phur, or arsenic, the ore is rendered comparatively useless.
By this intimate mixture of species, the difficulties ofreducing
ores is much increased.
When different ores are not intimately commingled, they
are frequently closely disseminated together through the
rock. We find ores of lead and zinc often thus associated ;
also of cobalt and nickel ; of iron and manganese ; the ores
of silver, lead and copper, and often cobalt and antimony ;
platinum, iridium, palladium and rhodium.
Position in rocks .-Metals and their ores occur in the
rocks in different ways :
1. In beds or layers between layers ofrock, as some iron
ores ;
2. Disseminated through rocks in grains, nests, or crystals,
or extended masses, as is the case with iron pyrites, cinna-
bar, or mercury ore, and much argillaceous iron ;
3. In veins, intersecting different rocks, as ores of tin,
lead, copper, and nearly all metallic ores ;
4. Very frequently, metallic ores, instead of occurring in
true veins, are found in rocks near their intersection with a
mass or dike of igneous rock, as in the vicinity of a por.
phyry or trap dike. This is the case with much ofthe cop-
per ore in Connecticut and Michigan, as well as with much

What is said of native iron ? How are ores often disguised ? Explain
by example. How do they occur together ? What is an effect of this
mixture ? What are the positions ofores in the rocks ?
204 METALS.

silver ore and mercury in South America and elsewhere ;

and often the igneous rock itselfcontains the same metals
disseminated through it.
Gangue. The rock immediately enveloping the ore is
called the gangue. A vein often consists for the most part
of the rock material called the gangue ; and the ore either
intersects the gangue in a continued band, or more com-
monly, is partly disseminated through it in some places, and
is continuous for long distances in others. Often a good
vein gradually loses its character, the metal disappears,and
the gangue alone is left ; but by following on for some dis-
tance, it will often resume its former character.
The usual gangue in metallic veins is either quartz, calc
spar, or heavy spar; less frequently fluor spar. Calc spar
is the gangue ofthe Rossie lead ore ; heavy spar ofmuch of
the lead ore of the Mississippi valley ; fluor spar in some
places of the lead ofDerbyshire, England.
Reduction of Ores. In the reduction of an ore, the object
is to obtain the metal in a pure state. It is necessary for
this purpose to separate, 1, the gangue ; 2, the impurities or
minerals mixed with the ore ; and 3, the ingredient with
which the ore is mineralized as the sulphur, for example,
in the common ore of lead.
1. Much of the gangue will be separated in the process of
mining and selecting the ore. Another portion is in many
cases removed by pounding the ore coarsely,while a current
ofwater is made to pass over it ; the water carries off the
lighter earthy matters and leaves the heavier ore behind.
This process is called washing. With afusible native metal,
as bismuth, it is only necessary to heat the pounded ore in
crucibles, and the metal flows out. A fusible ore, as gray
antimony, is separated from the rock in the same manner.
In the case of gold, which is usually indisseminated grains,
mercury is mixed with the pounded rock after washing,
which unites with the gold ; and thus the gold is dissolved
out from the gangue as water dissolves a salt ; by vapor-
izing the solvent, mercury, the gold is afterwards obtained.
With iron ores, there is no special effort to separate the
gangue beyond what is done in the process of mining.
What is the gangue ? What is said of the ore in the gangue ? What
are the common kinds ofgangue ? What is meant bythe reduction of
an ore ? What is necessary for this purpose ? How is the gangue
reparated ? How with a fusible metal or ore ? How with gold ?
 METALS . 205

2. The separation of the mineralizing ingredients when

he ore is pure, is sometimes effected by heat alone ; thus the
common ores ofmercury and lead, both sulphurets, will give
up the sulphur in part when heated. In most cases, some
material is added to combine with the mineralizing ingre-
dient and carry it off; as when certain iron ores (oxyds of
iron) are heated with charcoal, the charcoal takes the oxygen
(forming the gas carbonic acid which escapes) and leaves
the ironpure.
3. When two or more metals are mixed in the ore, one is
sometimes removed by oxydation, or in other words, it is
burnt out. Thus lead containing silver, is heated in a draft
of air; the lead unites with the oxygen of the air and forms
an earthy slag, while the silver, which is not thus oxydated,
remains untouched. Such a process, carried on in a vessel
of bone-ashes, or some material of the kind, which will ab-
sorb the oxyd of lead formed, is called cupellation. (See
beyond under gold.) Much of the iron in the ordinary cop-
per ore (copper pyrites) is removed in the common process
of reduction in England by repeated fusions and stirring,
while exposed to a draft of air.
4. When there are impurities present, or a mixture of the
gangue, which is commonly the case, a material is sought
for which will form, when heated, a fusible compound with
the gangue and impurities ; and this material is called aflux.
Most iron ores are associated with quartz or clay, quartz be-
ing pure silica, and clay containing 75 per cent. of silica.
Common limestone readily fuses into a glass with silica,
when used in the requisite proportions, and hence it is gen-
erally employed as a flux in iron furnaces. A salt of soda
or potash would produce the same result, for these are the
ingredients which form with silica common glass. The
glass formed is more or less frothy, and is called slag or scoria.
Before reduction, the volatile impurities and any water
present, are often removed by a process called roasting.
The processes of reducing the ordinary metallic ores in
the arts are combinations of the different steps here pointed
out. There are other chemical methods for certain cases,
which it is unnecessary to allude to in this place.
How is the mineralizing ingredient separated in some cases ? How
in others ? Explain by examples. How in cases of mixture. Ex-
plainthe process ofcupellation. How in still other cases,and explain the
use of fluxes by an example. What is said in conclusion of the pro-
cesses of reduction ?
18
206 METALS .

1. 2. CERIUM AND YTTRIUM.

Cerium and Yttrium are not used in the arts. The spe.
cies are infusible alone before the blowpipe or only in the
thinnest splinters.
YTTROCERITE .

Massive, of a violet-blue color, somewhat resembling a

purple fluor spar ; sometimes reddish-brown. Opaque.
Luster glistening. H= 4-5. Gr= 3-4-3.5.
Composition : fluoric acid 25.1, lime 47.6, oxyd of ceri-
um, 18-2, and yttria 9.1 . Infusible alone before the blow-
pipe.
Obs. From Finbo and Broddbo, near Fahlun in Swe-
den, with albite and topaz in quartz. Also from Massachu-
setts, probably in Worcester county, and from Amity, Orange
county, N. Y.
Flucerine and Basic Flucerine. These two fluorids of cerium have
a bright yellow or yellowish-red color. Infusible alone in the blowpipe
flame. They are from Sweden.
Carbonate of Cerium occurs in four-sided plates of a grayish-white
color at Bastnäs in Sweden. Parisite is an allied species occurring in
bipyramidal dodecahedrons, (fig. 65, page 39,) of a reddish-brown color
and vitreous fracture. Cleavage easy parallel to the base. Gr=4.35.
Infusible alone. Composition : carbonic acid 23.5, protoxyds ofcerium,
lanthanum, and didymium 59.4, lime 3.2, fluorid ofcalcium 11.5, water
2.4. From New Grenada.
Cerium Ochre occurs as a sulphur-yellow coating at Bolton, Mass.
It is a hydrated yellow oxyd of cerium, containing some oxyd of ura-
nium.

MONAZITE .

Monoclinate. In modified oblique rhombic prisms ; M :

M = 93 ' 10', ē on a= 140° 40′, M : ē= 136 °
& 35'. Perfect and brilliant basal cleavage. Ob-
served only in small imbedded crystals.
M Color brown, brownish-red ; subtransparent
to nearly opaque. Luster vitreous inclining
to resinous. Brittle. H=5. Gr= 4.8-5.1 .
Composition : oxyd of cerium 26.0, oxyd of
lanthanum 23.4, thoria 17-95, phosphoric acid 28.5, with
What is said of the blowpipe action of ores of cerium and yttrium ?
What is the appearance and composition of yttrocerite ? What is
monazite ?
 CERIUM AND YTTRIUM ORES. 207

oxyd of tin 2-1, protoxyd of manganese 1.9, lime 1.7. In-

fusible or nearly so. Decomposed by muriatic acid, evolving
chlorine.
Dif. The brilliant easy transverse cleavage distinguishes
monazite from sphene.
Obs. Occurs near Slatoust, Russia. In the United
States it is found in smallbrowncrystals,disseminated through
a mica slate at Norwich, Conn.; also at Chester, Conn., and
Yorktown, Westchester county, N. Y.
Cryptolite. A phosphate of the oxyd of cerium in minute prisms,
(apparently six-sided,) sound with the apatite of Arendal, Norway.
Colorpale wine yellow. Gr=4.6.
ALLANITE .

Monoclinate. In oblique rhombic prisms ; M : M= 1282 .

Cleavage only in traces. Also massive and in acicular ag-
gregations, the needles sometimes a foot long.
Color pitch-brown, brownish-black, streak greenish or
brownish-gray, luster pitchy and submetallic. Opaque or
nearly so. Brittle . H=5.5-6. Gr-3.3-3.8.
Varieties and Composition. Allanite, cerine, and orthite
are names of different varieties of this species. The last
occurs in acicular crystals as well as massive. They consist
of silica and alumina, with oxyds of iron, cerium, lanthanum,
and lime. They fuse before the blowpipe to a black glassy
globule or pearl.
Dif. Allanite differs from garnet, some varieties ofwhich
it resembles, in its inferior hardness, and colored streak. Gad-
olinite fuses with more difficulty and glows on charcoal, be.
sides gelatinizing in nitric acid.
Obs. Allanite was first brought from Greenland. It oc-
curs in Norway, Sweden, and the Ural.
In the United States it has been found in large crystals in
Allen's vein, Haddam Conn.; at Bolton, Athol, and South
Royalston, Mass.; at Monroe, Orange county, N. Y.
Pyrorthite. This appears to be an impure orthite, containing some
carbon, in consequence of which it burns when heated. Hence the
name from the Greek pur, fire, and orthite. It comes from near Fah-
lun, Sweden.
Cerite. Ahydrated silicate of cerium. Color between clove-brown
ed. Luster adamantine. Crystals hexagonal. From
and cherry-red.
Bastnäs, Sweden.

How is it distinguished from sphene ? What is the appearance and

composition of allanite ? what are its varieties ?
208 METALS.

Bodenite is a cerium ore, resembling orthite. From Boden in

Saxony.
PYROCHLORE .

In small octahedrons, with a cleavage parallel to the faces

1 of the octahedron sometimes dis- 2
tinct.

AA
Color yellow to brown. Sub- A A
transparent to opake. Luster
vitreous inclining to resinous. A A
H=5. Gr-3.8-4.3 .
Composition : essentially co-
lumbic acid, with oxyds of cerium, thorium, and lime. Ti-
tanic acid sometimes replaces part of the columbic acid.
Fuses with very great difficulty before the blowpipe.
The microlite of Prof. Shepard appears to be pyrochlore.
Dif. The color, difficult fusibility and colored streak
distinguish this species from others crystallizing in octahe
drons. It is much softer than spinel.
Obs. Occurs in syenite in Norway, and also in Siberia.
In the United States it is found in minute octahedrons at the
Chesterfield albite vein, Mass.
The following species contain yttrium as a characteristic
ingredient :-
Xenotime is a phosphate of yttria, having a yellowish-brown color,
palebrown streak, opaque,and resinous in luster. Crystals square prisms,
with perfect lateral cleavage. H=4-5. Gr=4.6. Infusible alone
before the blowpipe ; insoluble in acids. From Lindesnaes, Norway.
Gadolinite hasa black or greenish-black color, resinous or subvitre-
ous luster, greenish-gray streak. Crystalline form an oblique rhombic
prism, with no distinct, cleavage. H=6.5-7. Gr. 41-4.4. Con-
sists mainly of silica, yttria, glucina, and protoxyd of iron, with also the
recently discovered oxyd of lanthanum. From Fahlun and Ytterby,
Sweden ; also from Norway and Greenland.
Fergusonite is a columbate of yttria, crystallizing in secondaries to a
square prism. Color brownish-black; luster dull, but brilliantly vitre-
ous on asurface of fracture. Infusible before the blowpipe but loses its
color. From Cape Farewell, Greenland.
Yttro-columbite is a columbate of yttria containing half as much
yttria as the preceding. There are three varieties, the black, the yel-
low, and the brown or dark colored. They are infusible. From Ytter-
by, Sweden, and at Broddbo and Finbo, near Fahlun.
Euxenite is a columbate ofyttria with some titanic acid and oxyd of
uranium. Massive. Color brownish-black. Streak powder reddish-
brown. Infusible. From Norway.

What is the appearance and composition of pyrochlore ?

 URANIUM ORES. 209

Tschevkinite. Resembles gadolinite. Color velvet-black. H=4-

1.5. Gr=4.5-4.6. It is a variety of allanite
Polymignite is principally atitanate of zirconia, yttria, iron, and ce-
rium. Ithasa black color, abrilliant submetallic luster within, a dark
brown streak, and a conchoidal fracture. Generally in slender striated
crystals, secondaries to a rectangular prism. H= 6.5. Gr=4.7-4.9.
From Norway. Also, as observed by Prof. C. U. Shepard, from Bever-
ly,Mass.
Polycrase is near polymignite. Massive. Color black. Streak
grayish-brown. Gr. 51. With orthite, in Sweden.
Arkansite. This species, from the Ozark Mountains, Arkansas, oc-
curs in rather large modified rhombic prisnis ; also massive. Color iron
black or steel black. Luster shining. Streak dark ash-gray. H=
7-7-5. Gr.=3.85 .. Some of the faces tarnished blue. It is identi-
col with brockite,. 292
.
Schorlomite. Black, and often irised tarnished. Streak grayish-
black. H=7-7.5. Gr=3.86. Fuses readily on charcoal. Easily
decomposed by the acids, and gelatinizes. Near gadolinite. From the
Ozark Mountains,Arkansas.
3. URANIUM .

The uranium ores have a specific gravity not above 7, and

a hardness below 6. The ores are either of some shade of
light green or yellow, or they are dark brown or black and
dull, or submetallic without a metallic luster when powdered.
They are not reduced when heated with carbonate of soda;
andthe brown or black species fuse with difficulty on the
edges or not at all.
PITCHBLENDE. Oxyd of Uranium .
Massive and botryoidal. Color grayish, brownish, or vel-
vet-black. Luster submetallic or dull. Streak powder
black. Opaque. H=5.5. Gr=6.47.
Composition : 79 to 87 per cent. of protoxyd of uranium
with silica, lead, iron, and some other impurities. Infusible
alone before the blowpipe, but forins a gray scoria with
borax. Dissolves slowly in nitric acid, when powdered.
Obs. Occurs inveins with ores oflead andsilver in SaSax-
ony, Bohemia, and Hungary ; also in the tin mines of Corn-
wall, near Redruth. In the United States, at Middletown
and Haddam, Conn.
Uranic ochre is a light yellow pulverulent mineral, be-
coming orange yellow when gently heated. It is believed
What is said of the ores of uranium ? Describe pitchblende. What
is its composition ?
18*
210 METALS.

to be peroxyd ofuranium, sometimes combined with carbon

ic acid. Accompanies pitchblende in Cornwall and inBo-
hemia. It occurs sparingly in a yellow powder with colum-
bite and uranite at the feldspar quarry, near Middletown,
Conn.
Uses. The oxyds of uranium are used in painting upon
porcelain, yielding a fine orange in the enameling fire, and
ablack color in that in which the porcelain is baked.
Coracite (Le Conte.) An ore resembling pitchblende but containing
alumina in placeof part of the oxyd ofuranium. Occurs massive, with
aresinous luster. H=4.5. Gr 4·38. From the north shore of Lake
Superior, ina vein 2 inches wide, nearthe junction of trap and syenite.
URANITE .

Dimetric. In short square prisms, thinly foliated parallel

to the base, almost like mica; lamine brittle and not flex-
ible.
Color bright clear yellow and green ; streak a little pa-
ler. Luster of laminæ pearly. Transparent to subtrans-
lucent. H= 2-2.5 . Gr-3-3.6 .
Composition. There are two ores here included, the yel-
low one containing phosphoric acid 15, oxyd of uranium 64,
and lime 6, with water 15 ; the other of a green color,
(sometimes called chalcolite,) containing oxyd of copper in
place of lime. Theyfuse before the blowpipe to a blackish
mass, and the green variety colors the flame green.
Dif. The micaceous structure connected with the light
color is a striking character. The folia of mica are not
brittle like those of uranite.
Obs. Occurs with uranium, silver and tin ores. Itis
found at St. Symphorien, near Autun, and also near Limoges,
and in the Saxon and Bohemian mines. Cornwall affords
splendid crystallizations of the green variety.
Found sparingly at Middletown, Conn., and Chesterfield,
Mass., of a yellow color.
Samarskite (formerly named uranotantalite and yttro-ilmenite) is a
compound of oxyd of uranium with niobic and tungstic acids, from
Miask in the Ural. It is of a dark brown color and submetallic luster.
H=5.5 . Gr=5-4-5.7 .
Johannite or uranvitriol is a sulphate of uranium. It has a fine em-
erald-green color, and a bitter taste. From Bohemia.

What are the uses of the oxyds of uranium ? What is the color and
structure of uranite ? its composition ? How is it distinguished from
other species ?
 IRON ORES . 211

4. IRON .

Iron occurs native or alloyed with nickel in meteoric iron.

Its most abundant ores are the oxyds and sulphurets. It is
also found combined with other metals and with silica and
carbonic and other acids. Its ores are widely disseminated.
They are the ordinary coloring ingredients of soils and many
rocks, tinging them red, yellow, dull green, brown and black.
The ores have a specific gravity below 8, and the ordina-
ry workable ores seldom exceed 5. Many of them are in-
fusible before the blowpipe, and a great part become attract-
able by the magnet after heating, when not so before. When
undisguised by other metals they afford, with borax, in the
inner flame, a bottle-green glass. By their difficult fusibil-
ity, the species with a metallic luster are distinguished from
ores of silver and copper, and also more decidedly from these
and other ores by blowpipe reaction and reduction.
NATIVE IRON.

Monometric. In regular octahedrons ; cleavage parallel

Lo the faces of the octahedron. Usually massive, with a
more or less fine granular structure.
Color and streak iron-gray. Fracture hackley. Malleable
and ductile. H=4.5. Gr-7.3-7.8. Acts strongly on
the magnet.
Obs. Native iron, as it occurs in meteorites, is usually al-
loyed with nickel and other metals. Whether terrestrial na-
tive iron has been observed, is a question of some doubt. A
mass from Canaan, Conn., has been reported as of this
character, and it is said to have formed a plate or vein two
inches thick, attached to a mass of mica slate. Steinbach
and Eibenstock in Saxony, and the mine of Hackenberg
have been mentioned as foreign localities.
Meteoric iron occurs in nearly all meteorites, and al-
most wholly constitutes a large part of those that have been
discovered. A mass weighing 1635 pounds, is now in the
cabinet of Yale College ; it came from Texas. It contains
What is said of the mode of occurrence of iron ? What characters
of its ores are mentioned ? What is the crystallization of iron ? its
hardness, gravity, and other characters ? How does it occur native ?
What is said of meteoric iron ?
212 METALS.

90 to 92 per cent. of iron, and 8 to 10 per cent. of nicken

the alloy not being uniform throughout. Meteoric iron often
has a verybroad crystalline structure, long lines andtriangu-
lar figures being developed by putting nitric acid on a polish-
ed surface . The coarseness of this structure differs in dif
ferent meteorites, and serves to distinguish specimens not
identical in origin. The Texas iron is remarkable for the
large size of the crystallization.
The most remarkable masses of meteoric iron occur in
the district of Chaco-Gualamba in South America, where
there is one whose weight is estimated at 30,000 pounds.
The large Pallas meteorite weighed originally 1600 pounds ;
it contains imbedded crystals of chrysolite.
Besides nickel, which sometimes amounts nearly to 15
per cent., meteoric iron often contains a small per-centage
of cobalt, tin, copper, and manganese ; and frequently no-
dules of magnetic iron pyrites are imbedded in the mass.
Chlorine has beendetected in some specimens, by Dr. C.
T. Jackson.
Meteoric iron is perfectly malleable, and may be worked
like manufactured iron. The nickel diminishes much its
tendency to rust.
IRON PYRITES.- Bisulphuret of Iron:
Monometric. Usually
1 2
in cubes (fig.3 1)simple ormodifi- 4

P
P P B
•

ed, (2, 4,) or in pentagonal dodecahedrons (3) ; also in octa.

hedrons. Faces ofcubes often striated as in figure 1. Oc-
curs also in imitative shapes, and massive.
Color bronze-yellow ; streak brownish-black. Luster of
crystals often splendent metallic. Brittle. H=6-6.5.
Gr
-4-8-5-1 . Strikes fire with steel.
Composition : iron 45.74, sulphur 54.26. Before the
blowpipe, gives off sulphur and ultimately affords a globule
attractable by the magnet

What is the crystallization of iron pyrites? its color and other char-
acters? its composition ?
 IRON ORES . 213

Pyrites sometimes contains a minute quantity of gold, and

is then called auriferous pyrites.
Dif. Distinguished from copper pyrites in being too hard
to be cut by a knife, and also in its paler color. The ores
of silver, at all approaching pyrites, instead of having its
pale bronze-yellow color, are steel-gray or nearly black;
and besides, they are easily cut with a knife and quite fusi-
ble. Gold is sectile and malleable; and besides, it does not
give off a sulphur odor before the blowpipe, like pyrites.
Obs. Iron pyrites is one ofthe mostcommon ores on the
globe. It occurs in rocks of all ages. Cornwall, Elba,
Piedmont, Sweden, Brazil, and Peru, have afforded magnifi-
cent crystals. Alston Moor, Derbyshire, Kongsberg in Nor-
way, are well known localities. It has also been observed
in the Vesuvian lavas.
In the United States, the localities are numerous. Fine
crystals have been met with at Rossie, N. Y.; also in New
York state at Scoharie, at Johnsburg and Chester, Warren
county ; at Champion and near Oxbow, in Jefferson county ;
at Warwick and Deerpark, Orange county. In Vermont,
crystals occur at Shoreham ; in Massachusetts, at Heath,
Barre, and Boxborough ; in Maine, at Corinna, Peru, Wa-
terville and Farmington ; in Connecticut, at Monroe, Orange,
Milford and Stafford ; in Pennsylvania, at Little Britain,
Lancaster county. Massive pyrites occurs in Connecticut at
Colchester, Ashford, Tolland, Stafford, and Union ; in Mas-
sachusetts, at Hawley and Hubbardston ; in Maine, at Bing-
ham, Brooksville, and Jewell's Island ; in New Hampshire,
at Unity ; in Vermont, at Strafford, where there is a vein in
mica slate four rods wide, and also abundantly at Woodbury,
and other places ; in New York, in Franklin, Putnam and
Orange counties, andelsewhere ; in Maryland, abundant and
worked at Cape Sable.
Uses. This species is of the highest importance in the
arts, although not affording good iron on account ofthe diffi-
culty of separating entirely the sulphur. It affords the
greater part of the sulphate of iron (green vitriol or copper-
as) and sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) of commerce, and also
aconsiderable portion of the sulphur and alum. The py-

How is iron pyrites distinguished from copper pyrites ? from silver

ores? from gold ? What is said of the occurrence of pyrites ? Why
docsnot this ore afford good iron ? What are its uses? How is vitriol
obtained from it ?
214 METALS.

rites is sometimes heated in clay retorts, by which about 17

per cent. of sulphur is distilled over and collected. The ore
is then thrown out into heaps, exposed to the atmosphere,
when a change ensues, by which the remaining sulphur and
ironbecome sulphuric acid and oxydofiron, andform sulphate
of iron or copperas.* The material is lixivated, and par-
tially evaporated, preparatory to its being run off into vats
or troughs to crystallize. In other instances, the ore is
coarsely broken up and piled in heaps and moistened. Fuel
is sometimes used to commence the process, which after-
wards the heat generated continues. Decomposition takes
place as before, with the same result. At Strafford, Ver.
mont, about 1000 tons of copperas have been produced an-
nually, valued at 2 cents a pound, or $40,000. The quanti-
ty manufactured might easily be much increased. The py-
rites of Cape Sable, Maryland, also affords large quantities
of copperas. The lixivated liquid is oftenemployed in Ger-
many for the production of sulphuric acid ; at a red heat, the
acid passes off, leaving behind a red oxyd of iron, which is
called colcothar. Cabinet specimens of pyrites, especially
granular or amorphous masses, often undergo a spontaneous
change to copperas,particularlywhenthe atmosphere is moist.
The name pyrites is from the Greek pur, fire, because, as
Pliny states, " there was much fire in it," alluding to its strik-
ing fire with steel. This ore is the mundic of miners.
White iron pyrites. This ore has the same composition as common
iron pyrites, but crystallizes in secondaries to a right rhombic prism ;
M : M= 106 ° 36' . The color is a little paler than that of common py-
rites, and it is more liable to decomposition; hardness the same; spe-
cific gravity 4-6-4-85. Radiated pyrites, hepatic pyrites, cocks-
comb pyrites, (alluding to its crested shapes,) and spear pyrites are
names of some of its varieties. It occurs in crystals at Warwick and
Phillipstown, N. Y. Massive varieties are met with at Cummington,
Mass.; Monroe, Trumbull, and East Haddam, Conn.; and at Haver-
hill, N. H.
MAGNETIC PYRITES.-Sulphuret of Iron.
Hexagonal. Occurs occasionally in hexagonal prisms,
which are often tabular ; generally massive.
Color between bronze-yellow and copper-red ; streak dark
How is sulphuric acid obtaine ? and what is colcothar ? What is the
origin of the name pyrites ? What is the crystallization and appear-
ance of magnetic pyrites?
* This change consists in the union of oxygen with the sulphur and
iron.
 IRON ORES. 215

grayish-black. Brittle. H=3.5-4.5. Gr=4.6-4.65.

Slightly attracted by the magnet. Liable to speedy tarnish.
Composition : sulphur 40.4, iron 59.6. Before the blow-
pipe on charcoal in the outer flame it is converted into aglo.
bule of red oxyd of iron. In the inner flame it fuses and
glows, and affords a black globule which is magnetic,andhas
ayellowish color on a surface of fracture.
Dif. Its inferior hardness and shade of color, and its
magnetic qualitydistinguish it fromcommon iron pyrites ; and
its paleness of color from copper pyrites. It differs from the
cobalt and nickel ores in affording a magneticglobule before
the blowpipe.
Obs. Crystallized specimens have been found at Kongs-
berg inNorway, and at Andreasberg in the Hartz. The
massive variety is found in Cornwall, Saxony, Siberia, and
the Hartz ; also at Vesuvius and in meteoric stones.
In the United States, it is met with at Trumbull and Mon-
roe, New Fairfield, and Litchfield, Conn.; at Strafford and
Shrewsbury, Vt.; at Corinth, New Hampshire ; and in
many parts of Massachusetts and New York. This ore at
Litchfield is quite abundant.
Uses. Same as for common pyrites.
MISPICKEL.-Arsenical Iron Pyrites.
Trimetric. In rhombic prisms, with cleavage parallel to
the faces M ; M : M=111 ° 40' to 112°. Crystals
sometimes elongated horizontally, producing a
rhombicprism ("a : "a) of 100° nearly, with M and M M
M the end planes. Occurs also massive.
Color silver-white ; streak dark grayish-black.
Luster shining. Brittle. H=5.5-6. Gr=6.1 .
Composition : iron 36.0, arsenic 42.9, sulphur 21.1. A
Cobaltic variety contains 4 to 9 per cent. of cobalt in place
of part of the iron. The Danaite of New Hampshire, con-
sists of iron 32.9, arsenic 41.4, sulphur 17.8, cobalt 6.5.
Affords arsenical fumes before the blowpipe, and a globule
of sulphuret of iron which is attracted by the magnet. It
gives fire with a steel and emits a garlic odor.
Dif. Resembles arsenical cobalt ; but is much harder,
What is the constitution ofmagnetic pyrites ? How is it distinguish-
edfrom common iron pyrites ? how from copper pyrites ? from cobalt
and nickel ores. For what is it used ? What is the form and appear-
ance of mispickel ?
216 METALS.

it giving fire with steel ; it differs also in yielding a mag.

netic globule before the blowpipe and in not affording the
reaction of cobalt with the fluxes.
Obs. Mispickel is found mostly in primitive regions, and
is commonly associated with ores of silver, lead, iron, or
copper. It is abundant at Freiberg, Munzig, and elsewhere
inEurope, and also in Cornwall, England.
It occurs in crystals in New Hampshire, at Franconia,
Jackson, and Haverhill; in Maine, at Blue Hill, Corinna,
Newfield, and Thomaston ; in Vermont, at Waterbury ; in
Massachusetts, massive at Worcester and Sterling ; in Con.
necticut, at Chatham, Derby, and Monroe ; in New Jersey,
at Franklin ; in New York, in Lewis, Essex county, and near
Edenville and elsewhere in Orange county; in Kent, Put-
nam county.
Leucopyrite. This is the name of anarsenical iron, containining no
sulphur, or but few per cent. It resembles the preceding in color and
in its crystals ; M : M= 122° 26′. It has less hardness andhigher spe-
cific gravity. H=5-5.5. Gr=7-2-7.4. Contains iron 32.4, ar-
senic 65.9, with some sulphur. From Styria, Silesia, and Carinthia. A
crystal weighing two or three ounceshas been found in Bedford county,
Penn.; and inRandolph county, N. C., a mass was found weighing two
pounds.
MAGNETIC IRON ORE.- Octahedral Iron Ore.
Monometric. Often in octahedrons and dodecahedions,
Cleavage octahedral; sometimes
e distinct. Also granularly mas- I
A A sive
0 E
Color iron-black. Streak black.
AA
Brittle. H= 5.5-6.5. Gr= E

5.0-5.1 . Strongly attracted by

the magnet, and sometimes having polarity.
Composition : peroxyd of iron 69, protoxyd of iron 31 ; or
iron 71.8, oxygen 28.2. Infusible before the blowpipe.
Yields a bottle-green glass when fused with borax in the
inner flame.
Dif. The black streak and magnetic properties distin-
guish this species from the following.
What are the constituents of mispickel? What is the effect before
the blowpipe ? How does it differ from arsenical cobalt ? What is
the crystallization ofmagnetic iron ? its other physical characters ? its
composition? Whatistheactionofmagnetic iron beforethe blowpipe ?
How is it distinguished from specular iron ?
 IRON ORES. 217

Obs. Magnetic iron ore occurs in extensive beds, and

also in disseminated crystals. It is met with in granite
gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, syenite, hornblende, and chlc
rite slate ; and also sometimes in limestone.
The beds at Arendal, and nearly all the Swedish iron ore,
consist of massive magnetic iron. At Dannemora and the
Taberg in Southern Sweden, and also in Lapland at Kurun-
avara and Gelivara, there are mountains composed ofit.
In the United States, extensive beds occur in Warren,
Essex, and Clinton counties, N. Y.; also in Orange, Putnam,
Saratoga, and Herkimer counties ; at Mount Desert and
Marshall's Island, Maine ; in Somerset, Vermont ; in Ber-
nardstown and Hawley, Massachusetts ; at Franconia, Lis-
bon, and Winchester, New Hampshire. The mountainous
districts of New Jersey and Pennsylvania afford this ore, and
also the eastern side of Willis mountain in Buckingham
county, Virginia. Crystals occur in New Hampshire, at
Franconia in epidote ; also at Swanzey, (near Keene,) Unity,
and Jackson; in Vermont, at Marlboro', Bridgewater and
Troy, inchlorite slate ; in Connecticut, at Haddam ; in Maine,
at Raymond, Davis's Hill, in an epidotic rock ; in New York,
at Warwick, Orange county, and also at O'Neil mine ; in
New Jersey, at Hamburgh, near the Franklin furnace ; in
Maryland, at Deer Creek ; in Pennsylvania, at Morgantown,
Berks county ; also in the south part of Chester county.
Masses of this ore in a state of magnetic polarity, consti-
tute what is called lodestone or native magnets. They are
met with in many beds of the ore. Siberia and the Hartz
have afforded fine specimens ; also the island of Elba. They
also occur at Marshall's Island, Maine ; also near Providence,
Rhode Island. The lodestone is called magnes by Pliny,
from the name of the country, Magnesia, (a province of an-
cient Lydia,) where it was found ; and it hence gave the
terms magnet and magnetism to science.
Uses. No ore of iron is more generally diffused than
the magnetic ore, and none is superior for the manufacture
of iron. The ore after pounding maybe separated from im-
purities by means ofa magnet ; and machines are in use in
northern New York and elsewhere, for cleaning the ore on
a large scale for furnaces.

How does magnetic iron occur ? What are its uses? What is said
of lodestone ?
19
218 METALS.

SPECULAR IRON ORE.-Peroxyd of Iron.

Rhombohedral. In complex modifications ofa rhombohe.

a R
R
R R
R

dron of85° 58' ; crystals occasionally thin tabular. Cleavage

usually indistinct. Often massive granular ; sometimes
lamellar or micaceous. Also pulverulent and earthy.
4

Color dark steel-gray or iron-black, and often when crys-

tallized having a highly splendent luster ; streak-powder
cherry-red or reddish-brown. The metallic varieties pass
into an earthy ore ofared color, having none ofthe external
characters ofthe crystals, butperfectly corresponding to them
when they are pulverized, the powder they yield being of a
deep red color, and earthy or without luster. Gr -4.5-
5.3. Hardness of crystals 5.5-6.5. Sometimes slightly
attracted by the magnet.
Varieties and Composition.
Specular iron. Specimens having a perfectly metallic
luster.
Micaceous iron. Specular iron, with a foliated structure.
Red hematite. Submetallic, or unmetallic, and ofabrown-
ish-red color.
Red ocher. Soft and earthy, and often containing clay.
Red chalk. More firm and compact than red ocher, and
of a fine texture.
Jaspery clay iron. A hard impure ore, containing clay,
and having a brownish-redjaspery look and compactness.
Clay iron stone. The same as the last, the color and ap-
pearance less like jasper.
This is one variety ofwhat is called " clay iron stone."
Much of it belongs to the following species, and a large
part also is spathic iron, as is the case with that of the Eng-
lish coal measures.
Lenticular argillaceous ore. A red ore, consisting of
small flattened grains, something like an oolite.
Oligiste iron, iron glance, and rhombohedral iron ore, are
other names of the species specular iron.
What is the crystallization of specular iron ? What are its physical
characters ? Describe the varieties.
 IRON ORES.. 219

Composition of the pure ore : iron 69-34, oxygen 30.66.

The varieties without a perfect metallic luster often contain
more or less clay or sand. Before the blowpipe alone infu-
sible ; with borax in the inner flame gives a green glass,
and a yellow glass in the outer flame.
Dif. This ore is distinguished from magnetic iron ore
by its red powder; and from any silver or copper ores by
its hardness and infusibility. The word hematite, from the
Greek haima, blood, alludes to the color of the powder.
Obs. This ore occurs in both crystalline and stratified
rocks, and is ofall ages. The more extensive beds of pure
ore abound in the primary rocks ; while the argillaceous
varieties occur in stratified rocks, being often abundant in
coal regions and other strata. Crystallized specimens occur
also in some lavas.
Splendid crystallizations of this ore come from Elba, whose
beds were known to the Romans; also from St. Gothard ;
Arendal, Norway ; Langbanshyttan, Sweden ; Lorraine and
Dauphiny. Etna and Vesuvius afford handsome specimens.
In the United States, this is an abundant ore. The two
iron mountains of Missouri, situated 90 miles south of St.
Louis, consist mainly of this ore, piled " in masses of all
sizes from apigeon's egg to a middle size church." One of
them is 150feet high, and the other, the " Pilot knob," is 700
feet. Both the massive and micaceous varieties occur there
together with red ochreous ore. Large beds of specular
iron have been explored in St. Lawrence and Jefferson
counties, N. Y.; Plymouth, Bartlett and elsewhere in New
Hampshire ; Woodstock and Aroostock, Maine, and Liberty,
Maryland, are other localities ; also the Blue Ridge, in the
western part of Orange county, Va. The micaceous variety
occurs at Hawley, Mass., Piermont, N. H., and in Stafford
county, Va. Lenticular argillaceous ore is abundant in
Oneida, Herkimer, Madison, and Wayne counties, N. Y., con-
stituting one or two beds 12 to 20 inches thick in a compact
sandstone ; it contains 50 per cent. of oxyd of iron, with
about 25 of carbonate oflime, and more or less magnesia and
clay. The coal region of Pennsylvania affords abundantly
the clay iron ores, but they are mostly the argillaceous carbo-
nate of iron or hematite.

What is the composition of specular iron ? What are its distinguish-

ing characters? What is its mode of occurrence ? What is said ot
the ironmountains of Missouri ?
220 METALS.

Uses. Valuable as an iron ore, though less easily worked

when pure and metallic than the magnetic and hematitic
ores . Pulverized red hematite is used for polishing metals.
Red chalk is a well known material for red pencils.
BROWN IRON ORE.-Brown Hematite.
Usually massive, and often with a smooth botryoidal or
stalactitic surface, having a compact fibrous structure within.
Also earthy.
Color dark brown to ocher-yellow ; streak yellowish-
brown to dull yellow. Luster sometimes submetallic ; often
dull and earthy; on a surface of fracture frequently silky.
H-5-5.5 . Gr=3.6-4 .
Varieties and Composition. The following are the princi.
pal varieties :
Brown hematite. The botryoidal, stalactitic and associated
compact ore .
Brown ocher, Yellow ocher. Earthy ochreous varieties,
ofa brown or yellow color.
Brown and yellow clay iron stone. Impure ore, hard and
compact, ofa brown or yellow color.
Bog iron ore. A loose earthy ore of a brownish-black
color, occurring in low grounds.
Composition when pure : peroxyd ofiron 85.3, (seven-tenths
of which is pure iron,) and water 14.7 ; or it is a hydrous
peroxyd of iron, containing when pure about two-thirds its
weight of pure iron. Before the blowpipe, blackens and be.
comes magnetic. Gives with borax in the inner flame a
green glass.
Dif. This is a much softer ore than either of the two pre-
ceding, and is peculiar in its frequent stalactitic forms, and
in its affording water when heated in aglass tube.
Obs. Occurs connected with rocks of all ages, but ap-
pears, as shown by the stalactitic and other forms, to have
resulted in all cases from the decomposition of other iron ores,
probably the sulphuret.
This is an abundant ore in the United States. The fol-
lowing are a few of its localities. Extensive beds exist at
Salisbury and Kent, Conn., in mica slate ; also in the neigh-

What is said of the uses of specular iron ? What is the appearance

of brown iron ore ? its composition ? Describe its varie ies. What
are distinguishing characters ? How does this ore occur {
 IRON ORES . 221

boring towns of Beekman, Fishkill, Dover, and Ainenia, N.

Y.; also in a similar situation north, at Richmond and Lenox,
Mass.; also at Bennington, Monkton, Pittsford, Putney, and
Ripton, Vermont. Large beds are found in Pennsylvania,
the Carolinas, near the Missouri iron mountains, and also in
Tennessee, Iowa and Wisconsin.
Uses. This is one of the most valuable ores of iron. It
is also pulverised and used for polishing metallic buttons and
other articles. As yellow ocher, it is a common material
for paint.
Gothite, Lepidokrokite. These are names givento crystals ofa hy-
drous peroxyd ofiron, differing in composition from brown iron ore by
containing half as much water. The crystals are ofa brown color, and
blood-red by transmitted light when subtransparent. Streak brownish-
yellow to ocher-yellow. H=5. Gr 4.0-4.2. Occurs with hematite
at Eiserfeld in Nassau ; at Clifton in Cornwall ; in Siberia and else-
where. Turgite from the Ural, appears to be identical with this species.
FRANKLINITE .

Monometric. In octahedral and dodecahedral crystals,

and also coarse granular massive. Color iron-
black; streak dark reddish-brown. Brittle.
A
H=5.5-6.5. Gr=4.85-5-1 ; acts slightly
onthe magnet. A A
Composition : peroxyd ofiron 66, sesquoxyd
ofmanganese 16, oxyd of zinc 17. Alone in-
fusible. At a high temperature zinc is driven off, and is
deposited on the charcoal ; with borax on a platinum wire,
in the outer flame, it gives the violet color due to manganese ;
and in the inner flame on charcoal, the green color due to iron.
Dif. Resembles magnetic iron, but the exterior color is
a more decided black. The streak is not black, and the
blowpipe reactions are different.
Obs. This is an abundant ore at Sterling and Hamburgh,
in New Jersey, near the Franklin furnace ; at the former
place, the crystals are sometimes 4 inches in diameter. It is
said to occur also in the mines of Altenberg, near Aix-la-
Chapelle.
Uses. The attempts to work this ore for zinc have not
been successful.

What is said of the uses of brown iron ore ? What is the appear-
ance offranklinite ? What is its composition ? How is it distinguish.
ed from magnetic iron ore ?
19*
222 METALS.

ILMENITE.-Titanic iron.
In crystallization near specular iron. R : R=85° 59′.
Often in thin plates or seams in quartz ; also in grains.
Crystals sometimes very large and tabular.
Color iron-black ; streak metallic. Luster metallic or
submetallic. H=5-6. Gr-4.5-5 ; acts slightly on the
magnetic needle.
Composition : oxyd of iron, with a variable proportion of
titanic acid or oxyd of titanium. Infusible alone before the
blowpipe.
Crichtonite, ilmenite, menaccanite, hystatite, and iserine,
are names of some of the varieties of this species. The hys-
tatite variety includes the washingtonite of Professor Shepard.
Octahedral and cubic crystals ofthis mineral have been found
with titaniferous sand, which are supposed to be pseudo-
morphous.
Dif. Near specular iron, but differs in the less luster of
its crystals, and its metallic streak.
Obs. Crystals an inch or so in diameter occur in War-
wick, Amity, and Monroe, Orange county, N. Y.; also near
Edenville and Greenwood furnace ; also at South Royalston
and Goshen, Mass.; at Washington, South Britain, and
Litchfied, Conn.; at Westerly, Rhode Island.
Uses. Of no value in the arts.

CHROMIC IRON.-Chromate of Iron.

Monometric. In octahedral crystals, withoutdistinctclea.
vage. Usually massive, and breaking with a rough un-
polished surface.
Color iron-black and brownish-black ; streak dark brown.
Luster submetallic ; often faint. H=5.5. Gr= 4.8-4.5.
In small fragments attractable by the magnet.
Composition : green oxyd of chromium 60.0, protoxyd of
iron 20-1, alumina 11-8, magnesia 7.5. The alumina and
magnesia are variable. Infusible alone before the blowpipe.
Fuses slowly with borax to a beautiful green globule.
Dif. The little luster of this ore on a surface of fracture
is peculiar ; also its fine green glass with borax, which dis-
tinguishes it from ores ofiron and other metals.
Describe titanic iron. Of what does it consist? How does it differ
from specular iron ? What is the appearance of chromic iron? its com-
position ? How is it distinguished from other ores ?
 IRON ORES. 223

Obs. Occurs usually in serpentine rocks, in imbedded

masses or veins. Some of the foreign localities are the
Gulsen mountains in Styria ; the Shetland Islands ; the de-
partment of Var in France ; Silesia, Bohemia, etc.
In the United States, it is abundant in Maryland in the
Bare Hills near Baltimore, and also in Montgomery county,
at Cooptown in Harford county, and in the north part of
Cecil county ; occurs also in Townsend and Westfield, Ver-
mont, and at Chester and Blandford, Mass. It is also found
at Hoboken, N. Y., and at Milford and West Haven, Conn.;
in Pennsylvania in Little Britain, Lancaster county, and
West Branford, Chester county, and on the Wisahicon, 11
miles from Philadelphia.
Uses. The compounds of chrome are extensively used
as pigments. These compounds are obtained either from
chromic iron or the native chromate of lead, (see under
lead.) The chromate of lead and copper (vauquelinite) is
too rare to be employed for this purpose. The chromate of
potash is readily formed by mixing equal parts of nitre and
the powdered chromic iron and exposing the mixture in a
crucible to a strong heat for some hours. The soluble part
is then washed out, and the process is repeated with the in-
soluble portion (digesting it first in muriatic acid to remove
the free oxyd of iron and alumina) till all the ore is decom-
posed. The colored liquid obtained from the washings is
carefully saturated with nitric acid, and concentrated by
evaporation till crystals ofnitre cease to be deposited. Being
then set aside for a week or two, it gradually deposits abun-
dant crystals of the yellow chromate of potash. Chromate
of lead, called also chrome yellow, is the most common chrome
paint used. It is made by adding to the liquid obtained as
above stated, before its crystallization, a solution of acetate
of lead (sugar of lead) till it is saturated. The yellow pre-
cipitate washed out and dried, is the chrome yellow of com-
merce. It is used as a yellow pigment both in oil and water
colors, calico printing, dyeing, andporcelainpainting. This
material is largely manufactured at Baltimore, Md. The
native nitrate of soda of Peru, has been suggested as a sub-
stitute for nitre in the above process.
Another mode of this manufacture recently proposed, con-

Where does chromic iron occur ? What are its uses ? How is the
oretreated ? What is chrome yellow, and how is it made ?
224 METALS.

sists in making a chromate of lime from the chromic iron.

It is as follows : 1. Pulverize very finely chalk and chromic
iron, and mixthe siſted material well by means of a revolv-
ing barrel. 2. Calcine for nine orten hours at a bright red
heat in a reverberatory furnace, when, ifcomplete, the whole
has a yellowish-green color, and dissolves entirely in muri.
atic acid. 3. The porous mass after being crushed under a
mill, to be mixed with hot water and kept agitated, adding
a little sulphuric acid till it slightly reddens blue litmus
paper. 4. Triturated chalk should then be added, and the
oxyd of iron is thus removed. 5. After being left quiet for
awhile, the clear supernatant liquid is to be drawn off: it
contains bichromate, with a little sulphate of lime. The
chromate ofpotash may thenbe made from it byadding car-
bonate of potash ; the chromate of lead, by adding acetate
oflead ; chromate ofzinc, by adding chlorid of zinc.
The bichromate ofpotash has a fine redcolor, and is much
usedby calico printers. It is made from the chromate by
adding nitric or acetic acid to its solution, (enough to give it
asourtaste,) and setting it aside to crystallize. The green
oxyd of chromium gives the fine green color to glass of
borax in blowpipe experiments with chromic iron ; and it
is used to produce thistint inporcelainand enamel painting.
It is the coloring ingredient ofthe emerald,and the emerald.
colored chrysoberyl of the Urals; and occurs in some varie-
ties of diallage and serpentine. It has been found native.
Chromic acid is said to be the coloring matter of the red
sapphire or ruby. With oxyd of tin, it affords a pink color,
which is used in porcelain painting.
COLUMBITE.-Tantalite, of European Chemists.
Trimetric. In rectangular prisms, more or less modified.
Alsomassive. Disseminated in the gangue.
Cleavage parallel to the lateral faces of the
prism, somewhat distinct.
Color iron-black, brownish-black ; often
with a characteristic iridescence on a surface
of fracture ; streak dark brown, slightly red-
dish. Luster submetallic, shining. Opaque.
Describe another mode of treating chromic iron ? What is the color-
ing ingredient of the emerald ? what ofthe red sapphire ? What are
the color, luster and form ofcolumbite ?
 IRON ORES. 225

Brittle. H=5-6. Gr=5.3-6.4. American 5-3-5-71 ;

Bavarian 5.7-6.4 .
Composition of an American specimen: columbic with
niobic acid 80.1, protoxyd of iron 12.6, protoxyd of manga-
nese 6.0, oxyd oftin 0.1, oxyds of copper and lead 0.4. The
Bavarian columbite contains also pelopic acid, which is
sparingly found in the American, and from its high specific
gravity accounts, as Prof. Rose states, for the difference in
this respect in the varieties from the two countries.
Infusible alone before the blowpipe. With borax in a
fine powder fuses quite slowly, but perfectly, to a dark green
glass, which indicates only the presence ofiron.
Dif. Its dark color, submetallic luster, and a slight iri-
descence, together with its breaking readily into angular
fragments, will generally distinguish this species from the
ores it resembles.
Obs. Occurs in granite at Bodenmais in Bavaria, and
also in Bohemia. In the United States, it is found in the
same rocks, feldspathic or albitic, at Middletown and Had-
dam, Conn.; at Chesterfield and Beverly, Mass., and at
Acworth, N. H. A crystal was found at Middletown, which
originally weighed 14 pounds avoirdupois ; and a part ofit.
6inches in length and breadth, weighing 6lbs. 12oz., is now
in the collections ofthe Wesleyan University ofthat place.
This mineral was first made known from American speci.
mens, by Mr. Hatchett, an English chemist, and the new
metal it was found to contain was named by him columbium.
Ferrotantalite. This is an allied mineral, often called, from its lo-
cality at Kimito in Finland, kimito-tantalite. It is a neutral colum-
bate of iron. H=5-6. Gr- 7.2-8.0. A variety from Broddbo
contains 8 per cent. of oxyd of tin, with 6 of tungstic acid. Sp. gr.
6.5.

Note. The metal columbium is also found in pyrochlore, and in the

yttria ores, yttro-columbite, euxenite, fergusonite, and wühlerite. The
metals niobium and pelopium are usually associated with it.

WOLFRAM.- Tungstate of Iron and Manganese.

Trimetric. In modified rhombic or rectangular prisms ;
sometimes pseudomorphous in octahedrons imitative oftung.
state of lime. Also massive. Color dark grayish-black ;
Ofwhat does columbite consist ? How does it differ from other ores ?
Describe wolfram .
226 METALS .

streak dark reddish brown. Luster submetallic, shining, or

dull. H=5-5.5 . Gr=7.1-7.4.
Composition : tungstic acid 75-89, protoxyd of iron 19-24,
protoxyd ofmanganese 4.97. Fuses with difficulty. Gives
agreen bead with borax, and a deep red giobule with salt of
phosphorus.
Found often with tin ores. Occurs in Cornwall, and at
Zinnwald and elsewhere in Europe. In the United States,
it is found at Monroe and Trumbull, Conn.; on Camdage
farm near Blue Hill, Me.; near Mine la Motte, Missouri ;
in the gold regions of North Carolina.
SILICATES OF IRCN.

There are several compounds of silica and oxyd ofiron, none ofwhich
are ofspecial interest in an economical point ofview.
Hedenbergite is a variety ofaugite, consisting essentially of these in-
gredients, (see page 151.)
Ironchrysolitediffers fromordinarychrysolite incontaining oxyd of
iron inplace ofmagnesia.
Isopyre isablack glassy amorphous mineral, found in granite. H=
6-6.5. Gr-2-9-3. Consists ofsilica 47-1,alumina 13.9, peroxyd of
iron 20-1 , lime 15.4, oxyd ofcopper 1.9.
Yenite, (called also lievrite and ilvaite.) Occurs in rhombic prisms,
often with the sides much striated or fluted; color black or brownish
black. Luster submetallic. Streak black, greenish or brownish. H=
5.5-6. Gr-3.8-4.1 . Contains about 50 to 55 per cent. of oxyd of
iron with 14 of lime and 29 of silca. Fuses to a black globule. From
the island ofElba in large crystallizations ; also from Norway, Siberia,
Silesia. At Cumberland, Rhode Island, yenite occurs in slender black
or brownish-black crystals, in quartz ; also inEssex county, N. Y.
The following are hydrous species, giving off water when heated in
a tube before the blowpipe.
Nontronite and pinguite, are earthy almost like clay, of a yellowish
or greenish color.
Chloropal is a harder species, (H=3-4,) of a greenish-yellow or
pistachio-green color. Grengesite, thuringite, knebelite, and kirwan-
ite, are other allied species.
Green earth. Includes different compounds of a green earthy ap-
pearance. The green earth occupying cavities in amygdaloid is near
chlorite. It is a silicate of the peroxyd of iron with some potash, mag-
nesiaand water ; often with other ingredients. The green grains of
the green sand of New Jersey, consist of silica 51.5,alumina 6-4, pro-
toxyd of iron 24.3, potash 9.96, water 7.7.
Hisingerite, cronstedtite, anthosiderite, polyhydrite, sideroschisolite,
chamoisite, stilpnomelane, and xylite, are names ofdark brown or
black species.

Ofwhat does wolfram consist? With what ores is it usually associ-

ated ? What is said ofthe compounds of oxyd of iron with silica?
 IRON ORES. 227

Crocidolite has a fibrous structure much resembling asbestus, and

has been called blue ashestus. Color lavender-blue or leek-green .
H=4. Gr-3-2-3.3 . From Southern Africa.
Pyrosmalite occurs inhexagonal prisms with a perfect basal cleavage,
and pearly surface. Color pale liver-brown, grayish, or greenish. H=
4-4.5. Gr-3.8. Contains 14 per cent. of chlorid of iron, and gives
off fumes of muriatic acid before the blowpipe.
Iron-zeolite. A hydrous silicate of the oxyds of iron and manganese,
forming incrustations at a mine near Freyberg.
COPPERAS. Sulphate of Iron, or Green Vitriol.
Monoclinate. In acute oblique rhombic prisms. M : M=
82' 21' ; P : M =80° 37' . Cleavage parallel to P, perfect.
Generally pulverulent or massive .
Color greenish to white. Luster vitreous. Subtranspa-
rent to translucent. Taste astringent, sweetish, and metallic.
Brittle . H = 2. Gr= 1.83 .
Composition : oxyd of iron 25.42, sulphuric acid 29.01,
water 45.57. Becomes magnetic before the blowpipe.
Yields a green glass with blowpipe ; and ablack color with
a tincture ofnut galls. On exposure, becomes covered with
a yellowish powder, which is a persalt of iron.
Obs. This species is a result of the decomposition of
pyrites, which readily affords it ifmoistened while exposed to
the atmosphere, as stated under pyrites. The old mine of
Rammelsberg in the Hartz, near Goslar, is its most noted
locality; but it occurs wherever pyrites is found.
Copperas is much used by dyers and tanners, on account of
its giving a black color with tannic acid, an ingredient in nut-
galls and many kinds of bark. It for the same reason forme
the basis of ordinary ink, which is essentially an infusion of
nutgalls and copperas. It is also employed in the manufacture
of Prussian blue. With prussiate of potash, any soluble per-
salt of iron, even in minute quantity, gives a fine blue color
to the solution, (due to the formation of Prussian blue,) and
this is a common test ofthe presence of iron.
About 1800 tons of copperas are used in the United States
annually. The colcothar of vitriol is the browish-red oxyd
of iron, obtained from copperas by calcination and other
processes. It is much used as a polishing powder.
Coquimbite, or white copperas, and yellow copperas, are names of
two sulphates ofthe peroxyd ofiron. Pittizite,fibro-ferrite, are allied

What is the appearance and taste of copperas ? its composition ?

What is its origin in nature ? For what is it used ?
228 METALS .

compounds. Apatclite is still another, peculiar in containing bat 4per

cent. of water.
Voltaite is adouble sulphate ofiron, alumina, potash and water, crys-
tallizing like alum in octahedrons. From the Solfatara, near Naples.
SPATHIC IRON.-Carbonate of Iron.
Hexagonal. In rhombohedrousand six-sided prisms, easily
cleavable parallel to a rhombohedron of 107°.
Faces often curved. Usually massive, with a
foliated structure, somewhat curving. Some-
times in globular concretions or implanted
globules.
Color light grayish to brown ; oftendark brownish-red, or
nearlyblack on exposure. Streak uncolored. Luster pearly
to vitreous. Translucent to nearly opaque. H-3-4-5.
Gr
-3-7-3-85.
Composition, when pure : protoxyd ofiron 61-37, carbonic
acid 38.63. Often contains some oxyd of manganese or
magnesia, replacing part ofthe oxyd of iron. Before the
blowpipe it blackens and becomes magnetic; but alone it is
infusible. Colors borax green. Dissolves in nitric acid, but
scarcely effervesces unless pulverized.
The ordinary crystallized or foliated variety is called
spathic or sparry iron, because the mineral has the aspect of
aspar. The globular concretions found in some amygda.
loids or lavas, have been called spherosiderite. An argilla-
ceous variety, occurring in nodular forms, is often called clay
iron stone, and is abundant in the English coal measures.
Dif. This mineral is foliated like calc spar anddolomite ;
but it has amuch higher specificgravity. It readily becomes
magnetic before the blowpipe.
Obs. Spathic iron occurs in rock of various ages, and
often accompanies metallic ores. The largestbeds are found
in gneiss and graywacke, and also in the coal formation.
In Styria and Carinthia, it is very abundant in gneiss, and
in the Hartz it occurs in graywacke. Cornwall, Alstonmoor
and Devonshire, are English localities.
A vein of considerable extent occurs at Roxbury, near
New Milford, Conn., in quartz, traversing gneiss ; at Ply-
mouth, Vt., and Sterling, Mass., it is also abundant. It oc-
Describe spathic iron. What is its constitution ? What are its
chemical characters ? How does it differ from cale spar ? What are
its varieties ? How does it occur ?
 IRON ORES . 229

curs also at Monroe, Conn.; in New York state, in Antwerp,

Jefferson county, and in Hermon, St. Lawrence county. The
argillaceous carbonate in nodules and beds, is very abun-
dant inthe coal regions of Pennsylvania.
Uses. This ore is employed extensively for the manufac-
ture of iron and steel.
Thomaite is a carbonate of iron occurring in rhombic prisms. Gr=
3-1 . From the Siebengebirge mines. Junkerite has proved to be coin-
mon spathic iron.
Mesitine spar, (Breunnerite.) A carbonate of iron and manganese,
occurring in yellowish rhombohedrons of 107° 14'. H=4. Gr=3.3-
3.6. This includes much of what is called rhomb spar, or brown spar,
which becomes rusty on exposure.
Oligon spar. A carbonate of iron and manganese. Angle ofrhom-
bohedron 107° 3'. Color yellow or reddish-brown. Gr=3.75.
VIVIANITE .

Monoclinate. In modified oblique prisms, with cleavage

in one direction highly perfect. Also radiated, reniform,
and globular, or ascoatings.
Colordeep blue to green. Crystals usually green at right
angles with the vertical axis, and blue parallel to it. Streak
bluish. Luster pearly to vitreous. Transparent to translu-
cent ; opaque on exposure. Thin lamine flexible. H=
1.5-2. Gr=2.66 .
Composition : protoxyd of iron 42.4, phosphoric acid 28.7,
water 28.9. Loses its color before the blowpipe and be-
comes opaque; and ifpulverized, fuses to a scoria, which is
magnetic. Affords water in a glass tube, and dissolves in
nitric acid.
Dif. The deep blue color connected with the softness,
are decisive characteristics. The blowpipe affords a con-
firmatory test.
Obs. Found with iron, copper and tin ores, and some-
times in clay, or with bog iron ore. St. Agnes in Cornwall,
Bodenmais, and the gold mines of Vöröspatak in Transylva-
nia, afford fine crystallizations. In the United States, good
crystals have been found atImleytown, N. J. At Allentown,
Monmouth county, and Mullica Hill, Gloucester county, N.
J., are other localities. It often fills the interior of certain
fossils. Occurs also at Harlem, N. Y., in Somerset and

For what is spathic iron used ? What is the color and structure of
vivianite ? Of what does it consist ?
20
230 METALS .

Worcester counties, Md., and with bog ore in Stafford

county, Va.
The blue iron earth is an earthy variety, containing about 30 per
cent. of phosphoric acid: The mineral from Mullica Hill has been
called mullicite .
Anglarite, from Anglar, France, is a similar mineral, with less phos-
phoricacid.
Triphyline occurs in cleavable masses, of a greenish-gray or bluish
color. H=5. Gr=3.6. It is an anhydrous phosphate of the pro-
toxyds of iron, and manganese, with some lithia. From Bodenmais in
Bayern.
Green iron stone, (kraurite,) alluaudite, melanchlor,and beraunite, are
names of phosphates of the peroxyd of iron. Color of the first two, dull
leek-green; structure fibrous. Luster silky. Color ofthe third, black ;
of the fourth, hyacinth-red, becoming darker on exposure.
Cacoxene. This is ahandsome species, occurring in radiated silky
tufts ofa yellow or yellowish-brown color. H=3-4. Gr-3-38. It is a
phosphate of alumina and iron. It differs from Wavellite, which it re-
sembles in its more yellow color and iron reactions. It also resembles
carpholite, but has a deeper color. It occurs on brown iron ore in
Bohemia. Also with specular iron at the Sterling iron mines at
Antwerp, Jefferson county, New York, and at Mount Defiance, near
Ticonderoga.
Carphosiderite is another yellow phosphate of iron from Greenland
Itoccurs in reniform masses .

ARSENATES OF IRON .

Cubeore. Occurs in cubes of dark green to brown and red colors

Luster adamantine, not very distinct. Streak greenish or brownish.
H=2.5. Gr=3. It is a hydrous arsenate ofthe peroxyd of iron, con-
taining 38 per cent. of arsenic acid. From the Cornwall mines ; also
from France and Saxony.
Scorodite. Crystallizes in rhombic prisms, modified. M : M= 119°
2. Color pale leek-green or liver brown. Streak uncolored. Luster
vitreous to subadamantine. Subtransparent to nearly opaque. H=
3.5-4. Gr-3-1--3.3 . Scorodite is a hydrous arsenate of the per-
oxyds of iron, containing 50 per cent. of arsenic acid. From Saxony,
Carinthia, Cornwall, and Brazil.
It occurs in minute crystals near Edenville, N. Y., with arsenical
pyrites. The name ofthis species is from the Greek skorodon, garlic,
alluding to the odor before the blowpipe.
Iron sinter is a yellowish or brownish hydrous arsenate ofthe peroxyd
of iron, containing but 30 per cent. ofarsenic acid. Arseno-siderite is
another fibrous arsenate, containing 34 per cent. ofarsenic acid.
Symplesite is a blue or green mineral, supposed to be an arsenate of
the protoxyd of iron. Its crystals are right rhomboidal, with a perfect
cleavage. H=2.5. Gr=2.96. From Voigtland.
Oxalate of iron. This is a soft, yellow, earthy mineral of rare oc-
currence. It blackens instantly in the flame of a candle. Occurs in
Bohemia; it is supposed to have resulted from the decomposition of
succulent plants.
 METALS. 231

GENERAL REMARKS ON IRON AND ITS ORES .

The metal iron has been known from the most remote historical
period, but was little used until the last centuries before the Christian
era. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was the almost universal sub-
stitute, for cutting instruments as well as weapons of war, among the
ancient Egyptians and earlier Greeks ; and even among the Romans
(asproved by the relics from Pompeii) and also throughout Europe, it
continued long to be extensively employed for these purposes.
The Chalybes, bordering on the Black Sea, were workers in iron and
steel at an early period ; and near the year 500 B. C., this metal was
introduced from that region intoGreece, so as to become common for
weapons of war. From this source we have the expression chalybeate
applied to certain substances or waters containing iron.
The iron mines ofSpain have also been known from a remote epoch,
and it is supposed that they have been worked " at least ever since the
times ofthe later Jewish kings; first by the Tyrians, next by the Car-
thagenians, then by the Romans, and lastly by the natives of the coun-
try." These mines are mostly contained in the present provinces of
New Castile and Aragon. Elba was another region of ancient works,
" inexhaustible in its iron," as Pliny states, who enters somewhat fully
into the modes of manufacture. The mines are said to have yielded
iron since the time of Alexander of Macedon. The ore beds of Styria
in Lower Austria, were also a source of iron to the Romans.
Iron ores. The ores from which the iron of commerce is obtained,
are the spathic iron or carbonate, magnetic iron, specular iron, brown
iron ore or hematite, and bog iron ore. In England, the principal ore
used is an argillaceous carbonate of iron, called often clay iron stone,
found in nodules and layers in the coal measures. It consists of car-
bonate of iron, with some clay, and externally has an earthy, stony
look, with little indication of the iron it contains except in its weight.
It yields from 20 to 35 per cent. of cast iron. The coal basin of
South Wales, and the counties of Stafford, Salop, York, and Derby,
yield by far the greater part of the English iron. Brown hematite
isalso extensively worked. In Sweden and Norway, at the famous
works ofDannemora and Arendal, the ore is the magnetic iron ore,
and is nearly free from impurities as it is quarried out. It yields 50 to
60 per cent. of iron. The same ore is worked in Russia, where it
abounds in the Urals. The Elba ore isthe specular iron. InGermany,
Styria, and Carinthia, extensive beds of the spathic iron are worked.
The bog ore is largely reduced in Prussia.
In the United States, all these different ores are worked. The local-
ities are already mentioned. The magnetic ore is reduced in New
England, New York, northern New Jersey, and sparingly in Pennsyl-

What was the usual substitute for iron among the ancients ? What
is said of the Chalybes ? What of the working of the Spanish mines ?
What of the Elba mines ? What are the common ores of iron ? What
is said ofthe most common in England ? in Sweden and Norway ? at
Elba, Styria, and Carinthia ? What ores abound in the United States ?
232 METALS.

vaniaand other states. The brown hematite is largely worked along

Western New England and Eastern New York, in Pennsylvania, and
many states south and west. The earthy argillaceous carbonate like
that of England, and the hydrate, are found with the coal deposits, and
are a source of much iron .
The several kinds of ore differ somewhat in the quality of the iron
they afford; but the greatest part of the supposed difference, if we ex-
cept the bog ore, depends on the mode of working, and the use of pro-
per fluxes in the right proportion. The bog ore (a bog formation) often
contains phosphorus from animal decomposition, and generally yields
a brittle product, though from its fusibility good for some kinds of
casting.
Mode ofAssay. In the assay ofores in the dry way, for economical
purposes, somewhat different means are used for the different ores. As
in the reduction in the large way, the object is to separate the iron from
the oxygen with which it is united, and from the impurities clay, lime,
or quartz, ifsuch be present.
With the pure oxyds, or the carbonate in a pure state, a simple mix-
ture of the pulverized ore and charcoal strongly heated in a crucible,
will effect a reduction. But it is found better to add carbonate of lime
or burnt lime, with clay, or glass, or borax, which fuse into a slag, and
besides aiding the reduction, protect the reduced iron from combustion.
For specular iron, with 10 parts of the ore finely pulverized, mix as
much chalk or limestone, 6 to 8 parts of bottle glass, and sixteenth or
a twentieth of the whole by weight of charcoal. For a magnetic iron
ore, mix with 10 parts of the ore 12 ofglass, and as much chalk, with
one part of charcoal ; or, say 3 parts ofeach burnt lime and burnt clay,
and 24 of charcoal. For a brown hematite, 10 parts of burnt lime, as
many ofburnt clay, and 3 ofcharcoal. These proportions, taken from
Mushet, are not given as invariably necessary, but simply to guide the
experimenter. The fitness of the proportions is to be determined from
the result. If the slag is clear and nearly colorless, the reduction is
perfect. If dark colored, it contains unreduced oxyd, and too much
glass or clay may have been added; if opaque or porcellanous, too
much lime has been used. In the case ofanargillaceous ore, the pro-
portions of lime andglass should be determined from the proportions of
lime and clay in the ore.
The prepared ore with the fluxes, well mixed, is placed in a crucible
lined with moistened and well compacted charcoal dust; the crucible is
filled with charcoal, and closed with a luted lid of fire clay. The
heat should be very slowly raised, not using the bellows for three quar-
ters of anhour, and finally sustained for a quarter ofanhour at a white
heat, and then the crucible may be removed and thebutton ofcast iron,
after cooling, taken out.
Reduction ofores. In the reduction of iron ores, the simplest and
oldest process consists in heating the pounded ore with charcoal in an
open forge, (see beyond, page 237.) By the improved process, the ore
isheated in a blast furnace along with charcoal, coke, or mineral coal,

What is said of the iron from different ores ? Describe the general
mode of assaying iron ores ? What is the usual mode of reduction ?
Describe the blast furnace:
 IRON ORES. 23

and also a certain proportion of some flux, usually limestone. The

lime forms a glass with the silicious impurities of the ore, while the
carbon (first becoming carbonic oxyd) takes the oxygen which is in
combination with the metal. A small proportion of the carbon also en-
ters into the metal after it is reduced, giving it the fusibility it has as
cast iron.
Before describing the process, a brief description may be given of a
blast furnace. The following figure (excluding the structure on the
right, to be afterwards explained,) represents the essential features ofa
furnace, in an exterior side view.
1

W
Uy

20

It is essentially a broad truncated four-sided pyramid of brick and

stone, containing within a cavity where the ore is heated and reduced.
* I am indebted to Mr. S. S. Haldeman for the following figures and
theirdescriptions. Theyare 1-20th ofan inch to a foot. The furnace
was built for anthracite, as is explained beyond. It is a model of the
fine works near Columbia, Pa., owned by the Messrs. Haldeman.
20*
234 METALS.

The annexed figure 2,exhibits the interior laid open. The main
structure is called the stack. Of the interior cavity, the lower part,
2 H, h, is the hearth, H is four-
sided; B B, the boshes, having
nearly the shape of a funnel, ex-
cept that it is square below ; above
b, is the proper furnace, usually
about 30 feet high; below the cru-
cible, lies the hearth, commonly of
refractory grit rock. The furnace
is circular, and is lined with fire
A
brick (l) ; next tothis, is a layer of
B B
drysand (r,) andthen one of brick
( ,) constituting the inner part of
the stack. The layer of sand al-
lows the interior to expand by
heat, without cracking the exte-
rior; and moreover, the whole, l,
', may be removed for repairs
r, r
without injuringthe exterior work .
At t, is one ofthe twiers, (or tuyeres,) the tubes by which the blast of
air is driven into the furnace. At m, is a partial partition of fire brick,
calledthe tymp, separating the back and front of the hearth,but not
extending tothe bottom or hearth-stone. The hearth-stone is made of
arefractory grit rock.
Ineach side of the four-sided stack, at bottom, there is a door-like or
arched opening, (A, figs. 1,2,) which extends in to the stonework that en-
closes the hearth. 'Three ofthese opening are called the twier-arches,
and the other is the front or working arch; the twiers enter by the
twier-arches to the interior, and at t, (fig. 1,) is shown the place of en-
trance ofone. The view in figure 1, gives a front view ofa twier arch ;
and in figure 2, at A, there is a side view, with the twier in place.
3 To prevent the melted metal,
which often rises above the
twiers, from flowing into the
A blast pipe, in case ofthe blast
being accidentally checked,
there is at V (fig. 2) a valve,
which is raised bythe blast and
closes when it stops; and atk,
A
a place for inserting a rod to
A
H
remove anyslagthat may cling
to the twier.
Figure 3, is a horizontal sec-
tion, at bottom ; A, A, A, are
the twier arches, separated by
the masonry of the stack; H,
h, the positionofthe hearth or
i crucible; m is the tymp be-
tween Handh; t, t, t, are the

• This word is from the German word böschung, a slope. H.

 IRON ORES . 235

twiers, the three blast tubes of which connect with a common tube that
extends round, by the passage gg, (figs. 1, 3,) in the form of a semi-
circle, and receives the blast through the tube p. The dotted circle
within corresponds to the inner outline of the fire brick lining of the
widest part of the furnace.
The melted iron runs into the lower part of the hearth, and is covered
by the cinder. It is prevented from running out by the damstone c,
(ligs. 2, 3) ; and farther to hinder the metal from being forced out by
the blast, clay is rammed beneath the tymp around the twiers and upon
the surface at h, where it is retained by heavy iron plates. These
plates are raised every few hours to allow the cinder to run off, which
passes out over the damstone,along the dust-plate, ci, (figs. 2, 3.) The
metal is drawn off every twelve hours at the lower level a, through an
aperture at the bottom of the damstone.
Great economy in making iron has of late been secured by heating
the blast to three to six hundred Fahrenheit. The cooling effect of the
vast volumes of air thrown into the furnace is avoided ;* and this is ab-
solutely necessary when anthracite coal is used, as is the case inmany
works of recent construction. In the view above given,f, f, (fig. 2,)
represent two (out of three) passages in the upper part of the furnace,
by which the waste flame is led off, first to heat boilers at W, W, (fig.
1,) and then to a hot-oven chamber, o. In the last there is a great
number of iron pipes, arranged in series ; the blast by the action of the
engine, is thrown through all the pipes in succession, and after being
thusheated, flows on to p, (fig. 3,) whence it passses to the twiers, (t, t,
t.) When the engine is separated from the furnace, the oven is usually
placed upon the front side (instead of back) of the top, and the flame
passes in by a single aperture. The works here figured are situated
upon a side hill. It is important that the blast should not be too great,
as it wastes the metal by oxydation ; and at the same time it should be
sufficiently copious to supply the requisite qantityof oxygen.
The first step in the process of reduction, consists in roasting the ore
to drive offanyvolatile ingredients, and open its texture. This is effect-
ed by piling the ore inheaps,made of alternate layers of coal or coke
and ore, covering up the heap loosely with earth and firing it. The
carbonic acid, if it contains any, the moisture, and any sulphur present,
are thus expelled, and the ore is in a looser state for reduction. The
furnace is filled with coal and slowly heated up-ten or twelve days
being required for this, to avoid the effect of too suddenheat on the fur-
nace. The charge, next to be added, consists of coal,the roasted ore,
and limestone, (ifthis be the flux,) in certain proportions, and it is car-

What is said of the hot blast? Describe the method of heating the
engine, and air of the blast. Mention the several steps in the process
ofreduction.

* The weight of air thrown into a Glasgow furnace in 24 hours, has

beenestimated at 6192 cwt., or 6292 cubic feet per minute, while the
whole weight of coke, ore and limestone added in the same time, was
only 666 cwt. In ordinary cases, the weight of the air is at least four
times as much as that ofthe charges.
236 METALS .

ried to the top ofthe furnace, often by a railway, and thrown in at inter
vals of an half hour or so, as the coal sinks, so that the furnace is kept
full. The charge at the top of the furnace is two days or more in de-
scending to where it comes within the direct action of the blast. The
fusion of the ore finally takes place a short distance above the twiers, and
its reduction is completed at the same time by the burning coal and flux ;
in a few hours the hearth fills with metal and slag, and as it accumulates,
the fused iron displaces the slag which is continually running over and
conveyed off by the workmen: the metal being let out below by remov-
ing a luting of clay, is run into moulds of sand, to form pigs-oblong
masses of about 180 pounds each. The slag in this process serves to
protect the metal from combustion as itis reduced. Its color and condi-
tion indicate the success of the reduction. Ifof a dark color and heavy,
itshows that all the ore is not reduced, and much metal lost; probably
owing to too little coal or too rapid working. If dark vitreous, with
streaks of green, there is some oxyd of iron carried off by the silica,
which may probably be remedied by adding more lime to take up the
silica. If light colored, all is going on well.*
The proportion of fluxes depends on the ore and its condition, and
no general rule canbe given. With the argillaceous carbonate of iron
of Staffordshire, limestone alone is used, 10 to 12 per cent. being em-
ployed for 45 per cent. of ore, and 45 of coke. Even this addition is
unnecessary when the ore is associated with much lime. For the ordi-
nary argillaceous ores, the weight of limestone used is about one-fourth
the weight of the ore, or from one-third to one-sixth. When there is
no silica in the ore, it is added in nearly equal proportions with the
lime and other earthy ingredients present. Previous assays must de-
termine what is required for each variety of ore. The brown hematite
is easily reduced, and requires much coal with a slow process, or only
a white iron is produced ; 8 to 12 per cent. of limestone is added to a
charge as a flux.
Good metal is strong of adark gray color, with a granular texture,
and runs fluid when melted ; while the bad metal is light colored and
brittle, and runs thick and sluggish., There are numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, in
market, including the two kinds just described and two intermediate
grades. Number 1 is best fitted for castings, as it contains the most
carbon and is more fusible than the others. Cast iron sometimes con-
tains a trace ofsilicium without injury, and according to Berzelius, the
best Swedish iron contains after it is made into wrought iron 1-20 per
cent. of silicium. Sulphur and phosphorus are highly deleterious, ex-
cept when a fusible metal is desired with the strength comparatively
unessential.
Wrought or malleable iron. As cast iron owes its fusibility princi-
pally to the carbon present, the change of cast to wrought iron, called

What is said of the slag? On what does the proportion of fluxes

depend ?

*The slag from Merthyr Tydvil, in South Wales, afforded Berthier on

analysis, silica 40.4, lime 38.4, magnesia 5.2, alumina 11.2, protoxyd
of iron 3-8, and atrace of sulphur.
 IRON ORES 287

refining, must consist in the removal of this carbon ana'any remaining

impurities. This is done by burning it out, and for this purpose the
poorer kinds of cast iron answer as well as the best. Formerly the
metal was melted three or four times,and then hammered with a large
forging hammer to remove the scoria. In the next improvement, the
metal while in fusion was stirred for a while to effect the more com-
plete combustion ofthe carbon ; and in this way it gradually lost its fusi-
bility and became stiff enough for forging. This process is called pud-
dling. The metal passes first through one fusion as preparatory. It is
next placed on plates in a furnace of the reverberatory kind, the metal
being loosely piled in the middle of the horizontal furnace ; 3) cwt. is
an ordinary charge. The flame plays over it, and in half an hour it
begins to melt. The workmen now stir it about, occasionally dashing
in a scoopful of water. The metal gives off freely bubbles ofgas, which
burn with a blue flame, (carbonic oxyd) ; in about twenty minutes the
whole falls to pieces like a coarse gravel,and a lurid flame appears over
it. The whole is still kept in motion and well heated, and soon it be-
gins to unite again, when it is separated into several lumps of the size
of three or four bricks. These masses as they assume a clotty consis-
tency (sometimes called " coming into nature,") are drawn from the
furnace and dolleyed or stamped into cakes with hammers. The plates
are thrown while hot into water, which renders them brittle ; they are
then broken into pieces, again placed together in the furnace, heated to
a
welding heat,and finallyforgedunderaaponderoushammer, movedby
machinery, into short thick bars called blooms. 100 parts of cast iron
yield about 63 of blooms. Some of the steps in this process are often
neglected in making the ordinary iron.
Ithas been found that full 24 per cent. of the gas escaping from an
iron furnace is carbonic oxyd, and in the boshes this is the only gas.
This gas has been used as fuel in the refining of the iron, and by this
means the whole expense of fuel for refining is saved. (See the Amer.
Jour. Sci ., vols. 1. and ii., 2d ser., where the theory ofthe blast furnace
is well explained.)
The iron produced is said to be cold short if it is brittle when cold,
and this has been attributed to the presence of silicium. It is termed
red short when it becomes brittle on heating.
Cast iron is also changed to malleable iron by covering castings with
powdered hematite or other oxyd of iron, and exposing to heat below
fusion. The carbon is removed by the oxygen ofthe oxyd. The scales
of oxyd thrown off in the forging of iron are much used. This process
was first introduced in 1804, and is one ofgreat importance in the arts.
Malleable iron is also obtained directly from the ore by a single fusion
inwhat is called aCatalan forge. It hasa rectangular crucible or basin
below the fire, about 18 inches by 21 in width and 17 inches deep. The
twier enters about 9 inches above the bottom and receives the blast
from a water-blowing machine ; and it admits ofa change of position
so as to give a change of direction to the blast as is required in the

Describe the manufacture ofwrought from cast iron. How is the

gasused inheating ? What are cold short and red short iron? What
other mode is there of rendering cast iron malleable ? Describe a mode
of obtaining nalleable iron direct from the ore.
238 METALS.

different stages of the process. The ore after a previous roasting in a

kiln, is pounded up and sifted ; the coarser part is piled up in the forge
on the side opposite the blast, and charcoal fills up the rest ofthe space.
After the heat is well up, the finer siftings are thrown at intervals upon
the charcoal fire. The basin below, which has been previously lined
with two or three coats of pounded charcoal, or loam and charcoal, re-
ceives the ironas it is reduced and runs down. The slag isoccasionally
removed from the surface of the basin through holes opened for the
purpose. The iron, when sufficiently accumulated, is taken out in a
pastystate and at once forged. The process usually lasts five or six
hours. A lump or bloom of malleable iron is thus produced in three or
four hours. This cheap and simple process has long been used in Cat-
alonia, and it is hence called the method of the Catalan forge. By a
slow operation, and but a small quantity of siftings, worked with an
upraised twier, the proportion of steel obtained by the process is in-
creased. This mode of reduction is adapted only for the purer and
more fusible ores; and moreover it requires a large consumption of fuel
and is attended by a considerable loss. The argillaceous ore ofthe coal
region would yield only an iron glass in a Catalan forge.
By another mode of reduction, the iron ore coarsely powdered is
mixed with coal in certain proportions, or a material containing the
requisite amount of carbon, and the charge is heated in a reverberatory
furnace till reduction has taken place. The carbon carries off the
oxygen ofthe ore, and if the proper proportions have been employed, it
leavesa mass ofmalleable iron behind.
Steel. Wrought iron is changed to steel by a process called cemen-
tation. The best iron is heated with charcoal ; a portion of carbon is
thus absorbed, and the iron at the same time acquires a blistered sur-
face, and becomes fine grained and fusible. When the blistered steel
is drawn down into smaller bars and beaten, it forms tilted steel; and
this broken up, heated, welded, and again drawn out into bars, forma
shear steel. Cast steel is prepared by fusing blistered steel with a flux
and casting it into ingots, and then by gentle heating and careful ham-
mering or rolling, giving it the form ofbars.
Steel is also formed direct from certain ores ofiron, more particularly
when oxyd of manganese is associated with them, and especially from
the spathic iron, which often contains a portion of carbonate ofmanga-
nese . The oxygen ofthe manganese is said to remove part ofthe car-
bon from the cast iron, and thus reduce it to the state of steel. There
are 1 or 2 per cent. of manganese in the metal thus obtained. The
product is of inferior quality as steel, but is largely manufactured in
Germany. The wootz of India is a steel obtained from ablack ore of
iron, in a furnace even simpler than the Catalan forge. It is said to
contain aminute proportion of silicium and aluminium.
The amount ofiron manufactured in the United States in 1847, (half
of it in Pennsylvania,) was 700,000 tons ; in Great Britain, in 1846,
2,200,000 tons ; in France, in 1845, 450,000 ; in Russia, in 1845,
400,000 ; in Sweden, in 1846, 145,000 ; other parts of Europe, (Aus-
tria, Belgium, Germany,) 700,000 tons. :

How is steel made ? Describe the kinds of steel. How is steel made
direct from ores of iron ?
 METALS. 239

5. MANGANESE .

The ores of manganese have a specific gravity below 5.2.

They afford a violet-blue color with borax or salt of phos-
phorus, in the outer flame of the blowpipe ; and on heating
the oxyd with muriatic acid, fumes of chlorine are given out
which are derived from the acid.
MANGANESE SPAR.

Monoclinate. In oblique rhomboidal prisms, with one

distinct cleavage; usually large massive, with the cleavage
often indistinct.
Color reddish, usually deep flesh-red ; also brownish,
greenish, or yellowish, when impure ; streak uncolored.
Luster vitreous. Transparent to opaque. Becomes black
on exposure. H= 5.5-6.5. Gr-3-4-3.7.
Composition : oxyd of manganese 52.6, silica 39.6, oxyd
of iron 4.6, lime and magnesia 1.5, water 2.7. The impure
varieties, Rhodonite, Photizite, and Allagite, contain varia-
ble proportions of carbonate of iron, lime, or manganese,
beside alumina. Becomes dark brown when heated, and fuses
with borax in the outer flame,giving ahyacinth red globule.
Dif. Resembles somewhat a flesh-red feldspar, but dif-
fers in greater specific gravity, in blackening on long expo-
sure, and in the glass with borax.
Obs. Occurs in Sweden, the Hartz, Siberia, and else-
where. In the United States it is found in masses, at Plain-
field, and Cummington, Mass.; also abundantly at Hinsdale,
and on Stony Mountain, near Winchester, N. H.; at Blue
Hill Bay, Me. The black exterior is a more or less pure
hydrated oxyd of manganese.
Uses. Dr. Jackson has suggested the use of this ore for
making a violet-colored glass, and also for a colored glazing
on stone ware. The finely pulverized mineral, spread on
stone ware as a paste, will afford a permanent glazing,
which will have a black color if it be ofconsiderable thick-
ness, and of a deep violet-blue if quite thin. It may be
used along with the usual salt glazing.

What is said of the ores of manganese ? What is the appearance

of manganese spar ? its composition and blowpipe characters ? How
is it distinguished from feldspar? For what may it be used ?
240 METALS.

It receives a high polish and is sometimes employed for

inlaid work.
Troostite. A silicate of iron and manganese occurring in six-sided
prisms ; R on R=115°. Also massive. Colordull greenish to reddish-
brown. H=5.5. Gr=4. From Franklin, New Jersey. Tephroite
is a variety of it.
Bustamite. A silicate of manganese and lime occurring in spheri-
cal and reniform masses. H=6-6.5. Gr-3.2. From Mexico.

PYROLUSITE-Binoxyd of Manganese.
Trimetric. In small rectangular prisms, more or less
a
modified. M : M=93 ' 40' ; M : ē
136 ° 50′. Sometimes fibrous and ra.
diated or divergent. Often massive
M M
and in reriform coatings.
Color iron-black ; streak black, un-
metallic . H=2-25. Gr 4.8-5.0 .
Composition : essentially the bin-
oxyd of manganese, consisting of oxygen 36, and manganese
44. With borax it gives an amethystine globule. It yields
no water in a matrass.
Dif. Differs from psilomelane by its inferior hardness,
and from ores of iron by the violet glass with borax.
Obs. This ore is extensively worked in Thuringia, Mo-
ravia, and Prussia. It is common in Devonshire, Somerset-
shire, and Aberdeenshire, in England. In the United States
it is associated with the following species in Vermont, at
Bennington, Brandon, Monkton, Chittenden, and Irasburg ;
it occurs also in Maine, at Conway, and Plainfield, in Mas-
sachusetts ; at Salisbury, and Kent, in Conn., on hematite.
The name pyrolusite is from the Greek pur, fire, and luo,
to wash, and alludes to its property ofdischarging the brown
and green tints of glass, for which it is extensively used.
Uses. Besides the use just alluded to, this ore is exten.
sively employed for bleaching, and for affording the gas oxy.
gen to the chemist.
PSILOMELANE .

Massive andbotryoidal. Colorblack or greenish-black.

Streak reddish or brownish-black, shining. H=5-6 . Gr=
4-4.4.

Describe pyrolusite. What is its constitution ? What are its uses ?

Describe psilomelane ? How does it differ from pyrolusite.
 MANGANESE ORES. 241

Composition : essentially binoxyd of manganese with one

per cent. of water, and also some baryta or potassa. The
compound is somewhat varying in its constitution. Before
the blowpipe like pyrolusite, except that it affords water.
Obs. This is an abundant ore, and is associated usually
with the pyrolusite. Prof. Silliman, jr., has lately detected
oxyd of cobalt mixed with this ore. It occurs at the differ-
ent localities mentioned under pyrolusite, and the two are
often in alternating layers ; it has been considered only an
impure variety of the pyrolusite. The name is from the
Greek psilos, smooth or naked, and melas, black.
Uses. Same as with pyrolusite.
Heteroclin and marceline are similar ores, containing 10 to 16 per
cent. of silica.

WAD.-Bog manganese.
Massive, reniform or earthy ; also in coatings and dendri-
tic delineations .
Color and streak black or brownish-black. Luster dull,
earthy. H= 1 . Gr=3.7. Soils.
Composition. Consists of peroxyd of manganese, in vary-
ing proportions, from 30 to 70 per cent. along with peroxyd
of iron, 20 to 25 per cent. of water, and often several per
cent. ofoxyd ofcobalt or copper. It is a hydrated peroxyd,
mechanically mixed with other oxyds, organic acids and
other impurities, and like bog iron ore, is formed in low places
from the decomposition of minerals containing manganese.
Gives offmuch water when heated, and affords a violet glass
with borax.
Obs. Wad is abundant in Columbia and Dutchess coun-
ties, N. Y., at Austerlitz, Canaan Center, and elsewhere ;
also at Blue Hill Bay, Dover, and other places in Maine ; at
Nelson, Gilmanton, and Grafton, N. H.; and in many other
parts of the country.
Uses. May be employed like the preceding in bleaching,
but is too impure to afford good oxygen. It may also be
used for umber paint.
TRIPLITE. Ferruginous Phosphate ofManganese.
Massive, with cleavage in three directions. Color black-
ish-brown. Streak yellowish-gray. Luster resinous ; near-
ly or quite opaque. H=5-5.5. Gr-3.4-3.8.
What is wad ? its composition? its origin ? For what may it be
used ? What is triplite ?
21
242 METALS.

Composition : protoxyd of manganese 32.6, protoxyd of

iron 31.9, phosphoric acid 32.8, with some phosphate of lime.
Fuses easily to a black scoria, before the blowpipe ; dis-
solves in nitric acid, and gives a violet glass with borax.
Obs. From Limoges in France. Rather abundant at
Washington, Conn., and sparingly found at Sterling, Mass.
Heterosite is another phosphate of the oxyds of manganese and
iron, ofa greenish-gray or bluish color. Contains 41.77 per cent. of
phosphoric acid. Huraulite is a hydrous phosphate of the same oxyds,
containing 18 per cent. of water and 38 of phosphoric acid. Occure
in transparent, oblique, reddish-yellow crystals. Gr=2.27. From the
commune of Hureaux, near Limoges.
Hausmannite. A sesquioxyd of manganese containing 72-7 per
cent. of manganese, when pure. Brownish-black and submetallic, oc-
curring massive and in square octahedrons ; H= 5-5.5. Gr=4.7.
From Thuringia and Alsatia.
Braunite. A protoxyd of manganese, containing 79 per cent. of
manganese when pure. Color and streak dark brownish-black, and
luster submetallic. Occurs in square octahedrons ; H=6-6.5. Gr=
4.8. From Piedmont and Thuringia.
Manganite. A hydrous sesquioxyd of manganese. Occurs mas
sive and in rhombic prisms. Color steel-black to iron-black. H=4-
4.5. Gr=4.3-4.4. From the Hartz, Bohemia, Saxony, and Aber-
deenshire.
Peloconite is an ore of manganese and iron, of a bluish-black color,
and liver brown streak, with a weak vitreous luster. From Chili .
Manganblende, or Alabandine. A sulphuret of manganese, of an
iron-black color, green streak, submetallic luster. H=3.5-4. Gr=
3.9-4.0 . Crystals, cubes and regular octahedrons. From the gold
mines ofNagyag, in Transylvania.
Hauerite is a sulphuret,containing twice the proportion ofsulphur in
the last. Color reddish-brown and brownish-black, resembling zinc
blende. H=4. Gr=3.46. From Hungary.
There is also an arseniuret of manganese, of a grayish-white color,
and metallic luster, which gives off alliaceous fumes. G=5:55. From
Saxony.
Diallogite. A carbonate of manganese. Color rose-red to brown-
ish ; streak uncolored. Luster vitreous, inclining to pearly. Translu-
cent to subtranslucent. Crystals rhombohedral. H=3.5. Gr-3.59.
Infusible alone. From Saxony, Transylvania, and the Hartz. Also
from Washington, Conn., with triplite.
GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ORES OF MANGANESE.
Manganese is never used in the arts in the pure state ; but as an oxyd
it is largely employed in bleaching. The importance of the ore for this
purpose, depends on the oxygen it contains, and the facility with which

On what does the value ofmanganese ores depend in the art of bleach-
ing ?
 NICKEL ORES . 243

this gas is given up. As the ores are often impure, it is important
to ascertain their,value in this respect. This is most readily done by
heating gently the pulverised ore with muriatic acid, and ascertaining
the amount of chlorine given off. The chlorine may be made to pass
into milk of lime, to form a chlorid, and the value of the chlorid then
tested according to the usual modes. The amount of chlorine derived
from a given quantity of muriatic acid depends not only on the amount
of oxygen in the ore, but also on the presence or absence of baryta and
such other earths as may combine with this acid. The binoxyd ofman-
ganese when pure, affords 18 parts by weight of chlorine, to 22 parts
of the oxyd ; or 23 cubic inches of gas from 22 grains of the oxyd.
The best ore should give about three-fourths its weight of chlorine, or
about 7000 cubic inches to the pound avoirdupois.
The chlorine for bleaching is used commonly in combination with
lime. To make the chlorid oflime, the chlorine is generally obtained
either through the action ofmuriatic acid on the ore, (3 to 4 parts by
weight of the former, to 1½ of the latter,) or more commonly by mix-
ing 1 part ofthe ore with 14 parts ofcommon salt, 2 or 24 parts of con-
centrated sulphuric acid, and as much water. As the chlorine passes
off, it is conveyed into chambers containing slaked lime, by which it is
absorbed.
Manganese is also employed to give a violet color to glass. The
sulphate and the chlorid of manganese are used in calico printing. The
sulphate gives a chocolate or bronze color.
The best beds of manganese ores in the United States, which have
been opened, are at Brandon, Chittenden, and Irasburg, Vt.

6. CHROMIUM.

The ores of chromium are the chromates of lead and

chromic iron, which are described under Lead and Iron.
There is also a native chromic ochre, supposed to consist of
silica chromic acid, alumina, and iron. Wolchonskoite is an
allied mineral. Miloschine or Serbian is considered a chro-
miferous clay.
7. NICKEL.

The ores of nickel, excepting one or two, have a metallic

luster, and pale color ; their specific gravity is between 3
and 8, and hardness mostly between 5 and 6, (in one, about
3.) They resemble some cobalt ores, but do not like them
give a deep blue color with borax.

How is manganese used? For what other purpose is manganese

used ? What is said of the ores of chromium ? What is said of the
ores of nickel ?
244 METALS.

COPPER NICKEL-Arsenical Nickel.

Hexagonal. Usually massive. Color pale copper-red ;

streak pale brownish-red. Luster metallic. Brittle. H= 5
-5.5 . Gr-7.3-7.7 .
Composition : nickel 44, and arsenic 54 ; sometimes part
of the arsenic is replaced by antimony. Gives off arsen-
ical (alliaceous) fumes before the blowpipe, and fuses to a
pale globule, which darkens on exposure. Assumes a green
coating in nitric acid, and is dissolved in aqua-regia.
Dif. Distinguished from iron and cobalt pyrites by its
pale reddish shade of color; also from the former by its ar-
senical fumes, and from the latter by not giving ablue color
with borax. None of the ores of silver with a metallic lus-
ter have a pale color, excepting native silver itself.
Obs. Accompanies cobalt, silver, and copper ores in the
mines ofSaxony, and other parts of Europe ; also sparingly
in Cornwall.
It is found at Chatham, Conn., in gneiss, associated with
smaltine and a tin-white ore of cobalt, where it has been
mined, but with only moderate proceeds.
White nickel is a second arsenical ore ; it has a tin-white color, and
contains 20 to 28 per cent. of nickel, with 70 to 72 of arsenic. Crys-
tals cubic. From Reichelsdorf, in Hesse-Cassel, and Schneeberg, in
Saxony. Cloanthite is this species.
Placodine is a third arsenical ore, containing 57 per cent. of nickel.
Its crystals are tabular, secondaries to an oblique rhombic prism. Its
color is bronze-yellow. H=5-5.5. Gr=7.9-8.1 . From Müsen, in
Prussia.
Nickel glance is a fourtharsenical ore, occurring in cubes and mas-
sive. Color silver-white to steel-gray. Contains 28 to 30 per cent. of
nickel with arsenic and sulphur. H=5.5. Gr=6.1 . From Helsing-
land, in Sweden, and also inthe Hartz. Also at Schladming, in Aus-
tria, containing 38 per cent. of nickel, and having the specific gravity
6.6-6.9 .
Amoibite is a fifth arsenical ore, containing 14 per cent. of sul-
phur and 10 per cent. more nickel than nickel glance. Crystals mono-
metric. Gr=6:08. From Lichtenberg, in the Fichtelgebirge.
Nickel Stıbine. An antimonial sulphuret, called sometimes Nickel-
iferous antimony ore, containing 25 to 28 per cent. of nickei. Color
steel-gray, inclining to silver-white. In cubical crystals and also mas-
sive. H=5-55. Gr= 6.45. From the Duchy of Nassau.
Antimonial nickel. Contains 29 per cent. of nickel and no sulphur.

What is the crystallization and appearance of copper nickel ? of

what does it consist ? How is it distinguished from iron and cobalt py-
rites ? how from silver ores ? Where does it occur ?
 NICKEL ORES . 245

Ithasapale copper-red color, inclining to violet. H=5.5-6. Gr=

7.5. Crystals hexagonal. From the Andreasberg mountains.
Nickel pyrites, or Capillary pyrites. A brass-yellow sulphuret of
nickel, occurring usually in delicate capillary forms ; also in rhombohe-
dral crystals. Gr 5.28. Contains 64.3 per cent. of nickel. From
Bohemia, Saxony, and Cornwall. A sulphuret of iron and nickel, of
a light bronze-yellow,has been reported from southern Norway. It con-
tains 22 per cent. of nickel. Gr=4.6. A similar compound, resem-
bling iron pyrites, containing 9 per cent. ofnickel, has been observed at
Mine La Motte, Missouri, by Wm. H. King. Still another sulphu-
ret (called bismuth nickel,) contains 14 per cent. of bismuth, with 40.7
of nickel. Color light steel-gray to silver-white; often tarnished yel-
lowish . H=4.5. Gr-5.13. From the district of Altenkirchen, Prussia.
Nickel green. An arsenate of nickel, containing 36-2 per cent. of
oxyd of nickel. Color fine apple-green. Occurs with other nickel
ores in Dauphiny, Prussia, and elsewhere. It is found with copper
nickel at Chatham, Conn.

GREEN HYDRATE OF NICKEL .

Incrusting, minute globular or stalactitic. Color bright

emerald green. Luster vitreous. Transparent or nearly
80. H-3-3-25 . Gr=3.05.
It is a hydrate of nickel, containing 38.50 per cent. ofwa-
ter. Infusible before the blowpipe alone, but loses its color.
Obs. Occurs with chromic iron and carbonate ofmagne-
sia, on serpentine, in Lancaster county, Pennsylvania.
An earthy oxyd of nickel and sulphuret occurs with black
cobalt, at Mine la Motte, Missouri.
Pimelite is a clay colored by green oxyd of nickel. Klap-
roth found 15.6 per cent. in one specimen. Quartz is some-
times colored by nickel. Chyroprase is a chalcedony thus
colored.

GENERAL REMARKS ON NICKEL AND ITS ORES .

The nickel of commerce is obtained mostly from the copper nickel,

or from an artificial product called speiss, (an impure arseniuret,) de-
rived from roasting ores of cobalt with which arseniuretted nickel ores
are mixed. The oresare no where very abundant, and the most pro-
ductive are those of Saxony and Germany.
Nickel also occurs in meteoric iron, forming an alloy with the iron,
which is characteristic of most meteorites. The proportion sometimes
amounts to 15 per cent. The great Texas metrorite, now in the Yale
College collections, contains 8.8 to 9.7 per cent. of this metal.
Nickel is obtained in the pure state from the speiss, by the following

Describe the green hydrate of nickel. What is pimelite ? What

Vres afford the nickel of commerce ? Where else is it found ?
21*
246 METALS.

process, proposed by Wohler: 1 part of the ore is fused with 3 of

pearlash and 3 of sulphur. The arsenic forms a soluble compound
with the sulphur and potash, and the nickel an insoluble sulphuret.
This is well washed with water and dissolved in nitric acid ; and the
solution, after any lead, copper, or bismuth, that may be present, have
beenprecipitated by a current of sulphuretted hydrogen, is precipitated
by caustic or carbonated potash or soda. The washed precipitate is
now acted on by an excess of oxalic acid, which forms with the peroxyd
of iron, thatis generally present, a soluble, and with the oxyd of nickel
an insoluble, oxalate, which of course includes any cobalt that the ore
mayhave contained. The oxalate is nowdissolved in an excess of am-
monia, and the solution exposed to the air. As the ammonia escapes,
the nickel is deposited as an insoluble double oxalate, while the cobalt
remains dissolved as a soluble double oxalate of the metallic oxyd with
ammonia. The nickel salt, being ignited, leaves an oxyd which may
be reduced by heating with charcoal; or it maybe dissolved in acid and
again converted into oxalate, which this time is free from cobalt and
appears as an apple-green powder. The oxalate of nickel,being well
washed, dried and ignited in a closed crucible, with an aperture for the
escape of gas, leaves metallic nickel, which, if the heat be very intense,
is fused to a button. Its color is between that of silver and tin.
As nickel does not rust or oxydize, (except when heated,) it is supe-
rior to steel, for the manufacture of many philosophical instruments.
An alloy of copper, nickel, and zinc,has been much used for various
purposes, under the name ofGerman silver, or argentane. Good Ger-
mansilver consists of copper 8 parts, nickel 3, zinc 31. An inferior
article is made of copper 8, nickel 2, zinc 31. Below the proportion
of nickel last stated, the alloy approaches pale brass and tarnishes
readily, while the better kind has the appearance of silver, and retains
well its polish. It is, however, easily distinguished from silver by a
somewhat greasy feel.
But " German silver" is not a very recent discovery. In the reign
of William III, an act was passed making it felony to blanch copper in
imitation of silver, or mix it with silver for sale. " White copper" has
longbeen used in Saxony for various smallarticles; the alloy employed
is stated to consist of copper 88-00, nickel 8.75, sulphur with a little
antimony 0-75, silex, clay and iron, 1.75. A similar alloy is well known
inChina, and is smuggled into various parts of the East Indies, where
it is called packfong. It has been sometimes identified with the
Chinese tutenague. M. Meurer analyzed the white copper of China,
and found it to consist ofcopper 65-24, zinc 19-52, nickel 13, silver 2.5.
with a trace of cobalt and iron. Dr. Fyfe obtained copper 40-4, nickel
31-6, zinc 25.4, and iron 2.6. It has the color of silver, and is remark-
ably sonorous. It is worth in China about one-fourth its weight of sil-
ver, and is not allowed to be carried out of the empire.
Nickel alloyed with iron, as in meteoric iron, renders it less liable to
rust ; but with steel the tendency to rust is increased.
Articles are now plated with nickel, by galvanic precipitation from
the sulphate.

How is nickel obtained from the ore ? For what is nickel used ?
What is German silver ? What is the Chinese packfong ?
 METALS. 247

8. COBALT .

Cobalt has not been found native. The ores of cobalt

having a metallic luster, vary in specific gravity from 6.2 to
7.2; and the color is nearly tin-white or pale steel-gray, in-
clining to copper-red. The ores without a metallic luster
have a clear red or reddish color, and specific gravity of
nearly 3. The ores are remarkable for giving a deep blue
color to glass of borax, even when the proportion of cobalt
is small.
SMALTINE.-Tin-white Cobalt.
Monometric. Occurs in octahedrons, cubes, and dodeca-
hedrons, more or less modified. (See figs. 1, 2, 3, page 25,
and 32, 37, page 36.) Cleavage octahedral, somewhat dis-
tinct. Also reticulated ; often massive.
Color tin-white, sometimes inclining to steel-gray. Streak
grayish-black. Fracture granular and uneven. H-5-3-
Gr=6-4-7.2.
Composition : essentially cobalt and arsenic ; the cobalt
varies from 18 to 23.5 per cent. and the arsenic from 69 to
79 per cent. A variety contains 9 to 14 per cent. of cobalt
and is called radiated white cobalt ; another variety con.
tains bismuth.
Gives off arsenical fumes in a candle. Colors borax and
other fluxes blue, and affords a pink solution with nitric acid.
Dif. The arsenical cobalts are at once distinguished
from mispickel or white iron pyrites, by the blue color they
give with borax ; and also by their crystals and specific
gravity.
Obs. Usually in veins with ores of cobalt, silver, and
copper. Occurs in Saxony, especially at Schneeburg ; also
in Bohemia, Hessia, and Cornwall.
In the United States it is found in gneiss with copper
nickel , at Chatham, Conn .
Cobaltine. This is another arsenical ore of cobalt, containing sul-
phur as well as arsenic. Color silver-white, inclining to red. Con-
tains 33 to 37 per cent. of cobalt. Forms of crystals, figures 42, 46,
page 37. From Sweden, Norway, Siberia, and Cornwall. The most

What is said of the , ores of cobalt ? Describe tin-white cobalt ?

What is its composition ? its blowpipe characters ? How is it distin-
guished from mispickel and white iron pyrites ?
248 METALS.

productive mines are those of Wehna, in Sweden, which were first

opened in 1809.
Cobalt pyrites is a sulphuret of cobalt, ofa pale reddish or steel-gray
color. H=5.5. Gr-6-3-6-4. Crystals cubic. From Sweden, and
also Prussia; also Mine La Motte,Missouri.
Another sulphuret of cobalt, with a less proportion of sulphur than
inthe last, has been observed in Hindostan. Color steel-gray, a little
yellowish.

EARTHY COBALT.-Black oxyd of Cobalt.

Earthy, massive. Color black or blue-black. Soluble
inmuriatic acid, with an evolution of fumes of chlorine.
Obs. Occurs in an earthy state mixed with oxyd ofman-
ganese, and in Missouri has been mistaken for black oxyd
ofcopper. It is quite abundant at Mine La Motte, Missouri,
and also near Silver Bluff, South Carolina. The analyses
vary in the proportion of oxyd of cobalt associated with the
manganese, as the compound is a mere mixture. Sulphuret
of cobalt occurs with the oxyd. The Carolina ores afforded
Dr. J. L. Smith, oxyd of cobalt 24, oxyd of manganese 76.
The ore from Missouri, as analyzed by Prof. Silliman, Jr.,
afforded 40 per cent. of oxyd of cobalt, with oxyds of nickel,
manganese, iron and copper. It has also been detected
with hematite, in Chester Ridge, Pa.
This ore has been found abroad in France, Germany,
Austria, and England, but much of it contains very little
oxyd of cobalt.
Uses. The ore of Missouri is exportedto England in large
quantities, and there purified and made into smalt, for the arts.

COBALT BLOOM.-Arsenate of cobalt.

Monoclinate. In oblique crystals having ahighly perfect
cleavage and foliated structure like mica. Laminæ flexible
in one direction. Also as an incrustation, and in reniform
shapes, sometimes stellate.
Color peach and crimson red, rarely grayish or greenish ;
streak a little paler, the powder dry lavender blue. Lus-
ter of laminæ pearly ; earthy varieties withoutluster. Trans-
parent to subtranslucent. H= 1.5-2. Gr 2.95.
Composition : oxyd of cobalt 39.2, arsenic acid 37.9, wa-

What is said ofthe black oxyd of cobalt ? What is the appearance

and structure of cobalt bloom ? of what does it consist ?
 COBALT ORES . 249

ter 22-9. Gives arsenical fumes when heated, and fuses ;

yields a blue glass with borax.
The earthy ore is sometimes called peach blossom ore,
from its color ; and also red cobalt ochre.
Dif. Resembles red antimony, but that species wholly
volatilizes before the blowpipe. From red copper ore itdif-
fers in giving a blue glass with borax; moreover the color
of the copper ore is more sombre.
Obs. Occurs with ores of lead and silver, and other co-
balt ores. Schneeberg, in Saxony, Saalfield in Thuringia,
and Riegelsdorf, in Hessia, are noted European localities.
It is found also in Dauphiny, Cornwall, and Cumberland.
Occurs in the U. States, at Mine La Motte, Missouri.
Uses. Valuable as an ore of cobalt, when abundant.
Roselite. A rose-red mineral, related to, if not identical with, co-
baltbloom.
Arsenite of cobalt is a compound of arsenous acid and oxyd ofcobalt,
and results from the decomposition of other cobalt ores.
Sulphate of cobalt, or Cobalt vitriol. It has a flesh or rose-red tint,
and astringent taste. Consists of sulphuric acid, oxyd of cobalt and
water.

GENERAL REMARKS ON COBALT AND ITS ORES.

The two arsenical ores of cobalt afford the greater part of the cobalt
of commerce. The earthy oxyd is so abundant in the United States,
that it promises to be a profitable source of this metal. Cobalt is never
employed in the arts in a metallic state, as its alloys are brittle and un-
important. It is chiefly used for painting porcelain and pottery, and
is required for this purpose in the state of an oxyd, or the silicated oxyd
called smalt and azure .
Cobalt comes from Germany mostly in the silicated condition. The
zaffre is prepared by calcining the ores of cobalt in a reverberatory fur-
nace; the sulphur and arsenic are thus volatilized, and an impure oxyd
remains, which is next mixed and heated with about twice its weight
of finely powdered flints.
By another process the ore is pulverized and roasted, to expel the
greater part of the arsenic ; a sulphate is then formed by heating for
an hour with concentrated sulphuric acid. The sulphate is dissolved in
water, and asolution ofcarbonate ofpotash added to separate the iron;
and when the blue color of the cobalt begins to be thrown down, the
supernatant liquid is decanted andfiltered, and the cobalt is precipitated
by means of a solution of silicated potash, (prepared by heating to-
gether 10 parts of potash, 15 of finely pulverized quartz, and 1 of char-
coal, and afterwards treating the melted mass with boiling water.) The
silicate of cobalt thus prepared is said to be superior to that procured
How does cobalt bloom differ from red antimony ? From what ores
is the cobalt of commerce obtained ? For what is cobalt used? In
what condition is it imported from Germany ? What is zaffre ?
250 METALS .

in any other way, for staining porcelain, or for the manufacture ofblue
glass.
Smalt and azure, which have a rich blue color, are made by fusing
zaffre with glass; or by calcining a mixture of equal parts of roasted
cobalt ore; common potash, and ground glass. The zaffre is used for
coloring glass, and for painting enamel and pottery ware. The arsenic
volatilized in the above process is condensed in chambers ; it consti-
tutes the greater part of the arsenic of commerce. The separation of
the nickel from ores rich in this metal, is sometimes effected by exposing
the moistened ore to the atmosphere. The nickel is unaltered, while
the other metals are oxydized.
The annual yield of zaffre or smalt, in Saxony, amounts to 8000
cwt.; in Bohemia, mainly from Schlackenwald, 4000 cwt.; in the
Reisengebirge, in Prussia, 600 cwt.; at Kongsberg, in Norway,
4000 cwt.

9. ZINC .

Zinc occurs in combination with sulphur, oxygen, silica,

carbonic acid, and sulphuric acid. It is also found in com-
bination with alumina, constituting one variety of the spe-
cies spinel.
The ores of zinc are infusible, or very nearly so ; but
theyyield on charcoal, with more or less difficulty, white
fumes of the oxyd of zinc. Specific gravity below 4.5.
BLENDE.-Sulphuret of Zinc.
Monometric. In dodecahedrons, octahedrons, and other
allied1forms, with a perfect dodecahedral cleavage.2 Also
massive ; sometimes fibrous.
Color wax-yellow, brownish-
yellow, toblack, sometimes green E

E
or red ; streak white, to red-
dish-brown. Luster resinous or
waxy, and brilliant on acleavage
face ; sometimes submetallic.-
Transparent to subtranslucent. Brittle. H= 3.5-4. Gr=
4.0-4.1 . Some specimens become electric with friction, and
give off a yellow light when rubbed with a feather.
Composition : zinc 66-72, sulphur 33.28. Contains fre-
quently a portion of sulphuret of iron when dark colored ;
What are smalt and azure? How are they used in porcelain paint-
ing? What is said of the ores of zinc ? What is the crystallization
ofblende. What are its luster, color, and other physical characters ?
Of what does it consist }
 ZINC ORES 251

often also 1 or 2 per cent. of sulphuret of cadmium, espe.

cially the red variety. Infusible alone and with borax.
Dissolves in nitric acid, emitting sulphuretted hydrogen.
Strongly heated on charcoal yields fumes of zinc.
Dif. This ore is characterized by its waxy luster, per-
fect cleavage, and infusibility. Some dark varieties look a
little like tin ore, but their cleavage and inferior hardness
distinguish them; and some clear red crystals which re-
semble garnet are distinguished by the same characters and
also by their infusibility.
Obs. Occurs in rocks of all ages, and is associated gen-
erally with ores of lead ; often also with copper, iron, tin,
and silver ores. The lead mines of Missouri and Wiscon-
sin, afford this ore abundantly. Other localities are in
Maine, at Lubec, Bingham, Dexter, Parsonsfield ; in New
Hampshire, at Eaton, Warren, Haverhill, Shelburne ; in
Vermont, at Thetford ; in Massachusetts, at Sterling, South-
ampton, and Hatfield ; in Connecticut, at Brookfield, Berlin,
Roxbury, and Monroe ; in New York, at the Ancram lead
mine, the Wurtzboro lead vein, at Lockport, Root, 2 miles
8. E. ofSpraker's basin, in Fowler, at Clinton ; in Pennsyl-
vania, at the Perkiomen lead mine ; in Virginia, at Austin's
leadmine, Wythe county ; in Tennesse, near Powell's River,
and at Haysboro.
This ore is the Black Jack of miners.
Uses. Blende is a useful ore of zinc, though more diffi-
cult of reduction than calamine. By its decomposition,
(like that of pyrites,) it affords sulphate of zinc or white
vitriol.

RED ZINC ORE.-Red oxyd of Zinc.

Trimetric. Usually in foliated masses, or in disseminated
grains ; cleavage eminent, nearly like that of mica, but the
laminæ brittle, and not so easily separable.
Color deep or bright red; streak orange-yellow. Luster
brilliant, subadamantine. Translucent or subtranslucent.
H-4-4.5. Gr=5.4-5.56.
Composition : ore of New Jersey, oxyd of zinc 93.5, pro-
toxyd ofmanganese, 5.5, peroxyd ofiron 0.4, (Hayes.) In-
What is the action of zinc blende before the blowpipe ? How is it dis-
tinguished ? How does it occur ? What is the appearance of red zinc
ore? its composition ?
252 METALS.

fusible alone, but yields a yellow transparent glass with bo-

rax. Dissolves in nitric acid, without effervesence.
Dif. Resembles red stilbite, but distinguished by its in-
fusibility and also by its mineral associations.
Obs. Occurs with Franklinite at Franklin and Sterling,
N. J.
Uses. A good ore of zinc when abundant, and easily re-
duced. It may be readily and economically converted into
sulphate of zinc, or white vitriol.
Voltzite. A compound of sulphuret and oxyd of zinc. Occurs in
implanted globules of a dirty rose-red color, with a pearly luster on a
cleavage surface. From France.

SULPHATE OF ZINC.
- White Vitriol.

Trimetric. Cleavage perfect in one direction. Crystals

rhombic prisms, of 90° 42'.
Color white. Luster vitreous. Easily soluble ; tasteas-
tringent metallic, and nauseous. Brittle . H-2-2.5.-
Gr
-20.36.
Composition : oxyd of zinc 28.09, sulphuric acid 27.97,
water 43.94. Gives off fumes of zinc when heated on char-
coal, which cover the coal.
Obs. Results from the decomposition ofblende. Occurs
in the Hartz, in Hungary, in Sweden, and at Holywell in
•Wales .
Uses. Sulphate ofzinc is extensively employed in medi-
cine anddyeing. For these purposes it is prepared to a large
extent from blende, by decomposition like pyrites, though
this affords, owing to its impurities, an impure sulphate. It
is also obtained bydirect combination of zinc with sulphuric
acıd ; zinc is exposed to the action ofdilute sulphuric acid, and
the solution obtained is then evaporated for crystallization.
The red oxyd of zinc, ofNew Jersey, may become anabun-
dant source of this salt.
White vitriol, as the term is used in the arts, is one form
of sulphate of zinc, made by melting the crystallized sulphate,
and agitating till it cools and presents an appearance like
loafsugar.

How does it differ from red stilbite ? For what may it be used ?
What is the appearance and taste of white vitriol ? Of what does it
consist ? How is it formed ? For what is it used ?
 ZINC ORES. 253

CALAMINE.-Carbonate of Zinc.
Rhombohedral. R : R= 107' 40'. Cleavage rhombo.
nedral, perfect. Massive or incrusting ; reniform and stal-
actitic.
Color impure white, sometimes green or brown ; streak
uncolored. Luster vitreous or pearly. Subtransparent to
translucent. Brittle. H = 5. Gr= 4.3-4.45.
Composition : oxyd of zinc 64.54, (four-fifths of which is
pure zinc,) and carbonic acid 35.46. Often contains some
cadmium. Infusible alone before the blowpipe, but carbonic
acid and oxyd of zinc are finally vaporized. Effervesces in
nitric acid. Negatively electric by friction.
Dif. The effervescence with acids distinguishes this
mineral from the following species ; and the hardness, diffi-
cult fusibility, and the zinc fumes before the blowpipe, from
the carbonate of lead or other carbonates.
Obs. Occurs commonly with galena or blende, and usu-
ally incalcareous rocks. Found in Siberia, Hungary, Sile-
sia; at Bleiberg in Carinthia ; near Aix-la-Chapelle in the
Lower Rhine, and largely in Derbyshire and elsewhere in
England. In the United States, it is abundant at Vallée's
Diggings in Missouri, and at other lead " diggings" in Iowa
and Wisconsin ; also in Claiborne county,Tenn. Sparingly
also at Hamburg, near the Franklin furnace, N. J.; at the
Perkiomen lead mine, Pa., and at a lead mine in Lancaster
county ; at Brookfield, Conn.
Zinc bloom is an earthy carbonate ofzinc, containing 69 per cent. of
oxyd of zinc, and 15 ofwater. From Bleiberg, Carinthia.
ELECTRIC CALAMINE.-Silicate of Zinc.
Trimetric. In modified rhombic prisms, the opposite ex-
tremities with unlike planes. M : M= 103 ° 53'. Cleavage
perfectparallel to M. Alsomassive and incrusting,mammil-
lated or stalactitic.
Color whitish or white, sometimes bluish, greenish, or
brownish. Streak uncolored. Transparent to translucent.
Luster vitreous or subpearly. Brittle. H=4.5-5. Gr=
3.35-3.45. Pyro-electric.
What is the usualappearance ofcalamine ? What is its constitution
and the effects before the blowpipe ? What effect is produced by fric-
tion? What are distinguishing characteristics ? How does it occur ?
What is electric calamire ?
22
254 METALS.

Composition : silica 26.2, oxyd of zinc 66.4, water 7.4.

Before the blowpipe it slowly intumesces and emits a green
phosphorescent light; butalone it is infusible. Forms aclear
glass with borax. In heated sulphuric acid it dissolves, and
the solution gelatinizes on cooling.
Dif. Differs from carbonate of lime or arragonite by its
action with acids; from a salt of lead or any zeolite, by its
infusibility ; from chalcedony, by its inferior hardness and its
gelatinizing with heated sulphuric acid.
Obs. Occurs with calamine. In the United States, it is
found at Vallée's Diggings, at the Perkiomen lead mines on
the Susquehanna, opposite Selimsgrove, and abundantly at
Austin's mines, Wythe county, Va.
Uses. Valuable as an ore ofzinc.
Willemite is an anhydrous silicate of zinc, of a yellowish or brownish
color. H=5-5.5. Gr=4-4.1 . From Limburg. Alsosaid to occur
at Franklin, N. J.
Mancinite is a simple silicate of zinc, of abrown color, occurring
in plumose forms.
Hopeite is a rare mineral occurring in grayish-white crystals or mas-
sive, with calamine, and supposed to be a phosphate ofzinc.
Franklinite, an ore of iron, manganese and zinc, is described under
Iron, on page 221 .
Aurichalcite is a hydrous carbonate of zinc and copper, occurring in
drusy incrustations of acicular crystals, having a verdigris green color.
From Siberia.

GENERAL REMARKS ON ZINC AND ITS ORES.

The metal zinc (spelter of commerce) is supposed to havebeen un-

known in the metallic state to the Greeks and Romans. It has been
long worked in China, and was formerly imported in large quantities by
the East India Company. The ores from which it is obtained are the
carbonate and silicate of zinc,(calamine and electric calamine,) and to
some extent the sulphuret, (blende,) and the oxyd. Blende, the black
jack of English miners, was considered useless until the year 1738, when
amode of reducing it was introduced.
The principal mining regions of zinc in the world are in Upper Silesia
at Tarnowitz and elsewhere ; in Poland ; in Carinthia at Raibel and Blei-
berg ; in Netherlands at Limberg ; at Altenberg, near Aix-la-Chapelle
in the Prussian province of the Lower Rhine ; in England, in Derby-
shire, Alstonmoor, Mendip Hills, etc.; in the Altai in Russia ; besides
others in China, of which little is known. In the United States, the
calamine and electric calamine occur with the lead of the west in large

How is electric calamine distinguished from calc spar and chalcedony ?

From what ores is the metal zinc obtained ? What is zinc called in
commerce ? When was blende first used in England ? Where are
zinc mines in the United States ?
 ZINC ORES . 255

quantities, and till a recent period were considered worthless and thrown
aside under the name of" dry bone." In Tennessee, Claiborne county,
there are workable mines of the same ores. The red oxyd of zinc of
Franklin, New Jersey, contains 75 per cent. of pure zinc, and the ore
is a valuable one, although some difficulties attend its separation from
the associated material. Blende is sufficiently abundant to be worked
at the Wurtzboro lead mine, Sullivan county, N. Y.; at Eaton and
Warren in New Hampshire ; at Lubec in Maine ; and at Austin's mine,
Wythe county, Virginia.
The calamine and electric calamine are prepared for reduction by
breaking the ore into smallfragments,separating the impurities as far as
possible,and then calcining in a reverberatory furnace. This furnace
differs little from that figured on a following page under Silver, except
that the sole is flat. The ore is frequently stirred, and after five or six
hours it is taken out; by this process, water and carbonic acid are ex-
pelled. The prepared ore is then mixed with about one-seventh by
weight ofcharcoal,and in the English process, is reduced in large
crucibles.
Figure 1, represents a vertical section of the furnace, and figure 2,
1

C
C

d
m m m 7M

r h
1

half ofa horizontal section across the line 1, 2. The oven has an arched
orcupola top, (a,) and contains 6 or 8 crucibles or pots, (h, h, h, h,)
2

Th

m m
ん
0

placedupon the sole ofthe earth, (i, i, i, i.) The crucibles have ahole
How is calamine reduced ?
256 METALS .

atbottom, to which a sheet iron tube (k) is adapted, which tube extendi
down to small vessels ofwater, or condensers, (1, 1); and the sole of the
hearth is perforated accordingly below each crucible. Ifone of the tubes
becomes clogged with metal, it is cleared by a hot iron bar. In charg-
ing, the hole in the bottom of the crucible is stopped by a wooden plug,
which afterwards becomes reduced to charcoal by the heat. The pots
are charged and cleared out through holes (d, d, d, d) in the cupola (a.)
The covers (of fire-tile, m) are placed on whenever a blue flame begins
to appear, as this indicates the vaporization of the zinc.
The fire is made on the grate e, through the doorf; g is the ash-pit
below ; m, m, m, m, in figure 2, show the position ofthe pots as seen in
abird's-eye view. The smoke escapes from the oven by the apertures
d, (fig. 1,) into a conical chimney, (b,) by which a strong draught is
kept up. In this chimney there are as many doors (c, c, c, c) as there
are pots; and in the cupola there are the same number of openings for
Inserting or removing the pots, which are afterwards closed up by
brickwork; the pots are many times refilled without removal. The
refuse after an operation, is shaken out through the hole in the bottom
ofeach pot, after the tube k is removed.
The zincasit is reduced, rises in vapor and passes down the tubes into
the condensers, where it collects in drops or powder with some oxyd;
the metal is afterwards melted and cast into bars; and the oxyd which
is skimmed off is returned to the crucibles. A charge occupies about
three days, and the ore affords from 25 to 40 per cent. of zinc.
In Liege, where the ore from Altenberg is reduced, the ore is heated
in horizontal earthen tubes, 3 feet long and 4 to 6 inches in diameter,
set thickly across a furnace, and around which the heat circulates.
From the description given, it is obvious how the process might be
varied, and larger combinations of pots or tubes arranged.
The blende is roasted in a reverberatory furnace, 8 or 10 feet square,
the ore being placed in the furnace several inches deep, and kept con-
stantly stirred for 10 or 12 hours. The roasted ore is then reduced in
crucibles in the same manner as above explained. In England, the
roasted blende is mixed with as much calcined calamine and twice the
quantity ofcharcoal.
The annual production of zinc indifferent countries is as follows :
Great Britain, •
25,000 cwt.
Upper Silesia and Poland, 50,000 "
Aix-la-Chapelle, 35,000
Belgium, • 18,000
Carinthia, 3,400 "
Brass is made directly from the ore by heating copper with calcinea
calamine and charcoal. At Holywell, England,
England,40pounds of copper
and 60 of calamine yield about 60 pounds of brass. It is also made
from copper and roasted blende, but the product is less pure. Dr. Jack-
sonstates that he has obtained brass of an inferior quality by heating
together in a crucible copper pyrites and blende after roasting them.
Brass is commonly made in this country by melting together the metals
zinc and copper.

How is blende reduced ? How is brass made ?

 BISMUTH . 257

The proportions of zinc in its alloys with copper are given in the re-
marks oncopper. Zinc is a brittle metal,but admits ofbeing rolled into
sheets whenheated to about 212° F. In sheets it is extensively used for
roofing and other purposes, it being of more difficult corrosion, much
harder, and also very much lighter than lead. Its combustibility is a
strong objection to it as a roofing material.
The Biddery ware ofthe East Indies is made from an alloyofcopper
16oz., lead 4oz., and tin 2oz., which is melted together and then mixed
with 16oz. of spelter to every 3oz. of alloy.
The white oxyd of zinc is much used for white paint, in place of
white lead.
Animpure oxyd of zinc called cadmia, oftencollects in large quan-
tities in the flues of iron and other furnaces, derived from ores of zinc
mixed with the ores undergoing reduction. A mass weighing 600
poundswas taken from a furnace at Bennington, Vt. It has been ob-
served in the Salisbury iron furnace, and at Ancram in New Jersey,
where it was formerly called ancramite.
10. CADMIUM.

There is but a single known ore ofthis rare metal. It is .

a sulphuret, and is called greenockite. It occurs in hexago-
nal prisms, with pyramidal terminations, of a yellow color,
high luster, and nearly transparent. H= 3-3.5. Gr=
4.8-4.9. From Bishopton, Scotland.
Cadmium is often associated in small quantities with zinc
blende and calamine. In a black fibrous blende from Przi-
bram, Löwe found 1.5 to 1.8 per cent.
11. BISMUTH.

Bismuth occurs native, and also in combination with sul-

phur, tellurium, oxygen, carbonic acid and silica. The ores
fuse easily before the blowpipe, and an oxyd is produced
which stains the charcoal brownish or yellow, without rising
in fumes.* Specific gavity of the ores between 4.3 and
9.5.

What is said of the metal zinc ? What ore is there of cadmium ?

With what ores is cadmium usually associated ? What is said of bis-
muth and its ores?

•Tellurium produces a similar stain oncharcoal, but on directing the

inner flame on the coating, it colors the flar se strongly green, while
with bismuth no color is obtained. Antimony gives white fumes, pro-
ducing awhite coating on charcoal, and the flame directed on it is
colored greenish-blue.
22*
258 METALS.

NATIVE BISMUTH ,

Monometric. Cleavage octahedral, perfect. In cubes or

octahedrons generally massive, withdistinct cleavage ; some-
times granular.
Color and streak silver white, with a slight tinge of red.
Subject to tarnish. Brittle when cold, but somewhat mal-
leable when heated. H-2-2.5. Gr= 9.7-9.8. Fuses
at a temperature of 476° F.
Composition : pure bisınuth, with sometimes a trace of
arsenic. Evaporates before the blowpipe, and leaves a
yellow coating on charcoal.
Obs. Bismuth is abundant with the ores of silver and co-
balt of Saxony and Bohemia, and occurs also in Cornwall
and Cumberland, England. At Schneeberg, it forms arbo-
rescent delineations in brownjasper.
In the United States, it has been found at Lane's mine,
Monroe, where it occurs with tungsten, galena, and pyrites,
but is not abundant ; also at Brewer's mine, in Chesterfield
district, South Carolina.
There are other ores of bismuth, but none ofthem are common.
Sulphuret of bismuth. Massive and in acicular crystals, of a lead-
gray color. H-2-2.5. Gr=6.55. Contains bismuth 81 , sulphur
18.7. Fuses in the flame of a candle. From Cumberland, Cornwall,
Johanngeorgenstadt, and Sweden.
Acicular bismuth. A sulphuret of bismuth, lead, and copper, con-
taining a trace ofgold. In acicular crystals of a dark lead-gray color,
with a palecopper-red tarnish. Gr=6.1 . Fuses easily, emitting fumes
ofsulphur. From Siberia. A cupreous bismuth, of a pale lead-gray
color, contains 34.7 per cent. ofcopper.
Tetradymite. Consists of tellurium and bismuth. It has a foliated
structure, a pale steel-gray color, and soils like molybdenite. Gr=7.5.
From Schemnitz, and Retzbanya, and also from Brazil.
Bismutite. In acicular crystals and massive. Color greenish or yel-
lowish. H=445. Gr=6.8-6.9. It is a carbonate of bismuth.
From Cornwall and European mines. Bismuth ocher is another car-
bonate, occurring massive and earthy; color greenish, yellowish, or
grayish-white. From Saxony, Bohemia, and Siberia.
Bismuth blende is a silicate of bismuth. Color dark hair-brown, or
yellow. H=3.5-4.5. Gr=5.9-6.0. In dodecahedrons and mas-
sive. From Saxony.

What are the color and physical characters generally of native bis-
muth ? What is its temperature of ſusion ? With what ores is it usually
associated.
 BISMUTH. 259

GENERAL REMARKS ON BISMUTH AND ITS ORES .

The first notice of the metal bismuth is in the writings of Agricola,

in 1529. It is known in the arts under the name of tinglass, from the
French name etain de glace. It is obtained for the arts from the native
bismuth alone, and much the greater part of the metal comes from
Schneeberg in Saxony. The American mine at Monroe, Conn. , has
been but little explored, and has afforded only a few small specimens.
The metal is obtained by heating the powdered ore in a furnace, when
the bismuth melts, and separating from the gangue, is drawn off into
cast iron moulds.
Bismuth is employed in the manufacture of the best type metal, to
give a sharp, clear face to the letter. Equal parts of tin,bismuth, and
mercury form the mosaic gold used for various ornamental purposes.
Plumber's solder, used for soldering pewter wares and other purposes,
consists of 1part ofbismuth,5 of lead, and 3 of tin. Bismuth is one of
the constituents offusible metal, of which spoons are made, as toys, that
will melt on putting them into a cup ofhot tea ; this fusible alloy con-
sists of 8 parts of bismuth, 5 oflead, and 3 of tin ; or better of 10 parts
of bismuth, 5 parts of lead, and 3 of tin. It may be rendered more
fusible still by adding mercury. An alloy of tin and bismuth in equal
parts melts at 280° F. But with less bismuth tin is increased in
hardness.
The magestens of bismuth, a white hydrated oxyd precipitated by
adding water to a solution of the nitrate, is used as a cosmetic. It con-
tains a little nitric acid. Pearl powder is a similar preparation made in
the same way from a nitrate containing some chlorid of bismuth. These
powders blacken when exposed to an offensive atmosphere.
12. LEAD .

Lead occurs rarely native ; generally in combination with

sulphur ; also with arsenic, tellurium, selenium, and various
acids.
The ores of lead vary in specific gravity from 5.5-8.2.
They are soft, the hardness of the species with metallic lus-
ter not exceeding 3, and others not over 4. They are easily
fusible before the blowpipe, (excepting plumbo-resinite) ; and
with carbonate of soda on charcoal, (and often alone,) mal-
leable lead may be obtained. The lead often passes off in
yellow fumes, when the mineral is heated in the outer flame,
or it covers the charcoal with a yellow coating.
Where have we the first notice of the metal bismuth ? From what
source is it obtained for the arts ? What is it often called in the arts ?
How is the metal obtained ? For what is bismuth used ? How does
lead occur in nature ? What is said of the tests ?
260 METALS.

NATIVE LEAD .

A rare mineral, occurring in thin lanine or globules

Gr=11.35. Saidto have been seen in the lava of Madeira ;
at Alston in Cumberland with galena; in the county of
Kerry, Ireland ; and in an argillaceous rock at Carthagena.
GALENA. Sulphuret of Lead.
Monometric. Cleavage cubic, eminent. Occurs under
the form of the cube and its secondaries.
P P P
a e
e
P P P
P P P
P
6

Cleavage cubic, perfect, and very easily obtained. Also

coarse or fine granular ; rarely fibrous.
Color and streak lead gray. Luster shining metallic.
Fragile. H= 2.5. Gr= 7.5-7.7.
Composition : when pure, lead 86.55, sulphur 13.45.
Oftencontains some sulphuret of silver, and is then called
argentiferous galena, and at times sulphuret of zinc is pres-
ent. Before the blowpipe on charcoal, it decrepitates un-
less heated with caution, and fuses, giving off sulphur, and
finally yields a globule of lead.
Dif. Galena resembles some silver and copper ores in
color, but its cubical cleavage, or granular structure when
massive, will usually distinguish it. Its sulphur fumes ob-
tained before the blowpipe prove it to be a sulphuret ; and
the lead reaction before the blowpipe show it to be a lead
ore.

Obs. Galena occurs in granite, limestone, argillaceous

and sandstone rocks, and is often associated with ores of
zinc, silver and copper. Quartz heavy spar, or carbonate
of lime, is generally the gangue of the ore ; also at times
fluor spar. The rich lead mines of Derbyshire and the
northern districts ofEngland, occur in mountain limestone ;
and the same rock contains the valuable deposits ofBleiberg
Where has native lead been found ? What is the structure ofgalena ?
its physical characters ? its composition and blowpipe characters ?
How is it distinguished from silver and copper ores ? Where does it
occur ?
 LEAD ORES. 261

and the neighboring deposits of Carinthia. At Freiberg in

Saxony, it occupies veins in gneiss ; in the Upper Hartz, and
at Przibram in Bohemia, it traverses clay slate; at Sahla,
Sweden, it occurs in crystalline limestone ; the ore of Lead-
hills, England, is in graywacke. There are other valuable
beds ofgalena, in France at Poullaouen and Huelgoet, Brit-
tany, and at Villefort, department of Lozère ; in Spain in the
granite hills of Linares,in Catalonia, Grenada and else-
where ; in Savoy ; in Netherlands at Vedrin, not far from
Namur ; in Bohemia, southwest ofPrague ; in Joachimstahl,
where the ore is worked principally for its silver ; in Siberia
in the Daouria mountains in limestone, argentiferous and
worked for the silver.
The deposits of this ore in the United States are remark-
able for their extent. They abound in what has been called
" cliff limestone," in the states of Missouri, Illinois, Iowa, and
Wisconsin ; argillaceous iron, iron pyrites, calamine, (" dry
bone" of the miners,) blende, (" black jack,") carbonate
and sulphate of lead, are the most common associated min-
erals, together often with ores of copper and cobalt. In
1720, the lead mines of Missouri were discovered by Francis
Renault and M. La Motte ; and the La Motte mine is still
known by this name. Afterwards, the country passed into
the hands of the Spaniards, and during that period a valu-
able mine was opened by Mr. Burton, since called Mine à
Burton. The mines of Missouri are contained in the coun-
ties of Washington, Jefferson, and Madison.
The lead region of Wisconsin, according to Mr. D. D.
Owen, comprises 62 townships in Wisconsin, 8 in Iowa, and
10 in Illinois, being 87 miles from east to west, and 54 miles
from north to south. The ore, as in Missouri, is inexhaust-
ible, and throughout the region, there is scarcely a square
mile in which traces of lead may not be found. The prin-
cipal indications in the eyes of miners, as stated by Mr.
Owen, are the following : fragments ofcalc spar in the soil,
unless very abundant, which then indicate that the vein is
wholly calcareous or nearly so ; the red color of the soil on
the surface, arising from the ferruginous clay in which the
lead is often imbedded ; fragments of lead (" gravel mineral,")
along with the crumbling magnesian limestone, and dendritic
specks distributed over the rock ; also, a depression of the
What is said of the extent of the United States mines ?
262 METALS.

country, or an elevation, in a straight line ; or " sinkholes ;"

or a peculiarity of vegetation in a linear direction. The
"diggings" seldom exceed 25 or 30 feet in depth ; for the
galena is so abundant that a new spot is chosen rather than
the expense of deeper mining. From a single spot, not ex-
ceeding 50 yards square, 3,000,000 lbs. of ore have been
raised ; and at the diggings in the west branch ofthe Pecca-
tonica, not over 12 feet deep, two men can raise 2000 lbs.
perday; in one ofthe townships, two men raised 16,000 lbs.
in a day; 500 lbs. is the usual day's labor from the mines
ofaverage productiveness.
Galena also occurs in the region ofChocolate river and
elsewhere, Lake Superior copper region ; at Cave-in-Rock
in Illinois, along with fluor ; in New York at Rossie, St.
Lawrence county, in gneiss, in a vein 3 to 4 feet wide ; near
Wurtzboro' in Sullivan county, a largevein in millstone grit;
at Ancram, Columbia county ; Martinsburg, Lewis county,
N. Y., and Lowville, are other localities. All these mines
have been worked, but they are now abandoned. Dr. Beck
says of the Sullivan county and St. Lawrence mines, " in
the latter the ore is in small veins with good associates, and
is easily reduced ; but the situation of the mines is bad.
In the former, the ore is in large veins with bad associates,
(zinc blende,) and is more difficult of separation and reduc-
tion ; but the mines are admirably situated, whether we re-
gard the removal of the ore or the facility of transporting
produce to them."
In Maine, veins of considerable extent occur at Lubec ;
also of less interest at Blue Hill Bay, Birmingham and Par-
sonsfield. In New Hampshire, galena occurs at Eaton, Bath,
Tamworth and Haverhill. In Vermont, at Thetford ; in
Massachusetts, at Southampton, Leverett, and Sterling, but
without promise to the miner. In Virginia, in Wythe coun-
ty, Louisa county, and elsewhere. In North Carolina, at
King's mine, Davidson county, where the lead appears to be
abundant. In Tennessee, at Brown's creek, and at Hays-
boro', near Nashville. An argentiferous variety occurs
sparingly at Monroe, Conn., which afforded Prof. Silliman
by cupellation 3 per cent. of silver.
Uses. The lead of commerce is obtained from this ore.
It is often worked also for the silver it contains. It is also
employed in glazing common stone ware : for this purpose
it is ground up to an impalpable powder and mixed in water
 LEAD ORES. 263

with clay ; into this liquid the earthen vessel is dipped and
then baked.
Cuproplumbite is a galena containing 24-5 per cent. of sulphuret of
copper. From Chili.
ARSENURETS, SELENIDS, AND TELLURIDS OF LEAD.
These various ores of lead are distinguished by the fumes before the
blowpipe, and by yielding ultimately a globule oflead.
Cobaltic lead ore is an arseniuretoflead,containingatrace ofcobalt.
From the Hartz. Gives an alliaceous odor (from the arsenic) before
the blowpipe. Gr=8-44.
Dufrenoysite is an arseniuret and sulphuret of lead; in dodecahe-
drons ofadark steel-gray color. Gr=5.55 . From the Dolomite of St.
Gothard.
Clausthalite, or selenid of lead, has a lead-gray color, and granular
fracture. Gr=7-19. Gives a horse-radish odor (that of selenium) be-
fore the blowpipe. From the Hartz. There are three selenids of lead
andcopper which give the reaction of all the different constituents be-
fore the blowpipe. The sp. gr. of one is 5-6 ; of the second 7.0 ; the
third 7.4. From the Hartz. There is also a selenid of lead and mer-
cury occurring in foliated grains or masses, of a lead-gray to bluish and
iron-black color.
Tellurid of lead. This is atin-white cleavable mineral. Gr=8-16.
From the Altai mountains.
Foliated tellurium is a less rare species, remarkable for being foli-
ated like graphite. Color and streak blackish lead-gray. H=1-1.5.
Gr-7-085. It contains tellurium 32-2, lead 54.0, gold 9.0, with often
silver, copper, and some sulphur. From Transylvania.

MINIUM.- Oxyd of Lead.

Pulverulent. Color bright red, mixed with yellow. Gr=
4.6. It is a sesquioxyd of lead. Affords globules of lead
in the reduction flame ofthe blowpipe.
Obs. Occurs at various mines, usually associated with
galena, and is found abundantly at Austin's mines, Wythe
county, Virginia, with white lead ore.
Uses. Minium is the red lead of commerce : but for the
arts it is artificially prepared. Lead is calcined in a rever-
beratory furnace, and a yellow oxyd (massicot) is thus
formed: the massicot is afterwards heated in the same fur-
nace in iron trays, at a low temperature, by which the lead
absorbs more oxygen and becomes red lead. A much better
material is obtained by the slow calcination of white lead.
Plumbic ocher is another similar ore, of a yellow color ; it is a pro-
toxyd oflead. Occurs in Wythe county, Va.
What is minium ? What are its characters ?
264 METALS.

ANGLESITE.- Sulphate of Lead.

Primary form a right rhombic prism, with imperfect lat
eral cleavage. M : M=103° 49. Often in slender im-
planted crystals. Also massive ; lamellar or granular.
Color white or slightly gray or green. Luster adaman-
tine; sometimes a little resinous or vitreous. Transparent
tonearly opaque. Brittle. H=2.75-3. Gr-6.25-6.3 .
Composition : a sulphate of lead, containing about 73 per
cent. of oxyd of lead. Fuses before the blowpipe to a slag,
and yields lead with carbonate of soda.
Dif. Resembles somewhat some ofthe zeolite minerals,
and also arragonite and some other earthy species ; but this
and the other ores of lead are at once distinguished by spe-
cific gravity, and also by their yielding lead in blowpipe
trials. Differs from the carbonate of lead in not dissolving
with effervescence in nitric acid.
Obs. Usually associated with galena, and results from
its decomposition. Occurs in fine crystals at Leadhills and
Wanlockhead, Great Britain, and also at other foreign lead
mines. In the United States, it is found at the lead mines
ofMissouri and Wisconsin. It has been met with sparingly
at the Rossie lead mine ; at the Walton gold mine, Louisa
county, Va.; at Southampton, Mass.
Cupreous anglesite. A hydrous azure-blue sulphate of lead and
copper. It is remarkable for a very perfect cleavage in two directions,
inclined to one another, 95° 45′. Gr-5.3-5.5. From Leadhills and
Roughten Gill, England. Very rare.

WHITE LEAD ORE.-Carbonate of Lead.

Trimetric. In modified right rhombic prisms. M : M=
1 2 3

a P
e a

M i M M M M Σ
MM

117° 13'. M : e= 121° 24 ; a : a = 140° 15'. Often in

What is the appearance of anglesite ? its composition ? How is it

distinguished from arragonite and the zeolites ? What is the crystal-
lization of white lead ore ?
 LEAD ORES. 265

compound crystals, either six-sided prisms like arragonite, or

wheel-shaped groups of 4 or 6 rays (fig. 3.) Also massive .
rarely fibrous.
Color white, grayish, light or dark. Luster adamantine.
Brittle . H=3-3.5. Gr= 6 ・46-6.48 .
Composition : oxyd of lead 83.46, carbonic acid 16.54.
Decrepitates before the blowpipe, fuses, and with care af-
fords a globule oflead. Effervesces in dilute nitric acid.
Dif. Like anglesite, distinguished from most of the
species it resembles by its specific gravity and yielding lead
when heated. From anglesite it differs ingiving lead alone
before the blowpipe, as well as by its solution and efferves-
cence with nitric acid.
Obs. Associated usually with galena. Leadhills, Wan-
lockhead, and Cornwall, have afforded splendid crystalli-
zations ; also other lead mines on the continent of Europe.
In the United States, very handsome specimens are ob-
tained at Austin's mines, Wythe county, Virginia, and at
King's mine inDavidson's county, North Carolina. At the
latter place it constitutes a wide vein, and has been worked
for lead. It is associated with native silver and phosphate
of lead. The Perkiomen lead mine, Pa., has afforded good
crystals. It occurs also at " Vallée's Diggings," Jefferson
county, Missouri ; at Brigham's mine near the Blue Mounds,
Wisconsin ; at " Deep Diggings" in crystals ; and at other
places in the West, both massive and in fine crystallizations.
Rossie, N. Y., and Southampton, Mass., have afforded this
ore .

Uses. Whenabundant,this ore is wrought for lead. Large

quantities occur about the mines of the Mississippi valley.
It was formerly buried up in the rubbish as useless, but it
has since been collected and smelted. It is an exceedingly
rich ore, affording inthe pure state 75 per cent. of lead.
Carbonate of lead is the " white lead" of commerce, sc
extensively used as a paint. The material for this purpose
is, however, artificially made. In most manufacturing es-
tablishments, sheets oflead are suspended over a liquid made
of vinegar and wine lees, and agentle heat is applied either

Whatarethecolorand
blowpipe reaction ? Howluster ofwhite leadore?
is it distinguished fromitsanglesite
compositionand
? How
fromminerals not lead ores ? What use is made of white lead ? How
is white lead manufactured ?
23
266 METALS.

by stoves or from fermenting bark ; the result is that the lead

becomes carbonated from the acid fumes that rise from be
neath.* The carbonate is then removed by shaking the
plates smartly, and after washing and levigation, it is dried
formarket. According to another good process, (Thenard's,)
carbonic acid, either from burning coke, brewers' vats, oι
some other source,is made to pass through a solution ofsub.
acetate of lead,the solution of subacetate being formed by
digesting litharge and neutral acetate of lead. In place of
this solution, litharge moistened slightly with vinegar, has
been proposed. In the processes in the arts more litharge
is made than is demanded in trade, and this use ofit is con-
sidered more economical than its reduction to lead.
Carbonate of lead, mixed with sulphate of barytes, forms
what is called Venice white.
Carbonateand sulphate of lead. There are two whitish or grayish
ores and called
of this composition
sulphato-carbonate sulphato-tricarbonate of lead.orThe
dioxylite and leadhillite, respectively
former
contains71 per cent. ofcarbonate oflead; the latter 47. Dioxylite has
aperfectbasalcleavage. Gr-6-2-6.5. Leadhillite cleaves into lami-
ne that are flexible like gypsum. Gr=6-8-7. From Leadhills.
Caledonite is a compound of the carbonates of lead and copper and
sulphate of lead,and is called the cupreous sulphato-carbonate of lead.
Incrystals of a deep verdigris or bluish green color. Gr=6.4. From
Leadhills and Red Gill ; also from the Missouri mines.

PYROMORPHITE.-Phosphate ofLead.
Primary form, a hexagonal prism. Cleavage lateral, in
P traces. Usual in clustered hexagonal prisms,
MMM forming crusts. Also in globules, or reniform,
with a radiated structure.
Color bright green or brown ; sometimes fine
orange-yellow, owing to an intermixture with
chromateof
ofle
lead. Streak white or nearly so. Luster more
or less resinous. Nearly transparent to subtranslucent.
Brittle . H-3.5-4. Gr=6.5-7.1 .
Composition of a brown variety : oxyd of lead 78-58, mu-
riatic acid 1.65, phosphoric acid 19.73. Before the blow-
pipe on charcoal fuses, and on cooling, the globule becomes
Describe pyromorphite. Of what does it consist ?

*Asubacetate is supposed to form first,and then to be immediately

decomposed by the rising carbonic acid.
 LEAD ORES. 267

angular. In the inner flame, gives off fumes oflead. With

boracic acid and iron, gives a phosphuret ofiron and metallic
lead.
Dif. Has some resemblance to beryl and apatite ; but is
quite different in its actionbefore the blowpipe, and much
higher in specific gravity.
Obs. Leadhills, Wanlockhead, and other lead mines of
Europe are foreign localities. In the United States, very
handsome crystallized specimens occur at King's mine in
Davidson county, N. C.: other localities are the Perkiomen
lead mine near Philadelphia ; the Lubec lead mines, Me.;
Lenox, N. Y.; formerly, a mile south of Sing Sing, N. Y.;
and the Southamptonlead mine, Mass.
The name pyromorphite is from the Greek pur, fire, and
morphe, form, alluding to its crystallizing on cooling from
fusion before the blowpipe.
Mimetene. An arsenate of lead, resembling pyromorphite in crys-
tallization, but giving a garlic odor on charcoal before the blowpipe.
Color pale-yellow, passing into brown. H=2.75-3.5. Gr= 6.41 .
From Cornwall and elsewhere..
Hedyphane. An arseno-phosphate of lead and lime, containing 2
per cent. ofchlorine. It occurs amorphous, of a whitish color, and ada-
inantine luster. H=3.5-4. Gr=54-5.5. From Sweden.

CROCOISITE. Chromate of Lead.

Occurs in oblique rhombic prisms, massive, of a bright
red color and translucent. Streak orange-yellow. H=
2.5-3. Gr=6 .
Composition : chromic acid 31.85, protoxyd oflead 68.15.
Produces a yellow solution in nitric acid. Blackens and
fuses before the blowpipe, and forms a shining slag contain-
ing globules of lead.
Obs. Occurs in gneiss at Beresof in Siberia, and also in
Brazil. This is the chrome yellow of the painters. It is
made in the arts by adding to the chromate of potash in so-
lution, a solution of acetate or nitrate of lead. The chro-
mate of potash is usually procured by means of the ore
chromic iron, which see, (p. 223.)
Melanochroite is another chromate of lead, containing 23.64 of chro-
mic acid, and having a dark red color ; streak brick red. Crystals
usually tabular and reticulately arranged. Gr=5-75. From Siberia.

How is pyromorphite distinguished from beryl and apatite ? What is

the color of chromate of lead ? its composition ? What is it called in
the arts, and how used ?
268 METALS.

Vauquelinite is a chromate oflead and copper, of a very dark green

pearlyblack color, occurring usually in minute irregularlyaggregated
orpearlyblack
crystals; also reniform and massive. H=2.5-3. Gr - 5-5-5-8.
From Siberia and Brazil. It has been found by Dr. Torrey at the lead
minenear Sing Sing, in green and brownish-green mammillary concre-
tions, and also nearly pulverulent.
Cerasite. A chlorid of lead. Color white, yellowish or reddish,
nearly opaque. Luster pearly. Gr=7-7.1. Contains lead 83, chlo
rine 14. From Mendip Hills, Somersetshire. Cotunnite is another
chlorid of lead, occurring atVesuvius in white acicular crystals. It con-
tains 74.5 per cent. of lead.
Corncous lead. A chloro-carbonate of lead, occurring in whitish
adamantine crystals. Gr=6-6.1. From Derbyshire and Germany.
Also said to occur at the Southampton lead mine, Massachusetts.
Molybdate of lead. In dull-yellow octahedral crystals, and also
Imassive. Luster resinous. Contains molybdic acid 34-25, protoxyd
of lead 64.42. From Bleiberg and elsewhere in Carinthia; also Hun-
gary. It has been found in small quantities at the Southampton lead
mine, Mass., and also the Perkiomen lead mine, Penn.
Selenate of lead. A sulphur-yellow mineral, occurring in small
globules, and affording before the blowpipe on charcoal agarlic odor,
and finally a globule oflead.
Vanadinite. A vanadate of lead, occurring in hexagonal prisms
like pyromorphite, and also in implanted globules. Color yellow to
reddish brown. H=2.75. Gr=6.6-7.3. From Mexico ; also from
Wanlockhead in Dumfriesshire .
Tungstate of lead. In square octahedrons or prisms. Color green,
gray, brown, or red. Luster resinous. H=2.5-3. Gr=7-9-8-1 .
Contains 52 of tungstic acid and 48 oflead.
Plumbo-rcsinite. In globular forms, having a luster somewhat like
gum arabic, and a yellowish or reddish-brown color. H=44.5.
Gr=6.3-6.4. Consists of protoxyd of lead 40.14, alumina 37.00,
water 18.8. From Huelgoet in Brittany,and at alead mine in Beaujeu ;
also from the Missouri mines, with black cobalt.
GÈNERAL REMARKS ON LEAD AND ITS ORES.
The lead of commerce is derived almost wholly from the sulphuret
oflead or galena,the localities of which have already been mentioned.
This ore is reduced usually by heatalone in a reverberatory furnace.
The process consists simply in burning out the sulphur after the ore is
picked, pounded and washed. The galena is kept at a heat below that
required for its fusion, and air is freely admitted to aid in the combus-
tion. The sulphur is driven off, leaving the pure lead, or an oxyd formed
in the process which passes to the state ofa slag. The latter is heated
again with charcoal, which separates the oxygen. A portion of quick-
lime is often added to stiffen the slag. In England, the whole ope-
ration of a smelting shift takes about 44 hours, and four periods may
be distinguished :-The first fire for roasting the ores, which requires
What is the source of the lead of commerce ? How is the ore
reduced ?
 LEAD ORES . 269

very moderate firing, and lasts two hours ; the second fire for smelt-
ing, requiring a higher heat with shut doors, and at the end the slags
are dried up with lime, and the furnace is also allowed to cool a little ;
the third and fourth fires, also for smelting, requiring a still higher
temperature.
A furnace for using the hot blast with lead has been contrived. The
heatedblast is made to diffuse itself equally through the whole " charge,"
carrying with it the flame of the burning fuel, and the reduction of the
ore is effected with an economy and dispatch hitherto unknown in the
processes of reducing this metal.*
According to another mode which has been practised in Germany
and France, old iron (about 28 per cent.) is thrown into the melted ore,
heated in a reverberatory furnace ofsmall size ; the iron acts by absorb-
ing the sulphur, and the lead thus reduced flows into the bottom of the
basin. There is here a gain of time and labor, but a total loss of the
iron.
The mode of obtaining the silver from lead ore, is mentioned under
Silver.

The principal mines of lead in the world are mentioned under Galena.
The following is a statement of the approximate amount of lead pro-
duced by the mines of Europe:
Great Britain and Sweden and Norway, 500 cwt. "
Ireland, •
1,000,000 cwt. Prussia, 71,000
250,000 "
"

Spain, Germany,. 96,000

"
Austria, 64,000 " Belgium, •
4,000
"
Russiaand Poland, 10,000 Piedmont and Switz-
“
France, 4,700 " erland, 4,000
The mines of the Upper Mississippi afforded the seven years from
1841 to 1847, as shown by the amount received at St. Louis,-t
1841, 463,404 pigs, about 70 lbs. 1845, 757,906 pigs
" " "
1842 , 473,599 1846, 763,289
" " "
1843, 581,431 1847, 767,656
" "
1844, 621,900 :

The lower or Missouri mines yielded in 1846, about 145,000 pigs ;

and in 1847, only 125,000 pigs. The Missouri lead region is more ex-
tensive than that of the upper mines,but the latter have greater facili-
ties of exportation. The metal at St. Louis brings about 4 cents a
pound, and at Galena halfa cent less.

What other method is mentioned ? What country affords the largest

amount of lead at the present time, and how much ? What was the
yield of the mines of the Upper Mississippi in 1847 ? What of the Lower
or Missouri mines ?

* See Amer. Jour. Sci., xlii , p. 169 .

† From a letter to the author,by H. King, of St. Louis. The amount
received at St. Louis varies somewhat each year, with the state of
navigation.
23*
270 METALS .

13. MERCURY

Mercury occurs native, alloyed with silver, and in coml -

nation with sulphur, chlorine, or iodine. Its ores are com
pletely volatile, excepting the one containing silver.
NATIVE MERCURY.

Monometric ; in octahedrons. Occurs in fluid globules

scattered through the gangue. Color tin-white. Gr=13.6.
Becomes solid and crystallizes at a temperature of-39° F.
Mercury, or quicksilver as it is often called,(atranslation
ofthe old name " argentum vivum,") is entirely volatile be-
fore the blowpipe, and dissolves readily in nitric acid.
Obs. Native mercury is a rare mineral, yet is met with
at the different mines of this metal, at Almaden in Spain,
Idria in Carniola,(Austria,) and also in Hungary and Peru.
It is usually indisseminated globules, but is sometimes ac-
cumulated in cavities so as to be dipped up in pails.
Uses. Mercury is used for the extraction of gold and sil-
ver ores, and is exported in large quantities to South Amer-
ica. It is also employed for silvering mirrors, for thermome.
ters and barometers, and for various purposes connected with
medicine and the arts.
NativeAmalgam. This mineral is a compound of mercury and sil-
ver, containing 64 to 72 per cent. of mercury, and occurring in silver-
white dodecahedrons. H=2-2.5. Gr= 10.5-14. Principally from
the Palatinate; also from Hungary and Sweden. The arqucrite of
Berthier isanamalgam from Coquimbo, containing only 13.5 per cent.
of silver.

CINNABAR. Sulphuret of Mercury.

Rhombohedral. R : R-71° 47′. Cleavage transverse,
highly perfect. Crystals often_tabular, or six-sided prisms.
Also massive, and in earthy coatings.
Luster unmetallic, adamantine in crystals ; often dull.
Color bright red to brownish-red, and brownish-black.
Streak red. Subtransparent to nearly opaque. H-2-2.5.
Gr
-6-7-8-2. Sectile .
Composition : when pure, mercury 86.29, sulphur 13-71 ;

In what condition does mercury occur ? What is a characteristic of

its ores ? Describe native mercury ? Where is it found ? For what
is it used ? What are the physical characters of cinnabar ?
 ORES OF MERCURY. 271

but often contains impurities. The liver ore, or hepatic cin-

nabar, contains some carbon and clay, and has a brown.
ish streak and color. The pure variety volatilizes entirely
before the blowpipe.
Dif. Distinguished from red oxyd of iron and chromate
of iron by evaporating before the blowpipe ; from realgar
bygiving off on charcoal no allicaceous fumes.
Obs. Cinnabar is the ore from which the principal part
of the mercury of commerce is obtained. It occurs mostly
in connection with talcose and argillaceous shale, or other
stratified deposits, both the most ancient and those of more
recent date. The mineral is too volatile to be expected in
any abundance in proper igneous or crystalline rocks, yet
has been found sparingly in granite. The principal mines
are at Idria in Austria, Almaden in Spain, in the Palatinate
onthe Rhine, and at Huanca Velica in Peru. Mercury oc-
curs also at Arqueros in Chili, at various places in Mexico,
inHungary, Sweden, at severalpoints inFrance, and at Ripa,
in Tuscany; also in China and Japan. A large mine has
beendiscovered in Upper California. See Appendix, p. 432.
Uses. This ore is the principal source ofthe mercury of
commerce. It is also used as a pigment, and as acoloring
ingredient for red sealing wax, and it is called in the shops
vermillion. It is prepared in the arts by first making the
black sulphuret of mercury, (or Ethiops mineral.) This
may be done by heating together the requisite sulphur and
mercury. This sulphuret is then heated in clay vessels,
with certain precautions, and the vermillion-a bisulphuret
-is finally formed and incrusts the clay vessels, which are
broken to remove it. To obtain a good product requires at-
tention to many circumstances. Another process is to tri-
turate together mercury (300 parts) and sulphur (114,) after
awhile adding potash lye (equal to 75 parts ofcaustic pot-
assa,) and continuing the trituration until the black sulphuret
is formed. Then heat the mixture with care, to 130° F. in
iron vessels.
The vermillion of commerce is often adulterated with red
lead, dragon's blood and realgar. Its entire volatility, with-
out odorous fumes, will distinguish the pure material.
Horn Quicksilver, (chlorid of mercury.) A tough, sectile ore, of a

Of what does cinnabar consist ? Where are the principal mines?

For what is it used ?
272 METALS.

light yellowish or grayish color, and adamantine luster, translucent on

subtranslucent, crystallizing in secondaries to a square prism. H= 1-
2. Gr=6.48. It contains 85 per cent. of mercury.
Iodic Mercury is a still rarer ore from Mexico. Color reddish-brown.
Selenid of mercury, a dark steel-gray ore, which is wholly evapo-
rated before the blowpipe. Occurs in Mexico near San Onofre.

GENERAL REMARKS ON THE ORES OF MERCURY .

The mines of Idria were discovered in 1497. The mining is carried
on ingalleries, as the rock is too fragile to allow of large chambers.
The ore is obtained at a depth of about 750 feet, and is mostly a bitu-
minous cinnabar, disseminated through the rock along with native mer-
cury. The latter is in some parts so abundant that when the earthy
rock is fresh broken, large globules fall out and roll to the bottom of the
gallery. The pure mercury is first sifted out; the gangue is then
washed, and prepared for reduction. For this purpose there is a large
circular building, 40 feet in diameter by 60 in height, the interior of
which communicates through small openings with a range of chambers
around, each 10 or 12 feet square, and having a door communicating
with the external air. The central chamber is filled with earthen pans,
containing the prepared earth, the whole is closed up and heat is ap-
plied. The mercury sublimes and is condensed in the cold air of the
smaller chambers, whence it is afterwards removed. After filtering, it
is ready for packing. These mines afford annually 3000 cwt.
The above mode of reduction is styled by Ure " absolutely barba-
rous." He observes that the brick and mortar walls cannot be ren-
dered either tight or cool ; and that the ore ought to be pounded, and
thenheated in a series of cast-iron cylinder retorts, after being mixed
with the requisite proportion of quicklime, (the lime aiding in the re-
duction of the cinnabar by taking its sulphur,) and the retorts should
communicate with a trough through which a stream of water passes,
for the purpose of condensing the mercury. An apparatus of this kind
planned by Ure, is used at Landsberg, in Rhenish Bavaria.
The mines of the Palatinate, on the Rhine, and those of other parts
ofGermany, are stated by Burat to yield 7.600 quintals.
The mines of Almaden are situated near the frontier of Estremadu-
ra, in the province of La Mancha. They have been worked from a
remote antiquity. According to Pliny, the Greeks obtained vermillion
from them 700 years before our era, and afterwards imported annually
100,000 pounds. The mines are not over 300 yards in depth, although
so long worked. The rock is argillaceous schist and grit, in horizontal
beds, which are intersected by granitic and black porphyıy eruptions.
The mass of ore at the bottom of the principal vein, is 12 to 15 yards
thick, and yields in the aggregate 10 per cent. of mercury. It is taken
to the furnace without any kind of mechanical preparation. There are
many veins in the vicinity, several of which have been explored. The
furnaces of Almadenejos are fed almost exclusively by an ore obtained
just east of the village, which is a black schist, strongly impregnated

What is said of the Idria mines ? How is the ore reduced ? What
is a better process ? What is said of the mines of Almaden ?
 COPPER ORES 273

with native mercury and cinnabar, with but little visible. These mines
afford annually about 20.000 cwt. of mercury. The granitic and por-
phyritic eruptions of the region have been supposed to account for the
presence of the mercury in the rocks: the heat produced exhalations
of mercury and sulphur, which gave origin both to the cinnabar and the
native mercury.
The mines of Huanca Velica, in Peru, have afforded a large amount
of mercury for amalgamation at the Peruvian silver mines. Between
the years 1570 and 1800, they are estimated to have produced 537.000
tons; and their present annual yield is 1800 quintals.
The Chinese have mines of cinnabar in Shensi, where the ore is re-
duced by the rude process of burning brushwood in the wells or pits
dug out for the purpose, and then collecting the metal after condensa-
tion.

14. COPPER .

Copper occurs native in considerable quantities ; also

combined with oxygen, sulphur, selenium, and various acids.
The ores of copper vary in specific gravity from 3.5 to 8.5,
and seldom exceed 4 in hardness. Many of the ores give to
borax a green color in the outer flame, and an opaque dull-
red in the inner. With carbonate of soda on charcoal,
ncarly all the ores are reduced, and aglobule of copper ob-
tained; borax and tin foil are required in some cases where
acombination with other metals conceals the copper. When
soluble in the acids, aclean plate of iron inserted in the so-
lution becomes covered with copper, and ammonia produces
a blue solution.
NATIVE COPPER .

Monometric. In octahedrons ; no cleavage apparent.

Often in plates or masses, or arborescent and filiform shapes.
Color copper-red. Ductile and malleable. H=2.5-3.
Gr
-8-58.
Native copper often contains a little silver, disseminated
throughout it. Before the blowpipe it fuses readily, and on
cooling it is covered with a black oxyd. Dissolves in ni-
tric acid, and produces a blue solution with ammonia.
Obs. Native copper accompanies the ores ofcopper, and
usually occurs in the vicinity of dikes of igneous rocks.

How does copper occur ? How are copper ores distinguished ? What
are the characters of native copper ?
274 METALS.

Siberia, Cornwall, and Brazil, are noted for the copper

they have produced. A mass supposed to be from Bahia,
now at Lisbon, weighs 2616 pounds. The vicinity of lake
Superior is one of the most extraordinary regions in the
world for its native copper, where it occurs mostly in ver-
tical seams in trap, and also inthe enclosing sandstone. A
mass weighing 3704 lbs. has been taken fromthence to Wash-
ington city : it is the same that was figured by Schoolcraft,
in the American Journal of Science, volume iii, p. 201.
Masses from 1000 to 3700 pounds, from this region, have
been exposed on the wharves of Boston, Mass. This is
small compared with other pieces which have since been
laid open. One large mass was quarried out in the "Cliff
mine," whose weight has been estimated at 80 tons. It was
50 feet long, 6 feet deep, and averaged 6 inches in thickness.
This copper contains intimately mixed with it about per
cent. ofsilver. Besides this, perfectly pure silver, in strings,
masses, and grains, is often disseminated through the cop-
per, and some masses, when polished, appear sprinkled with
large white spots of silver, resembling, as Dr. Jackson ob
serves, a porphyry with its feldspar crystals. Crystali
ofnative copper are also found penetrating masses of preh
nite, and analcime, in the trap rock.
This mixture of copper and silver cannot be imitated by
art, as the two metals form an alloy when melted together.
It is probable that the separation, in the rocks, is due to the
cooling from fusion being so extremely gradual as to allow
the two metals to solidify separately, at their respective
temperatures of solidification-the trap being an igneous
rock, and ages often elapsing, as is well known, during the
cooling ofabed of lava, covered from the air.
Small specimens of native copper have been found in the
states of New Jersey, Connecticut, and Massachusetts, where
the same formation occurs. One mass from near Somerville
weighs 78 pounds, and is said originally to have weighed
128 pounds. Near New Haven, Conn.,amass of90 pounds
was formerly found. Near Brunswick, N. J., a vein. or sheet
ofcopper, from a sixteenth to an eighth of an inch thick,
has been observed and traced along for several rods.

Where has native copper been found in the United States ? What
is said of its associations with silver ? What explanation is given of
this mixture of copper and silver ?
 COPPER ORES. 275

VITREOUS COPPER ORE .

Trimetric. Cleavage parallel to the faces ofa right rhom-

bic prism, but indistinct. M : M=119 ' 35'. Secondary
forms, variously modified rhombic prisms. Also in com-
pound crystals like arragonite ; often massive.
Color and streak blackish lead-gray, often tarnished blue
or green. Streak sometimes shining. H=2.5-3. Gr=
5.5-5.8.
Composition : sulphur 20.6, copper 77.2, iron 1.5. Be-
fore the blowpipe it gives off fumes of sulphur, fuses easily
in the external flame, and boils. After the sulphur is driven
off, aglobule of copper remains. Dissolves in heated nitric
acid, with a precipitation of the sulphur.
Dif. The vitreous copper ore resembles vitreous sil-
ver ore ; but the luster of a surface of fracture is less bril-
liant, and they afford different results before the blowpipe.
The solution made by putting a piece of the ore in nitric
acid, covers an iron plate (or knife blade) with copper, while
a similar solution of the silver ore covers a copper plate
with silver.
Obs. Occurs with other copper ores inbeds and veins.
At Cornwall, splendid crystallizations occur. Siberia, Hesse,
Saxony, the Bannat, Chili, &c., afford this ore.
In the United States, a vein affording fine crystallizations
occurs at Bristol, Conn. Other localities are at Wolcott-
ville, Simsbury, and Cheshire, Conn.; at Schuyler's Mines,
and elsewhere, N. J.; in the U. S. copper mine district,
Blue Ridge, Orange county, Virginia ; between New Mark-
et and Taneytown, Maryland ; and sparingly at the copper
mines of Michigan and the Western states ; abundantly at
some mines north of Lake Huron .
Blue Copper is adull blue-black massive mineral. Gr=3.9-. It
contains 65 per cent. of copper.
Digenite is a dark lead-gray sulphuret containing 70-2 per cent. of
copper. Gr= 4.6-4.68. Streak black. From Chili, and also Thu-
ringia.

COPPER PYRITES.-Sulphuret of Copper and Iron.

Dimetric. Crystals tetrahedral or octahedral ; sometimes

What are the physical characters of vitreous copper ? its constitution

and chemical characters ? How does it differ from silver ores ?
276 ΜΕΤΑΙ 8.

compound. A : A=109° 53', and 108° 40'. Cleavage in.

1 2
distinct. Also massive,
and of various imitative P

A
shapes.
A Color brass-yellow, A A
often tarnished deep yel- e
low, and also iridescent.
Streakunmetallic, greenish-black, and e
A
but little shining. H=3.5-4. Gr= A
4.15-4.17.
Composition : sulphur 36.3, copper
32-1, iron 31.5. Fuses before the blowpipe to a globule
which is magnetic, owing to the iron present. Gives sul-
phur fumes on charcoal. With borax affords pure copper
The usual effect with nitric acid.
Dif. This ore resembles native gold, and also iron py
rites. It is distinguished from gold by crumbling when it in
attempted to cut it, instead ofseparating in slices ; and fron
iron pyrites in its deeper yellow color and in yielding easily
to the point of a knife, instead of striking fire with a steel.
Obs. Copper pyrites occurs in veins in granitic and al.
lied rocks; also in graywacke, &c. It is usually associated
with iron pyrites, and often with galena,blende, and carbon.
ates ofcopper. The copper of Fahlun, Sweden, is obtained
mostly from this ore, where it occurs with serpentine in
gneiss. Other mines of this ore are in the Hartz, near
Goslar; in the Bannat, Hungary, Thuringia, &c. The
Cornwall ore is mostly of this kind, and 10 to 12,000 tons
of pure copper are smelted annually. The ore for sale at
Redruth is said to be by no means a rich ore. It rarely
yields 12 per cent. and generally only 7 or 8, and occasion-
ally as little as 3 to 4 per cent. ofmetal. Inthe latter case
such poverty of ore is only made up by its facility of trans-
port, the moderate expense of fuel, or the convenience of
smelting. Its richness may generally be judged of from the
color : if of a fine yellow hue, and yielding readily to the
hammer, it is a good ore ; but ifhard and pale yellow it con-
tains very largely of iron pyrites, and is of poor quality.
In the United States there are many localities of this ore.
What forms are presented by copper pyrites ? What is its color and
streak ? its composition ? How is it distinguished from iron pyrites and
gold ? What is said of the modes of occurrence of this ore and of its
mines?
 COPPER ORES. 277

It occurs in Massachusetts, at the Southampton lead mines,

at Turner's Falls on the Connecticut, at Hatfield and Ster.
ling ; in Vermont, at Strafford, where it is now profitably
worked, and at Shrewsbury, Corinth, Waterbury ; in New
Hampshire, at Franconia, Shelburn, Unity, Warren, Eaton,
Lyme, Haverhill ; in Maine, at the Lubec lead mines, and
Dexter ; in New York, at the Ancram lead mine, also near
Rossie, and at Wurtzboro ; in Pennsylvania, at Morgantown ;
in Virginia, at the Phenix copper mines, Fauquier county,
and at the Walton gold mine, Luzerne county ; in Maryland,
in the Catoctin mountains, between Newmarket and Taney-
town ; in North Carolina, in Davidson and Guilford coun-
ties. In Michigan, where native copper is so abundant, this
is a rare ore ; but it occurs at Presque isle, at Mineral Point,
and in Wisconsin, where it is the predominating ore.
The ore of Strafford, Vt., is at the present time carried to
Boston.
Uses. This ore, besides being mined for copper, is ex-
tensively employed in the manufacture of blue vitriol (sul-
phate of copper,) in the same manner that sulphate of iron
(copperas) is obtained from iron pyrites.
Cuban is a sulphuret of copper and iron, containing sulphur 34-8,
iron 42.5, copper 23.0.
VARIEGATED COPPER PYRITES .

Monometric. Cleavage octahedral, in traces. Occurs in

cubes and octahedrons. Also massive.
Color between copper-red and pinchbeck-brown. Tar-
nishes rapidly on exposure. Streak pale grayish-black and
but slightly shining. Brittle. H=3. Gr=5.
Composition : specimen from Bristol, Conn., sulphur 25.7,
copper 62.8, iron 11.6. Fuses before the blowpipe to a
globule attractable by the magnet. On charcoal affords
fumes of sulphur. Mostly dissolved in nitric acid.
Dif. This ore is distinguished from the preceding by its
pale reddish-yellow color.
Obs. Occurs with other copper ores, in granitic and al-
lied rocks, and also in secondary formations. The mines
of Cornwall have afforded crystallized specimens, and it is
there called from its color " horse-flesh ore." Other foreign

What is the appearance and composition of variegated copper py-

rites ? How is it distinguished from the preceding species ?
24
278 METALS .

localities of massive varieties are Ross Island, Killarney,

Ireland ; Norway, Hessia, Silesia, Siberia, and the Bannat.
Fine crystallizations occur at the Bristol copper mine,
Conn., in granite ; and also in red sandstone, at Cheshire, in
the same state, with malachite and heavy spar. Massive va-
rieties occur at the New Jersey mines, and in Pennsylvania.
GRAY COPPER ORE .

Monometric. Occurs in modified tetrahedrons, and also

incompound crystals. Cleavage octahedral in traces.
Color between steel-gray and
iron-black. Streak nearly as the
color. Rather brittle. H=3-
4. Gr-4-75-5-1 .
Composition : sulphur 26-3,
copper 38-6, antimony 16.5, arsenic 7.2, along with some
iron, zinc, and silver, amounting to 15 per cent. It some-
times contains 30 per cent. of silver in place of part of the
copper, and is then called argentiferous gray copper ore, or
silver fahlerz. The amount of arsenic varies from 0 to 10
per cent. One variety from Spain included 10 per cent. of
platinum, and another from Hohenstein some gold ; another
from Tuscany 2.7 per cent. of mercury.
These varieties give off, before the blowpipe, fumes of ar-
senic and antimony, and after roasting yield a globule ofcop-
per. Dissolve, when pulverized, in nitric acid, affording a
brownish-green solution.
Dif. Its copper reactions before the blowpipe and in so-
lution in nitric acid, distinguish it from the gray silver ores.
Obs. The Cornish mines, Andreasberg in the Hartz,
Kremnitz in Hungary, Freiberg in Saxony, Kapnik in
Transylvania, and Dillenberg in Nassau, afford fine crystal-
lizations of this ore . It is a common ore in the Chilian
mines, and it is worked there and elsewhere for copper, and
often also for silver.

Bournonite contains sulphur 20-3, antimony 26-3, lead 40.8, copper

12.7. Its crystals are modified rectangular prisms, of a steel-gray color
and streak, and are often compounded into shapes like a cog-wheel,
whence it is called wheel- ore . H=2.5-3 . Gr=5· 766. From the
Hartz , Transylvania, Saxony, and Cornwall. Another allied ore, con-
taining 47 per cent. of antimony, is called antimonial copper; it oc-
Describe gray copper ore. Mention its composition and blowpipe
characters. How is it distinguished from silver ores ?
 COPPER ORE . 279

curs in slender aggregated prisms, ofadark ead-gray color. Another

containing also arsenic, is called antimonial copper glance.
Tennantite is a compound of copper, iron, sulphur, and arsenic. It
occurs in dodecahedral crystals, brilliant, with a dark lead-gray color,
and reddish-gray streak. From the Cornish mines near Redruth and
St. Day.
Selenid of Copper, is a silver-white ore, affording the horse-radish
odor of selenium before the blowpipe. It contains 64 per cent. ofcop-
per. From Skrikerum, Sweden.

RED COPPER ORE .

Monometric. In regular octahedrons, and modified forıns

of the same. Cleavage octahedral. Also massive, and
1 2
sometimes earthy.
Color deep red, of various
e shades. Streak brownish-red. E E
A A
Luster adamantine or submetal-
0 E E
AA lic ; also earthy. Subtranspa- E E

rent to nearly opaque. Brittle.

H-3.5-4 . Gr=6 .
Composition : copper 88.88, oxygen 12. Before the blow-
pipe, on charcoal, it yields a globule of copper. Dissolves
in nitric acid. The earthy varieties have been called tile
ore, from the color.
Dif. From cinnabar it differs in not being volatile before
the blowpipe ; and from red iron ore, in yielding a bead of
copper on charcoal, and copper reactions.
Obs. Occurs with other copper ores in the Bannat, Thur-
ingia, Cornwall, at Chessy near Lyons, in Siberia, and Bra-
zil. The octahedrons are often green, from a coating of
malachite .
In the U. States, it has been observed crystallized and
massive, at Schuyler's, Somerville, and the Flemington cop.
per mines, N. J.; also near New Brunswick, N. J.; at
Bristol, Ct.; also near Ladenton, Rockland county, N. Y.
Black Copper. Tenorite. An oxyd of copper, occurring
as ablack powder and in dull black masses, and botryoidal
concretions, in veins or along with other copper ores- From
Cornwall, and also the Vesuvian lavas. It is an abundant
ore in some of the copper mines of the Mississippi valley,
and yields 60 to 70 per cent. of copper. But part of what
What is the crystallization of red copper ore ? Of what does it con.
sist ? How does it differ from cinnabar and red iron ore ?
280 METALS.

was considered black copper in the west is an ore ofcobalt.

If absolutely pure, it contains 80 per cent. of copper. It is
also found of excellent quality in large veins, in the Lake
Superior copper region.
The oxyds of copper are easily smelted by heating with
the aid of charcoal alone. They may be converted directly
into the sulphate or blue vitriol, by means of sulphuric acid,
but are more valuable for the copper they afford.
BLUE VITRIOL.-Sulphate of Copper.
Triclinate. In oblique rhomboidal prisms. Also as an
efflorescence or incrustation.
Color deep sky-blue. Streak uncolored. Subtransparent
to translucent. Luster vitreous. Soluble, taste nauseous
and metallic. H=2-2.5. Gr=2.21 .
Composition : sulphuric acid 31-7, oxyd of copper, 32-1,
water 36.2. A polished plate of iron in a solution becomes
covered with copper.
Obs. Occurs with the sulphurets ofcopper as a result of
their decomposition, and is often in solution in the waters
flowing from copper mines. Occurs in the Hartz, at Fahlun
in Sweden, and in many other copper regions.
Uses. Blue vitriol is much used in dyeing operations and
in the printing of cotton and linen; also for various other
purposes in the arts. It has been employed to prevent dry
rot, by steeping wood in its solution : and it is a powerful
preservative ofanimal substances ; when imbued with it and
dried, they remain unaltered. It is afforded by the decom-
position of copper pyrites, in the same manner as green vit-
riol from iron pyrites. (p. 213.)
It is manufactured for the arts from old sheathing copper,
copper turnings, and copper refinery scales. The scales are
readily dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid at the temperature
ofebullition ; the solution obtained is evaporated to the point
where crystallization will take place on cooling. Metallic
copper is exposed in hot rooms to the atmosphere after it has
been wet in weak sulphuric acid. By alternate wetting and
exposure, it is rapidly corroded, and affords a solution which

What is blue vitriol ? Describe it. What is said of its mode of oc-
currence ? For what is it used? How is it manufactured in the arts?
How is copper obtained from solutions in some mines ? Describe
greenmalachite.
 COPPER ORES . 281

is evaporated for crystals. 400,000 lbs. is the annual con-

sumption of blue vitriol in the United States.
In Frederick county, Maryland, blue vitriol is made from
a black earth which is an impure oxyd of copper with cop-
per pyrites. The black oxyd of copper, which was found
in the Lake Superior copper region,may be directly con-
verted into blue vitriol.
In some mines, the solution of sulphate of copper is so
abundant as to afford considerable copper, which is obtained
by immersing clean iron in it, and is called copper ofcemen.
tation. Atthe copper springs of Wicklow, Ireland, about 500
tons of iron were laid at one time in the pits ; in about 12
months the bars were dissolved, and every ton of iron yielded
aton and a half, and sometimes nearly two tons, of a pre-
cipitated reddish mud, each ton of which produced 16 cwt.
of pure copper. The Rio Tinto Mine in Spain, is another
instance of working the sulphate in solution. These waters
yield annually 1800 cwt. of copper, and consume 2400 cwt.
of iron.
Brochantite. An insoluble sulphate of copper, containing 17.5 per
cent. of sulphuric acid. Color emerald green. In tabular rhombic crys-
tals, at Katherinenberg, in Siberia. Blackens before the blowpipe with.
out fusing. Krisuvigite and Konigite are the same species.

GREEN MALACHITE.-Green Carbonate of Copper.

Monoclinate. Usual in incrustations, with a smooth tube-
rose, botryoidal or stalactitic surface ; structure finely and
firmly fibrous . Also earthy.
Color light green, streak paler. Usually nearly opaque ;
crystals translucent. Luster of crystals adamantine incli-
ning to vitreous ; but fibrous incrustations silky on a cross
fracture . Earthy varieties dull. H=3.5-4. Gr=4.
Composition : carbonic acid 18, oxyd of copper 70.5, wa-
ter 11.5 . Dissolves with effervesence in nitric acid. De-
crepitates and blackens before the blowpipe, and becomes
partly a black scoria. With borax it fuses to a deep green
globule, and ultimately affords a bead of copper.
Dif. Readilydistinguished by its copper-green color and
its association with copper ores. It resembles a siliceous
ore of copper, chrysocolla, a common ore in the mines of
the Mississippi valley ; but it is distinguished by its complete
What is the composition of green malachite ? How is it distin-
guished ?
24*
282 METALS.

solution and effervescence in nitric acid. The color also

is not the bluish-green of chrysocolla.
Obs. Green malachite usually accompanies other ores
of copper, and forms incrustations, which when thick, have
the colors banded and extremely delicate in their shades and
blending. Perfect crystals are quite rare. The mines of
Siberia, at Nischne Tagilsk, have afforded great quantities
of this ore. A mass partly disclosed, measured at top 9
feet by 18; and the portion uncovered contained at least
half amillion pounds of pure malachite. Other noted. for-
eign localities are Chessy in France, Sandlodge in Shetland,
Schwartz in the Tyrol, Cornwall, and the island ofCuba.
The copper mine of Cheshire, Conn., has afforded hand-
some specimens ; also Morgantown, and the Perkiomen Lead
Mine, Penn.; Schuyler's mine, and the New Brunswick
copper mine, N. J.: it occurs also in Maryland, between
Newmarket and Taneytown, and inthe Catoctin mountains ;
in the Blue Ridge, Penn., near Nicholson's Gap, and it is
found more or less sparingly with allkinds of copper ores.
At Mineral Point, Wisconsin, a bluish silico-carbonate
ofcopper occurs, which is for the most part chrysocolla, or
amixture of this mineral with the carbonate. An analysis
of the rough ore afforded Mr. D. D. Owen, copper 35.7,
carbonic acid 10.0, water 10.0, iron 15.7, oxygen 7, sulphur
8, silex 13.0. Specific gravity 3-69-3-87. The vein ap-
pears also to the northwest on Blue River, and southeast on
the Peccatonica. This ore is abundant ; it has been smelted
on the spot and also exported to England.
Uses. This mineral receives a high polish and is used
for inlaid work, and also ear-rings, snuff boxes, and various
ornamental articles. It is not much prized in jewelry.
Very large masses are occasionally obtained in Russia,
which are worked into slabs for tables, mantel-pieces and
vases, which are of exquisite beauty, owing to the delicate
shadings of the radiations and zones ofcolor. At Versailles,
there is a room furnished with tables, vases, and other arti-
cles of this kind, and similar rooms are to be found in many
European palaces. At Nischne Tagilsk, a block of mala-
chite was obtained weighing 40 tons.
Malachite is sometimes passed off in jewelry as turquois,
though easily distinguished by its shade of color and much

How does green malachite occur ? What are its uses ?

 COPPER ORES . 283

inferior hardness. It is a valuable ore when abundant ; but

it is seldom smelted alone, because the metal is liable to es-
cape with the liberated volatile ingredient-carbonic acid.
AZURITE.-Blue Carbonate of Copper.
Monoclinate. In modified oblique rhombic prisms, the
crystals rather short and stout ;
lateral cleavage perfect. Also a
massive. Often earthy. a

Colordeep blue, azure orBer-

lin-blue. Transparent tonearly ė

opaque. Streak bluish. Luster

vitreous, almost adamantine.-
Brittle . H= 3.5-4.5. Gr=
3-5-3-85.
Composition : carbonic acid 25.5, oxyd of copper 69.1,
water 5.5. Before the blowpipe and in acids, it acts like
thepreceding.
Obs. Azurite accompanies other ores of copper. At
Chessy, France, its crystallizations are very splendid. It is
found also in Siberia, in the Bannat, and near Redruth in
Cornwall.
As incrustations and rarely as crystals, it occurs near
Singsing, N. Y.; near New Brunswick, N. J. Also near
Nicholson's Gap, in the Blue Ridge, Penn.
Uses. When abundant it is a valuable ore ofcopper. It
makes a poor pigment, as it is liable to turn green.
CHRYSOCOLLA.-Silicate of Copper.
Usually as incrustations ; botryoidal and massive Also
inthin seams and stains ; no fibrous structure apparent, nor
any appearance of crystallization .
Colorbright green, bluish-green. Luster ofsurface of in-
crustations smoothly shining ; also earthy. Translucent to
opaque. H=2-3. Gr=2-2·3. Composition :-
SIBERIAN. NEW JERSEY.
V. Kobell. Berthier. Bowen. Beck.
40.0 55-1 45.2 42.6
Oxyd of copper
Silica 36.5 35-4 37-3 40.0
Water 20-2 28-5 17-0 16.0
Carbonic acid 2-1 loss 1.0 -
-

Oxyd of iron 1.0 -

1.4

Describe blue malachite. How does it differ from green malachite

in composition ? What is the appearance of chrysocolla ? its composi-
tion?
284 METALS .

The mineral varies much in the proportion of its constitu-

ents, as it is not crystallized. It blackens in the inner flame
of the blowpipe without melting. With borax it is partly
reduced. No effervescence nor complete solution in nitric
acid, cold or heated.
Dif. Distinguished from greenmalachite as stated under
that species.
Obs. Accompanies other copper ores in Cornwall, Hun-
gary, the Tyrol, Siberia, Thuringia, &c. In Chili it is
abundant at the various mines. In Wisconsin and Missouri
it is so abundant as to be worked for copper. It was for.
merly taken for green malachite. Italso occurs at the Som-
erville and Schuyler's mine, N. J., at Morgantown, Penn.,
and Wolcotville, Conn.
Uses. This ore in the pure state affords 30 per cent. of
copper; but as it occurs in the rock will hardly yield one-
third this.amount. Still when abundant, as it appears to be
in the Mississippi valley, it is a valuable ore. It is easy of
reduction by means of limestone as a flux.
Dioptase is another silicate of copper, occurring in rhombohedral
crystals and hexagonal prisms. R : R= 126° 17′. Color emerald-
green. Luster vitreous. Streak greenish. Transparent to nearly
opaque. H= 5. Gr=3.28. From the Kirghese Steppes of Siberia.
Besides the above salts of copper, there are the following species,
which are of little use in the arts.
Arsenates of Copper. - Euchroite has a bright emerald-green color,
and contains 33 per cent. of arsenic acid, and 48 of oxyd of copper.
Occurs in modified rhombic prisms H=3.75. Gr=3.4. From Li-
bethen, in Hungary. Aphanesite is of a dark verdigris-green inclining
toblue, and also dark blue, H=2.5-3. Gr=4.19. It contains 30 .
per cent. of arsenic acid and 54 of oxyd of copper. From Cornwall.
Erinite has an emerald-green color, and occurs in mammilated coat-
ings H=4.5-5. Gr=4.04. Contains 33-8 of arsenic acid and 59-4
of oxyd of copper. From Limerick, Ireland. Liroconite varies from
sky-blue to virdigris-green, It occurs in rhombic prisms, sometimes
an inch broad. H=2.5. Gr= 2.8-2.9. Contains 14 per cent. of
arsenic acid, 49 of oxyd of copper. Olivenite presents olive-green to
brownish colors, and occurs in prismatic crystals or velvety coatings.
H=3. Gr=4.2. Contains 36.7 per cent. of arsenic acid, to 56.4 of
oxyd of copper. Copper Mica is remarkable for its thin foliated or
mica-like structure. The color is emerald or grass-green. H= 2.
Gr=2.55. It contains 21 per cent. of arsenic acid, 58 of oxyd of cop-
per, and 21 of water. From Cornwall and Hungary. Copper Froth
is another arsenate ofa pale apple-green and verdigris green color. It
How does chrysocolla differ from green malachite ? Where is it
abundant in the U. States ? What is its use ?
 COPPER ORES . 285

'has a perfect cleavage. It contains 25 per cent. of arsenic acid, 43.9

ofoxyd of copper, 17-5 of water, with 13.6 ofcartonate of lime. From
Hungary, Siberia, the Tyrol, and Derbyshire. Condurrite has a brown-
ish-black or blue color. From Cornwall. These different arsenates of
copper give an allicaceous odor when heated on charcoal before the
blowpipe.
Phosphates of Copper.-Pscudo-malachite occurs in very oblique
crystals, or massive and incrusting, and has an emerald or blackish-
green color. H=4.5-5. Gr=4.2. Contains 68 per cent. of oxyd
ofcopper. From near Bonn, on the Rhine, and also from Hungary.
Libethenite has a dark or olive-green color, and occurs in prismatic
crystals and massive. H=4. Gr=3.6-3.8, Contains 64 per cent.
of oxyd of copper. From Hungary and Cornwall. Thrombolite is a
green phospate occurring massive inHungary. Contains 39 per cent.
ofoxyd of copper. These phosphates give no fumes before the blow-
pipe; and have the reaction of phosphoric acid.
Chlorid of Copper.-Atacamite. Color green to blackish-green.
Luster adamantine to vitreous. Streak apple-green. Translucent to
subtranslucent. Occurs in right rhombic prisms and rectangular octa-
hedrons, also massive. Consists of oxyd of copper 76.6, muriatic acid
10.6, water 12.8. Gives off fumes of muriatic acid before the blowpipe
and leaves a globule of copper. From the Atacama desert, between
Chili and Peru, and elsewhere in Chili ; also from Vesuvius and Sax-
ony. It is ground up in Chili, and sold as a powder for letters under
the name of arsenillo .
A Sulphato-chlorid of Copper hasbeen observed in Cornwall, in blue
acicular crystals, apparently hexagonal.
Beaumontite ofC. T. Jackson, is a hydrous crenato-silicate of cop-
per, containing 15.8 per cent. of crenic acid. It is bluish-green to
greenish-while, and pulverulent when dry. From Chessy, France.
Vanadate of copper. Massive and foliated, or pulverulent ; folia
citron-yellow, pearly. From the Ural.
Buratite. A hydrous carbonate of copper, zinc, and lime, occurring
in bluish radiating needles. Gr=3.2. From Chessy, France ; theAl-
tai mountains; and Tuscany.
Velvet Copper Ore. In velvety druses or coatings, consisting of
short fine fibrous crystallization. Color fine smalt blue.
GENERAL REMARKS ON COPPER AND ITS ORES .
The metal copper has been known since the earliest periods. It is
obtained for the arts mostly from pyritous copper, the gray sulphurets,
and the carbonate ; also to some extent from the black oxyd, and from
solutions of the sulphate, (page 281.)
Assay of Ores. For the assay ofcopper ores by the dry way, th
following is a common method. A portion of the prepared ore, roasted
inaclosed tube, will show by the garlic or sulphurous smell of the
fumes, and by the depositions on the tube, whether arsenic, sulphur, or
both, be the mineralizers. Ifthis last is the case, which often happens,
100 or 1000 grains of the ore are to be mixed with one half of its
weight of sawdust, then imbued with oil, and heated moderately in a

What is the mode ofassaying copper ores in the dry way ?

286 METALS.

crucible, till all the arsenical fumes are dissipated. The residuum, be.
ing cooled and triturated, is tobe exposed in a shallow earthen dish,
made of refractory material, to a slow roasting heat, and stirred till the
sulphur and charcoalare burned away ; what remains being ground and
mixed with half its weight of calcined borax, or carbonate ofsoda, one-
twelfth its weight of lamp black, (finely pulverized charcoal will an-
swer,) and next, made into a dough with a few drops of oil, is then to
be pressed down into a crucible, which is to be covered with a luted
lid, and subjected in a powerful air-furnace, first to a dull red heat, then
to vivid ignitionfor seven to twenty minutes. On cooling and breaking
the crucible, a button of metallic copper will be obtained, which may
be refined by melting again with borax in an open crucible. Its color
and malleability indicate pretty well the quality, as does its weight the
relative value, of the ore. It may be cupelled with lead to ascertain
if it contain silver or gold ; or it may be treated for the same purpose
with nitric acid.
If the blowpipe trial show no arsenic, the first calcination may be
omitted ; and if neither sulphur nor arsenic are present, a portion of the
pulverized ore should be dried and treated directly with borax, lamp-
black, and oil.
The ores of copper, (the sulphuret as well as the oxyds, carbonates,
&c.) may be reduced in the wet way, by solution in strong nitric acid.
The solution, if made from the sulphuret, will contain sulphuric acid
and free sulphur, as well as all the bases, (iron, nickel, cobalt, lead, sil-
ver, &c.) which may have been present in the original ore. Ifsilver
is present it will be found as a heavy white curdy precipitate, at the
bottom, if the nitric acid employed contained any hydrochloric acid ;
and if the addition of this acid to the solution occasions no such pre-
cipitate, no silver is present. If the solution is free from lead, anti-
mony, arsenic, and other metals precipitable by sulphureted hydrogen,
the copper may be thrown down as sulphuret by means of a current of
this gas, the black precipitate, collected on a filter washed with water,
and redissolved in aqua regia, largely diluted, and finally precipitated by
caustic potash, which throws down the black oxyd of copper. This
dried and weighed will yield the true value ofthe ore in metallic cop-
per. If only iron and copper are present, (which may be previouslyde-
termined by the blowpipe,) they may be separated from their solutions
in nitric acid by ammonia, which throws down the iron as hydrated
peroxyd, but redissolves the copper precipitated by the first additions of
ammonia. The determination of the weight of the iron may then give
the amount of copper by the difference of weight, or the copper may
again be thrown down by potash as before directed.
Reduction of Ores. Copper ores are reduced in England in a rever-
beratory furnace, and the process consists in alternate calcinations and
fusions. The volatile ingredients are carried off by the calcinations,
and any metals in combination with the copper are oxydized. The
fusions serve to get rid of the various impurities, and finally bring out
the pure metal.
The calcinations or roastings are performed either in a furnace, or
by making piles in the open air. In this latter mode, which is in use
What is the mode ofassaying copper ores in the wet way ? How
are copper ores reduced ? Describe the process ofcalcination ?
 COPPER ORES . 287

onthe continent ofEurope, the ore, after being pounded and assorted,
is piled up in high pyramidal mounds, which mounds are covered with
mortar, sod, &c., and have a chimney at the center. Hemispherical
cavities are dug on the upper surface for the purpose of receiving the
sulphur during the roasting, which arrives liquified at the surface. This
process lasts about six months. In England, at Swansea, where the
ores are carried for reduction, the calcinations are performed more rap-
idly in a reverberatory furnace ; and this is especially necessary when
the ores do not contain a sufficient proportion of iron pyrites to furnish
enough sulphur to sustain the combustion. After calcination, the ore is
black and powdery. In the Swansea establishments, the calcined ore
is introduced into the furnace, (a reverberatory smaller than that used
for calcination,) and is spread over the bottom, 1 cwt. at a time. The
heat is raised, and the furnace closed. When fusion has taken place,
the liquid mass is well rabbled or stirred, so as to allow of the complete
separation ofthe slagsfromthe metal ; afterwards the slags are skimmed
off. Then a second charge is added, and after a similar process, a
third charge, if the furnace is deep enough to receive it without the
metal's flowing from the door. After the last charge is reduced also,
the tap-hole is opened, and the metal flows out into water, where it is
granulated. The slags if not free from metal are again returned to the
furnace, when other charges are put in. This granulated metal is
usually about one-third copper; it contains sulphur, copper, and iron.
This coarse metal is next calcined, just as the ore was first calcined ;
by which the iron is oxydized. The charge remains in the furnace 24
hours, and is repeatedly stirred and turned.
It is then transferred to the furnace for melting, and there melted
along with some slags from the previous fusion. The sulphur reduces
any oxyd and the whole fuses down. The slags are skimmed off and
the furnace tapped: the metal is again drawn off into water. In this
state it contains about 60 per cent. of copper, and it is called fine
metal. The fine metal is then calcined like the coarse metal ; and next
it is melted as before. It results in a coarse copper containing 80 to 90
per cent. of pure metal.
The coarse copper is then roasted in the melting furnace ; the air
drawing in large quantities over the copper in incipient fusion, oxydizes
the iron and the volatile substances are driven off. The metal is fused
toward the end of the operation, which is continued from 12 to 24
hours, and is then tapped into sand beds. The pigs formed are cov-
ered with black blisters and they are cellular within. The copper is
then remelted in a melting furnace ; it is heated slowly to allow of any
farther oxydizing that may be necessary. The slag is removed and the
metal is examined from time to time, by taking out some of it, and
when it is in the right condition, it is next subjected to the process of
toughening. It is now brittle, of a deep red color inclining to purple,
with an open grain and a crystalline structure; the copper in this state
iswhat is termed dry. The surface of the melted metal is first cov-
ered with charcoal; a pole, commonly of birch, is held in the liquid
matter, causing considerable ebullition ; and this poling is continued,
with occasional additions of charcoal, till it is found in the assays taken

What are the several steps in reduction ?

288 METALS..

outthat the crystalline grainhas disappeared, and the copper when cut
through has a silky polished appearance, and the color is light red.
It isthenladeled out into moulds, usually 12 inches inwidth by 18long.
Lead is sometimes added in the purification, to aid by its own oxyda-
tion in the oxydation of the iron present.
The process of melting copper on the continent is done by blast fur-
naces instead of the reverberatory, and they are said to be more eco-
nomical in fuel, and produce a less waste of copper in the slags. This
mode is used at the works at Boston, while the Swansea mode has
been adopted at the Baltimore furnaces, Maryland. At the Ha'ford
works, South Wales, a furnace ofthree tiers of hearths has been intro-
duced, which answers the double purpose of calcination and fusion at
the same time.
Galvanism hasbeen turned to account in the reduction of copper
ores. The ore is converted into a sulphate by roasting with the free
access of the atmosphere. From this sulphate the copper is deposited
in a pure state by galvanic decomposition. See on this subject Ameri-
canJournal ofScience, ii ser., volume iv, p. 276, or Franklin Journal,
volume xi, p. 128.
Copper Mines. The principal mines of copper in the world are those
of Cornwall and Devon, England; of the island of Cuba ; of Copiapo,
and other places in Chili ; Chessy, near Lyons, in France ; in the
Erzgebirge, Saxony; at Eisleben and Saugerhausen, in Prussia ; at
Goslar, in the Lower Hartz; at Schemmitz, Kremnitz, Kapnik, and
the Bannat, in Hungary ; at Fahlun, in Sweden ; at Turinsk and Nisch-
ni-Tagilsk, and other places in the Urals ; also in China and Japan.
Lately extensive mines have been opened in Southern Australia.
In the United States, considerable quantities have been raised from
the mines of New Jersey, and those of Simsbury, Conn. At Bristol,
Conn., is a fine vein of vitreous copper, now under exploration . Straf-
ford, Vermont, affords some tons of pyritous copper at the present time
for the Boston furnace.
The most extensive deposits are those of Northern Michigan and
Wisconsin. The Michigan ımines are vertical veins mostly in the trap
rock which intersects a red sandstone, probably identical in age with
the red sandstone of Connecticut and New Jersey. The first discov-
eries ofcopper ore in this place were made at Copper harbor, where the
chrysocolla and carbonate occur. Near Fort Wilkins the black oxyd
was afterwards found in a large deposit, and 40,000 pounds of this ore
were shipped to Boston. On farther exploration in the trap, the Cliff
mine, 25 miles to the westward, was laid open, where the largest masses
ofnative copper have been found, and which still proves to be highly
productive. Other veins have since been opened in various parts of the
region, at Eagle harbor, Eagle river, Grand Marais, Lac La Belle,
Agate Harbor, Torch Lake, on the Ontonagon, in the Porcupine moun-
tains, and elsewhere. At Mineral Point, Wisconsin, a blue siliceous
carbonate is abundant. Other mines are opened in Missouri. The
country north of Lakes Superior and Huron, also abound in copper ores.

What is the process ofreduction on the continent of Europe ? Where

are the principal foreign mines of copper ? Where is copper found in
the United States?
 COTPER ORES. 289

In the Lake Superior Region, Michigan, the amount of ores and

metals raised and shipped during the year ending September 30, 1847
is stated by the Mineral Agent as follows :
Ores and metal. Am'tshipped.
Lake Superior Company, 1,114,841 lbs. 31,441
Eagle Harbor Company, 321,000 81,164
Copper Falls Company, 317,050 15,263
Pittsburg andBoston Company, 7,283,340 1,497,481
North West Company, 190,000 7,264
Lac La Belle Company, 200,000 1,328
Suffolk Company, 300,000 383
Algonquin Company, 120,000 11,135
Bohemia Company, 80,000 4,049
All others making reports, 1,327,969 40,206
10,214,200 1,693,805
The amount of copper produced by different mining countries in Eu-
rope, is as follows :-
GreatBritain, 360,000 cwt. * Denmark, 8,500 cwt.
" "
Russia, 50,000 Prussia, 6,400
" "
Austria, 50,000 France, 1,000
« "
Germany, 25,000 Spain, 300
"
Sweden and Norway, 30,000
Large quantities of ore are now imported from Southern Australia
intoEngland ; and Chili and Cubahave long furnished copper ores to
England, and to some extent, to this country. What will be ultimately
theproceedsofthe copper region ofLake Superior,cannot nowbefully
determined. But there is every prospect that the country will prove
boundless in its resources.
Uses. The metal copper was known in the earliest periods and was
used mostly alloyed with tin, forming bronze. The mines of Nubia
andEthiopiaare believed to have produced agreat part of the copper
ofthe early Egyptians. Eubea and Cyprus are also mentioned as af-
fording this metal to the Greeks. It was employed for cutting instru-
ments and weapons, as well as for utensils ; and bronze chisels are at
thisday found at the Egyptian stone-quarries, that were once employed
in quarrying. This bronze, (chalkos ofthe Greeks, and as of the Ro-
mans,) consisted of about 5 parts of copper to 1 of tin, a proportion
which produces an alloy of maximum hardness. Nearly the same ma-
terial was used in early times over Europe ; and weapons and tools
havebeenfound consisting of copper, edged with iron, indicating the
scarcity ofthe latter metal. Similar weapons have also been found in
Britain; yet it is certain that iron and steel were well known to the
Romans and laterGreeks, and to some extent used for warlike weapons
and cutlery.
Copperat the present day is very various in its applications in the

How did the ancients use copper? What is the proportion of alloy
inthe ancient bronze ?

*5-6 of the whole from Cornwall.

25
290 METALS.

arts. It is largely employed for utensils, for the sheathing ofships, and
for coinage. Alloyed with zinc it constitutes brass, and with tin it
forms bell-metal as well as bronze.
The best brass contains 2 parts of copper to 1 of zinc ; the propor-
tion of 4 of copper to 1 of zinc, makes a good brass. Pinchbeck
contains 5 of copper to 1 of zinc ; and tombac and Dutch gold, are
other allied compounds. Bath metal consists of 9 of zinc to 32 of
brass. A whitish metal used by the button-makers of Birmingham, and
called platina, is made of 5 pounds of zinc to 8 of brass.
Bronze is an alloy of copper with 7 to 10 per cent. of tin. This is
the material used for cannon. With 8 per cent. of tin, it is the bronze
for medals. With 20 of tin, the material for cymbals. With 30 to 33
parts oftin, it forms speculum metal, of which the mirrors for optical
instruments are made. Lord Rosse used for the speculum of his great
telescope, 126 parts of copper to 574 parts of tin.
The brothers Keller, celebrated for their statue castings,used a metal
consisting of91.4 per cent. ofcopper, 5.53 ofzinc, 1.7 of tin, and 1-37
of lead. An equestrian statue of Louis XIV, 21 feet high, and weigh-
ing 53,263 French pounds, was cast by them in 1699, at a single jet.
Bell-metal is made of copper with a third to a fifth as much tin by
weight, the proportion of tin varying according to the size of the bell
and sound required. The Chinesegong contains 80 parts of copper to
20 or 25 of tin ; to give it its full sonorousness, it must be heated and
suddenly cooled in cold water.
Sheet copper is made by heating the copper in a furnace and rolling
it between iron rollers. Copper is also worked by forging and casting.
In casting, it will not bear over a red heat without burning.

15. TITANIUM .

Titanium occurs in nature combined with oxygen, forming

titanic acid or oxyd, and also in combinations with different
bases. It has rarely been met with native.
The ores are infusible alone before the blowpipe, or nearly
80. Their specific gravity is between 3.0 and 4.5. With
salt of phosphorus, in the inner flame on charcoal, a globule
is obtained with some difficulty, which is violet blue when
cold.

Native titanium occurs in cubes, of a copper-red color, in

Cornwall. It is a frequent product of furnaces, having been
often met with in slags.

What is the composition ofbrass ? ofpinchbeck ? of bronze for can-

non and medals ? bronze for statuary ? speculum metal ? How does
titanium occur ? What is said of its ores ?
 ORES OF TITANIUM. 291

RUTILE .

Dimetric. In prisms of eight, twelve, or more sides,

with pyramidal terminations, and often bent a

as in the figure ; a : a = 117° 2'. Crystals

often acicular, and penetrating quartz. Some-
times massive. Cleavage lateral, somewhat
distinct.
Color reddish-brown to nearly red ; streak very pale-
brown. Luster submetallic-adamantine. Transparent to
opaque. Brittle. H=6-6.5. Gr=4.15-4.25.
Composition : titanium 61, oxygen 39. Sometimes contains
iron, and has nearly a black color ; this variety is called
nigrine. Unaltered alone before the blowpipe. Forms a
hyacinth-red bead with borax.
Dif. The peculiar subadamantine luster of rutile, and
brownish-red color, much lighter red in splinters, are striking
characters. It differs from tourmaline, idocrase, and augite,
by being unaltered when heated alone before the blowpipe ;
and fromtin ore, in not affording tin with soda; from sphene
in its crystals.
Obs. Occurs imbedded in granite, gneiss, mica slate,
syenite, and in granular limestone. Sometimes associated
with specular iron, as at the Grisons. Yrieix in France,
Castile, Brazil, and Arendal in Norway, are some of the
foreign localities.
In the United States, it occurs in crystals in Maine, at
Warren ; in New Hampshire, at Lyme and Hanover ; in
Massachusetts, at Barre, Windsor, Shelburne, Leyden, Con-
way ; in Connecticut, at Monroe and Huntington ; in New
York, near Edenville, Warwick, Amity, at Kingsbridge, and
in Essex county at Gouverneur ; in the District of Columbia,
at Georgetown; in North Carolina, in Buncombe county ;
in the gold district of Georgia.
Uses. The specimens of limpid quartz, penetrated by long
acicular crystals, are often very elegant when polished. A
remarkable specimen of this kind was obtained at Han-
over, N. H. , and less handsome ones are not uncommon.
Polished stones ofthis kind are called flèches d' amour (love's
arrows) by the French.

Describe rutile. Of what does it consist? How is it distinguished

from other minerals ? What are its uses ?
292 METALS.

This ore is employed in painting on porcelain, and quite

largely for giving the requisite shade of color and enamel
appearance to artificial teeth.
Anatase. Brookite. These species have the same composition as
rutile. Anatase occurs in slender nearly transparent octahedrons, of a
brown color. A : A =97° 56′. H=5·5-6. Gr=3.8-3.9. From
Dauphiny, the Tyrol, and Brazil. Said to accompany native titanium
inslags from the iron furnaces of Orange county, N. Y.
Brookite is met with in thin hair-brown crystals, attached by one
edge. H=5-5-6. The crystals are secondaries to a rhombic prism.
From Dauphiny, and Snowdon in Wales. Said to occur at the Phenix-
villetunnel onthe Reading railroad, Pa. See Arkansite, p. 209.
SPHENE .

Monoclinate. In very oblique rhombic prisms ; the lat-

eral faces having angles either of 76° 1', 113° 27′ (r : r)
1 2 3

P P
P
T
2 n

Π Th
n
Y

136° 8' (n : n), or 133° 48'. The crystals are usually thin
with sharp edges. Cleavage in one direction sometimes
perfect. Occasionally massive..
Color grayish-brown, gray, brown or black ; sometimes
yellow or green ; streak uncolored. Luster adamantine to
resinous. Transparent to opaque. H= 5-5.5. Gr=
3-2-3.5.
Composition : silica 34-2, titanic acid 44.7, lime 21.1.
Before the blowpipe, the yellow varieties are unaltered in
color, and others become yellow; on charcoal, they fuse on
the edges with a slight intumescence to adark glass.
The dark varieties of this species were formerly called
titanite and menaccanite, and the lighter sphene. The name
sphene alludes to the wedge-shapedcrystals, and is from the
Greek sphen, a wedge.
What is said ofthe crystals of sphene? What are the color, luster,
and hardness ? the composition ?
 ORES OF TITANIUM. 293

Dif. The crystals, in general, by their thin wedge shape,

readily distinguish this species when crystallized; but some
crystals are very complex. From garnet, tourmaline, and
idocrase, this species is distinguished by its infusibility before
the blowpipe.
Obs. Sphene occurs mostly in disseminated crystals in
granite,gneiss, mica slate, syenite, or granular limestone. It
is usually associated with pyroxene and scapolite, and often
with graphite. It has been found in volcanic rocks. The
crystals are commonly + to an inch long; but are some-
times 1 to 2 inches.
Foreign localities are Arendal in Norway; at St. Gothard
and Mount Blanc ; in Argyleshire and Galloway in Great
Britain.
In the United States, it is met with in good crystals in
New York, at Rogers' Rock on Lake George, with graphite
and pyroxene, at Gouverneur, near Natural Bridge in Lewis
county, (the variety called lederite,) in Orange county in
Monroe, Edenville, Warwick, and Amity, near Peekskill in
Westchester county, and near West Farms. In Massachu-
sets, at Lee, Bolton, and Pelham. In Connecticut, at Trum-
bull. In Maine, at Thomaston. In New Jersey, at Frank-
lin. In Pennsylvania, near Attleboro', Bucks county. In
Delaware, at Dixon's quarry, 7 miles from Wilmington. In
Maryland, 25 miles from Baltimore, on the Gunpowder.
Greenovite is a sphene containing manganese,
Perovskite. This is a titanate of lime. It occurs in minute modified
cubes, grayish to iron-black in color. Gr=4.017. H=5.5. From the
Urals.
Pyrrhite. In minute regular octahedrons, of a yellowish color.
Transparent; vitreous. H=6. From near Mursinsk, Siberia ; also
from the Western Islands, as first detected by Mr. J. E. Teschemacher
of Boston. Supposed to contain titanic acid.
Keilhauite, or yttro-titanite. Massive; cleavable. Brownish-black,
with a grayish-brown powder. Gr=3.69. H=6.5. Fuses ensily.
Contains silica 30.0, titanic acid 29-0, yttria 9.6, lime 18.9, peroxyd of
iron 6.4, alumina 6.1. From Arendal, Norway.
Warwickite. It occurs in prismatic crystals,ofa brownishto an iron-
graycolor, often tarnished bluish or copper-red. Luster metallic pearly
to imperfectly vitreous or resinous. H=5-6. Gr=3-3.3. Infusible
alone before the blowpipe. From magnesian limestone, with ilmenite
and spinel, at Amity, Orange county, N. Y.

What are distinctive characteristics of the species sphene ? In what

rocks does it occur ?
294 METALS .

The analysis of warwickite, by Prof. Shepard, made it a fluo-titanate

of iron, with some yttria. It has since been examined by Mr. T. S.
Hunt, who found it to contain no fluorine, and to be a silicate and ti-
tanate of iron, magnesia, and alumina, with 7 per cent. of water. Mr.
Hunt named the species examined by him enceladite. He states the
hardness as between 3 and 4.

Besides the ores here described, titanium is an essential

constituent also of ilmenite, (titanic iron) ; also in the zir-
coniaand yttria ores æschynite, ærstedite, and polymignite,
and in some other rare species ; sometimes in pyrochlore.
The metal titanium has seldom been obtained in the me.
tallic state, and is not used in the arts. The uses of the
oxyd have been mentioned.
16. ΤΙΝ.

Tin has been reported as occurring native. There are

two ores, the oxyd and a sulphuret. It also occurs in some
ores ofcolumbium. The specific gravity ofthe sulphuret is
between 4.3 and 4.4 ; that ofthe oxyd, between 6.5 and 7.1 .
With carbonate of soda on charcoal, a globule of tin is ob-
tained. When the tin is in minute quantities in a mineral,
it is well to add also some borax, and by this means, especi-
ally if any iron present be first removed, or if it be only in
small quantaties, even a + per cent. oftin may be detected.
Native tin is found in gray metallic grains in the gold
washings of the Ural. The crystals of pure tin are either
tesseral (cubic), or dimetric, this metal being dimorphous.
TIN PYRITES.-Sulphuret of Tin.
In cubes and massive. Color steel-gray or yellowish
Streak black. Brittle. H=4. Gr= 4.3-4.4.
Composition : sulphur 25, tin 34, copper 36, iron 2.
Obs. This rare ore has been found only in Cornwall
where it is often called bell-metal ore, from its frequent
bronze appearance.

How does tin occur in the mineral kingdom ? How is it detected

by the blowpipe ? What is the appearance and composition of tin
pyrites ?
 TIN ORES . 295

TIN ORE.-Oxyd of Tin.

Dimetric. In modified square prisms and octahedrons ;
often compound : e : e=121°
35' ; a : a (over the summit) a e

112° 01' ; a : a (over a ter-

minal edge) 132° 53′ ; M :
M
e=133° 38′ ; M : e=135°. e
e

Cleavage indistinct. Also a

massive or ingrains.
Colorbrown or black, with
ahigh adamantine luster when in crystals. Streak pale
gray to brownish. Nearly transparent to opaque. H=6-
7. Gr-6.5-7.1 .
Composition : when pure, tin 78-62, oxygen 21-38 ; often
contains a little oxyd of iron, and sometimes oxyd of colum-
bium. Before the blowpipe alone, infusible ; with soda,
affords a globule of tin.
Stream tin is the gravel-like ore found in debris in low
grounds. Wood tin occurs in botryoidal and reniform shapes
with aconcentric and radiated structure ; and toad's-eye tin
is the same on a small scale.
Dif. Tin ore has some resemblance to a dark garnet,
toblack zinc blende, and to some varieties oftourmaline. It
is distinguished by its infusibility, and its yielding tin before
the blowpipe on charcoal with soda. It differs from blende
also in its superior hardness, and in giving no fumes on char-
coal before the blowpipe.
Obs. Tin ore occurs in veins in the crystalline rocks
granite, gneiss, and mica slate, associated often with wolfram ,
copper and iron pyrites, topaz, tourmaline, mica or talc, and
albite. Cornwall is one of its most productive localities.
It is also worked in Saxony, at Altenberg, Geyer, Ehren-
friedersdorf and Zinnwald ; in Austria, at Schlackenwald and
other places ; in Malacca, Pegu, China, and especially the
Island of Banca in the East Indies. It has also been found
inGalicia, Spain ; at Dalecarlia in Sweden; in Russia ; in
Mexico, Brazil, and Chili ; in the United States, at Chester-
field and Goshen, Mass., in some of the Virginia gold mines,
What is the crystallization of tin ore ? Mention its other physical
characters ? What is its composition and blowpipe reactions ? What
is stréam tin ? wood tin, and toad's eye ? How is tin ore distinguished
from garnet, blende, and tourmaline ?
296 METALS.

and in Lyme and Jackson, N. H. At the last mentioned

place, where this ore was discovered by Dr. C. T. Jackson,
there are sufficient indications to warrant exploration.

GENERAL REMARKS ON TIN AND TIN ORES.

The principal tin inines now worked, are those of Cornwall, Banco
and Malacca, Saxony, and Austria.
The Cornwall mines are supposed to have been worked long before
the Christian era. Herodotus, 450 years before Christ, is believed to
allude to the tin islands of Britain under the cabalistic name cassiterides,
derived from the Greek kassiteros, signifying tin.* The Phoenicians
are allowed to have traded with Cornubia,(as Cornwall was called, it
is supposed from the horn shape of this western extremity of England.)
The Greeks residing at Marseilles were the next to visit Cornwall, or
the isles adjacent, to purchase tin; and after them came the Romans,
whose merchants were long foiled in their attempts to discover the tin
market oftheir predecessors.
Camden says: " It is plain that the ancient Britons dealt in tin mines
from the testimony of Diodorus Siculus, who lived in the reign ofAugus-
tus and Timaus,the historian in Pliny, who tells us that the Britons
fetched tin out of the Isle of Icta, (the Isle of Wight,) in their little
wicker boats covered with leather. The import of the passage in
Diodorus, is that the Britons who lived in those parts dug tin out of a
rocky sort of ground, and carried it in carts at low water to certain
neighboring islands; and that from thence the merchants first trans-
ported it to Gaul, and afterwards on horseback in thirty days to the
springs of Eridanus, or the city of Narbona, as to a common mart.
Æthicus too, another ancient writer, intimates the same thing, and adds
that he had himself given directions to the workmen." In the opinion
ofthe learned author ofthe Britannica here quoted, and others who have
followed him, the Saxons seem not to have meddled with the mines, or
according to tradition, to have employed the Saracens; for the inhabi-
tants of Cornwallto this day call a mine that is given over working
Attal-Sarasin, that is, the leavings of the Saracens.t
The Cornwall veins, or lodes, mostly run east and west, with a dip-
hade; in the provincial dialect-varying from north to south ; yet they are
very irregular, sometimes crossing each other, and sometimes a prom-
ising vein abruptly narrows or disappears ; or again they spread out into
akind of bed orfloor. The veins are considered worth working when
but three inches wide. The gangue is mostly quartz, with some chlo-

Where are the principal tin mines? What is said of the Cornwall
veins ?

* This term andthe stannum oftheRomans,or plumbum candidum,

are supposed to include the white compounds of lend and other metals ;
and it has even been doubted whether the metal tin was ordinarily
included.
+ Manuf. in Metals ; London, 1834, iii, 2.
 TIN ORES . 297

rite. Much ofthe tin is also obtained from loose stones,(called shodes,)
and courses of such stones or tin debris are called streams, whence the
name stream tin.
The ore taken from the mines is first pounded or stamped inastamp-
ingmill, and then washed by running water,which carries off to agreat
extent the lighter impurities and leaves the heavy ore behind, with still
some of the gangue. It is next roasted in a reverberatory furnace, to
expel any arsenic or sulphur derived from the presence of other ores, and
then again washed. After being thus purified as far as possible, the ore
is usually mixed with pit-coal and a little lime, and strongly heated in
either a reverberatory furnace or what is called a blowing furnace. A
state of fusion is kept up for about eight hours. The metal is then
drawn off into iron vessels. As it contains still some slag or earthy
matters, it is remelted at a lower temperature, which does not fuse the
impurities, and kept agitated for a while by wet charcoal or carbonized
wood; it is then skimmed and run into blocks, weighing from 275
to 325 pounds each. The tin thus made from the ore derived from the
mines, is called block tin, and is less pure than that from the stream ore ;
the latter was formerly calledgrain tin, though now this is a general
term applied to the purest kinds oftin in commerce.
In anassayoftin ore, after pulverizing, washing, roasting, and weigh-
ing, the ore should be mixed with lampblack or charcoal, and heated
quickly in a covered crucible to a white heat. On removing the crucible
from the fire, a button of tin will be found in it. Ifthe ore is not pure,
carbonate of soda orborax maybe added to the lampblack. The result
is good if the tin obtained is malleable and not brittle. The tin may be
farther purified by fusing it in a ladle, and pouring it into another ves-
sel whenever the cooling has hardened the alloys, or just before the tin
Itselfbegins toharden ; it will flow out, leaving the impurities behind.
Thebest tin ores afford 65 to 70 per cent. of tin in the large way.
The annual production of tin in different countries, is as follows :
GreatBritain, 80,000 to 100,000 cwt.
"
Banca and Malacca, 90,000
Saxony, 3,500
"
Austria, 380
"
Sweden, 750

Tin is used in castings, and also for coating other metals, especially
iron and copper. Copper vessels thus coated were in use among the
Romans, thongh not common. Pliny saysthat the tinned articles could
scarcely be distinguished from silver, and his use ofthe words incoquere
and incoctilia, seems to imply, as a writer states, that the process was
the same as for the iron vares of the present day, by immersing the
vessels in melted tin. The sheets of iron for tinning are cleaned with
acid, heated, and then cold-rolled ; again subjected to dilute acid, and
afterwards scoured with sand in pure water: then two or three hundred

What are the steps in the process of reduction ? Describe the mode
ofassaying tin ore. What is the yield of Great Britain in tin ? What
the whole amount from the tin mines of the world ? How is iron
tinned ?
298 METALS.

sheets in a vertical position are immersed, first in a vat of grease, and

then in a cast iron bath containing about 5 cwt. of melted tin; they
remain in the tin for an hour and a half, and are then taken out. As
there is now two or three times too much tin on the plates, they are
made to undergo a process called washing, in a vessel of melted grain
tin, by which the excess oftin is removed; after which they are cleaned
and rubbed in bins of dry bran until they receive the characteristic sil-
ver polish.
When tin plate slightly heated is sponged over quickly by an acid,
(nitro-muriatic,) the crystalline character of the tin is brought out, and
theware so treated is called moire metallique. The plate before sub-
jecting it to the acid should be well washed with alkali; and after the
action it should be immediately washed in cleanwater and dried.
Tinisalso used extensively as tinfoil, the sheets ofwhich are about
1000th of an inch thick ; also with quicksilver it is used to cover glass
inthemanufacture of mirrors. It is alloyed with copperinvariouspro-
portions, constituting thus 7 to 10 per cent. of bronze ; 20 per cent. of
the ancient bronze for weapons; 20 per cent. of the metal for cymbals
and the Chinese gong ; 20 to 30 per cent. of bell metal ; and 30 to 40
per cent. of speculum metal, (see page 290.)
The oxyd of tin, as obtained by chemical processes, is employed on
account of its hardness for forming a paste for sharpening fine cutting
instruments. The chlorid of tin is an important agent in the precipi-
tation of many colors as lakes, and in fixing and changing colors in
dyeing and calico printing. The bisulphuret oftin has a golden luster,
andwas termed aurum musivum, or mosaic gold, by the alchemists.
It is much used for ornamental painting, for paper hangings and other
purposes, under the name ofbronze powder.
Pins are tinned by boiling them for a few minutes in a solution of 1
part ofcream tartar, 2 ofalum, 2 of common salt, in 10 or 12 of water,
towhich some tin filings or finely granulated tin are added.
Tin medals or castings, are bronzed by being washed over with a
solution of 1 part ofprotosulphate ofiron, 1 ofsulphate of copper, in 20
ofwater; this gives a gray tint; they are then brushed over with a
solution of 4 parts of verdigris in 11 of distilled vinegar, and then
polished with a soft brush and colcothar.
17. MOLYBDENUM .

Molybdenum occurs in nature as a sulphuret, and sparingly

as an oxyd. Also as molybdic acid, in molybdate of lead.
1. MOLYBDENITE.-Sulphuret of Molybdenum.
In hexagonal crystals, plates, or masses, thin foliated like
graphite, and resembling that mineral. Color pure lead-
gray; streak the same, slightly greenish. Thin laminæ
very flexible ; not elastic. H=1-1.5. Gr=4.5-4.75.

Inwhat other way is tin used ? What alloys are made with it ?
What are the characters of molybdenite ?
 MOLYBDENUM-TUNGSTEN. 299

Composition : molybdenum 59.8, sulphur 40.2. Infusible

before the blowpipe, but when heated on charcoal, sulphur
fumes are given off, which are deposited on the coal. Dis-
solves in nitric acid, excepting a gray residue.
Dif. Resembles graphite, but differs in its paler color
and streak, and also in giving fumes of sulphur when heated,
as well as by its solubility in nitric acid.
Obs. Occurs in granite, gneiss, mica slate, and allied
rocks ; also in granular limestone. It is found at Numedahl
in Sweden, Arendal in Norway, in Saxony, Bohemia, at
Caldbeck Fell in Cumberland, and in the Cornish mines.
In the United States, it occurs in Maine at Blue Hill
Bay, Camdage farm, Brunswick, and Bowdoinham ; in New
Hampshire at Westmoreland, Landaff, and Franconia ; in
Massachusetts at Shutesbury and Brimfield ; in Connecticut
at Haddam and Saybrook; in New York, near Warwick ; in
New Jersey, near the Franklin furnace.
Molydic ocher. An earthy yellow or whitish oxyd of molybdenum,
(or rather molybdic acid,) occurring only as an incrustation. Occurs
at Westmoreland, N. H.
For molybdate of lead, see page 268.
18. TUNGSTEN.

Tungsten is found in combination with iron, lead, and lime,

constituting wolfram, (p. 225,) tungstate of lead, (p. 268,)
and tungstate of lime. It also occurs sparingly in some ores
of columbium, as in certain varieties of the minerals pyro-
chlore, columbite, and yttro-columbite. It is met with in
very small quantities as an ocher, or as tungstic acid, form-
ing a yellow powder on other tungsten ores.
Lane's mine, Monroe, Conn., the adjoining town ofHunt-
ington, and Camdage farm, Blue Hill Bay, Me., are the only
American localities of tungsten ores yet discovered. Lane's
mine affords wolfram and the calcareous tungsten, and also
the tungstic ocher. These ores are frequent associates of
tin ore.
No use in the arts has been made of this metal or its com-

What isitscomposition? How does it differfrom graphite ? What

are the principal ores of tungsten ? Has any use been made ofthem in
the arts ?
300 METALS .

pounds. Tungstic acid is a fine yellow, even brighter than

chrome yellow ; but it turns green on exposure to the sun's
rays.
The metal tungsten was so called from the Swedish word
tung, meaning heavy, the calcareous tungsten being pecu-
liarlyheavy for an earthylooking mineral. Ithas also been
calledscheelium, inhonor ofthechemist Scheele.
Tungstate of lime. In square octahedrons ; A : A=100°
8' and 130° 20'. Cleavage octahedral, perfect. Color yel-
lowish-white, or brownish. Brittle. H=4-4.5. Gr=
6.075. Composition, tungstic acid 7-8, lime 19.06. Infu-
sible alone, or only on the thinnest edges. Found with wol-
fram at Lane's mine, Munroe, Conn.
19. VANADIUM.

Vanadium is a rare metal. It is found in nature as vanadic

acid in the vanadate of lead (p. 268), and vanadate of cop-
per (p. 285), and also combined with lime. The last men-
tioned has a brick-red color, a foliated structure, and a bright
shining luster.
20. TELLURIUM.

Tellurium occurs native, and also in combination with

gold, silver, lead, and bismuth.
The metal is distinguished from arsenic and selenium
by giving no odor before the blowpipe ; from antimony
and bismuth by affording fumes in a glass tube below
the temperature of fusing the glass; and when heated on
charcoal, the oxyd covers the coal with a brownish-yellow
oxyd, like bismuth ; but the inner flame directed on this oxyd
is tinged bright green, while bismuth gives no color. This
last test distinguishes also the ores of tellurium.
Native tellurium occurs in six-sided prisms, ofa tin-white color, and
also massive. Brittle. H = 2-2.5. Gr = 5.7-6.1. Composition,
tellurium 92.5. iron 7.2, gold 0.3. From Transylvania.
Herrerite is a green mineral fromMexico, containing carbonic acid
31-9, tellurium 55.6, peroxyd of nickel 12-3. It is supposed to be a
mechanical mixture .

In what minerals is vanadium found? How does tellurium occur in

nature ? How is this metal distinguished from arsenic and selenium ?
 ORES OF ANTIMONI 301

21. ΑΝΤΙΜΟΝY.

The metal antimony is occasionally found native. It is

usually combined with sulphur, or sulphur and lead. It is
also found in combination with arsenic, oxygen, and lime ;
also with nickel, silver, and copper.
It rises easily in white fumes before the blowpipe with-
out odor, and in one or both of these particulars, it is dis-
tinguished from other vaporizable metals. The ores fuse
very easily, and all evaporate, some giving off fumes of sul-
phur. Specific gravity below 7.
NATIVE ANTIMONY.

Rhombohedral. Usually massive, with adistinct lamellar

structure. Color and streak tin-white. Brittle . H = 3-
3.5 . Gr=6.6-6.75 .
Composition : pure antimony, often with a little silver or
iron. Fuses easily and passes off in white fumes.
Obs. Occurs in veins of silver and other ores in Dau-
phiny, Bohemia, Sweden, the Hartz, and Mexico.
GRAY ANTIMONY.-Sulphuret ofAntimony.
Trimetric. In right rhombic prisms, with striated lateral
faces. M : M= 90° 45'. Cleavage in the direction of the
shorter diagonal, highly perfect. M : e= 145° 29′
e : e = 109 ° 16'. Commonly divergent, columnar or
fibrous. Sometimes massive granula .
Color and streak lead-gray; liable to tarnish. MM
Luster shining. Brittle ; but thin laminæ, a little
flexible . H = 2. Gr= 4.5-4.62.
Composition : antimony 73, sulphur 27. Fuses
readily in the flame of acandle. On charcoal it is absorbed,
giving off white fumes and a sulphur odor.
Dif. Distinguished by its extreme fusibility and its vapo-
rizing before the blowpipe.
Obs. Gray antimony occurs in veins with ores of silver,
lead, zinc, or iron, and is often associated with heavy spar
How does antimony occur in nature ? What are its blowpipe char-
acters ? What are the characters of native antimony ? What is the
crystallization and appearance ofgray antimony ? What is its compo-
sition? How is it distinguished? How does this ore occur ?
26
302 METALS.

or quartz. Its most celebrated localities are at Schemnitz,

Kremnitz, and Felsobanya, in Hungary. It also occurs in
the Hartz, Auvergne, Cornwall, Spain.
In the United States, it has been found sparingly at Car-
mel, Me., Lyme, N. H., and at " Soldier's Delight," Md.
Uses. This ore affords nearly all the antimony of com-
merce .

SULPHURETS OF ANTIMONY AND LEAD.

There are several sulphurets of antimony and lead, all of which fuse
very easily, giving off white fumes, with a sulphur odor, and covering
the charcoal with yellowish oxyd of lead. The color and streak are
between lead-gray and dark steel-gray.
Jamesonite. Occurs in right rhombic crystals, and also fibrous or
columnar. M : M=101° 20′. Streak and color steel-gray. H=2-
2.5. Gr=5-5-5-8. Contains antimony 35 per cent., lead 41, and
sulphur 23. From Cornwall, Siberia, and Hungary.
Feather ore. In fine capillary crystallizations, like a cobweb, or plu-
mose. Color dark lead-gray. Contains antimony 31, lead 47, sulphur
20. From the Eastern Hartz .
Boulangerite. In plumose masses. Color bluish lead-gray. H=
2.5. Gr-5-97. Contains antimony25-4, lead55.6, sulphur 19. From
Molières in France; also from Lapland and Russia.
Plagionite. In oblique rhombic crystals. M : M= 120° 49′. Color
blackish lead-gray. Brittle. H=2.5. Gr-5.4. Contains antimony
38, lead 41, sulphur 21. From Wolfsberg in the Hartz.
Zinkenite. In hexagonal prisms; also fibrous and massive. Color
steel-gray. H=3-3.5. Gr=5.3 . Contains antimony 45, lead 32,
sulphur 23. From Wolfsberg in the Hartz.
Geocronite, Kilbrickenite. Massive, with an imperfect cleavage, and
also granular. Color light gray. H=2-2.5. Gr=5.9-6.4. Con-
tains antimony 14-5, (which is sometimes partly replaced by arsenic,)
lead 69, sulphur 16.5. From Gallicia, Kilbricken in Ireland, and Sala
in Sweden.
Kobellite. Radiated like gray antimony. Gr=6.3 . Contains 33
per cent. of sulphuret of bismuth, along with 46 of sulphuret of lead, and
13 of sulphuret ofantimony. From Hvena in Sweden.
Steinmannite. In cubes with cubic cleavage, and massive. H=2.5.
Gr=6.83 . Color lead-gray. Affords before the blowpipe fumes of
sulphur and antimony, and a globule of lead containing silver.
Besides these, there are also-
Berthierite, (called alsohaidingerite,) which resembles gray antimony,
but contains 27 per cent. of sulphuret of iron with sulphuret of antimony.
Another species contains 15 per cent. of sulphuret of iron. From
Chazelles in Auvergne.
Arsenical antimony. Granular, massive ; color tin-white or reddish-
gray. H= 2-4. Gr-6.2. Composition, antimony 37.9, arsenic
62.1. From Allemont and Bohemia.

Are there other ores ofantimony ? What is their general constitution

 ORES OF ANTIMONY 303

WHITE ANTIMONY.

In white, grayish, or reddish rectangular crystals, with

perfect cleavage, affording a rhombic prism of 136° 38'.
Also in tabular masses, and columnar and granular. H =
2.5-3. Gr=5.57. Luster adamantine to pearly. From
Bohemia, Saxony, Hungary, Dauphiny. It is an oxyd of
antimony containing 84.3 per cent. ofantimony.
been observed in a
The antimonic and antimonous acids have
white pulverulent form. Stiblite is the name of a compound of oxyd
ofantimony and an antimony acid, (an antimonate ofantimony.)
Red antimony is a compound of oxyd and sulphuret of antimony.
Occurs usually in tufts ofcapillary crystals, or in flakes. Color cherry-
red; streak brownish-red. Lusteradamantine. H= 1-1.5. Gr=4.4-
4.6. From Hungary, Dauphiny, Saxony, and the Hartz.
Romeine is an antimonate of lime. It occurs in Piedmont in groups
ofminute square octahedral crystals, of a hyacinth or honey-yellow
color. Scratches glass.
Antimonate of lead. A rare mineral consisting of antimonic acid
31-7, oxyd of lead 61.8, water 6.5. Amorphous, compact. Color yel-
low; also grayish, green, or black. Luster resinous. Gr-4.6-4.76.
From Nertschinsk,Russia.
Antimonophyllite occurs in grayish-white, thin, six-sided prisms.
Contains oxyd ofantimony.

GENERAL REMARKS ON ANTIMONY AND ITS ORES.

The antimony of commerce is obtained from the sulphuret of anti-
mony. This ore is worked at Schemnitz and Kremnitz in Lower Hun-
gary, where it is associated with ores of silver, copper, lead, zinc, and
manganese, and some gold. This region affords 6000 quintals of an-
timony annually. It has also been brought in considerable quantities
from Borneo to Boston and then reduced. Several mines have been
opened and abandoned in Auvergne and Dauphiny,but they are not now
worked. There are also mines in France and Great Britain.
To obtain the crude antimonyof the shops, the ore is placed in
crucibles having a hole at bottom, and these are inserted in other ves-
sels : heat is applied above, and the ore melts from itsgangue and flows
into the vessel below, where it becomes solid. It is not altered in com-
position. It is reduced by carefully roasting the crude antimony in a

reverberatory furnace, and thus obtaining a grayoxyd. This oxyd is

then mixed with a tenth of its weight of crude tartar, placed in large
melting pots, and heated in a wind furnace. The metal antimony
(called regulus of antimony) is thus obtained pure, excepting generally
some little iron. By melting it again with one-fourth its weight of the
oxyd of antimony, the impurities separate and form a slag above, leav-
ing the metal beneath. It is a silver-white, brittle metal, coarsely crys-
talline in texture. It fuses at about 800° F.

What ore affords the antimony of commerce ? Where is it mostly

obtained ? How is crude antimony obtained, and how reduced ?
304 METALS .

The sulphuret may be reduced also by heating it with iron filings ;

the iron takes the sulphur and liberates the antimony.
Antimony forms an important part of type metal. The proportions
vary indifferent establishments ; they have been stated at 1of antimony
to 4 to 12 of lead. A little tin is sometimes used, and also bismuth for
the best type. The alloy is specially fitted for this purpose because
it expands a little on cooling, filling well the mould and making a
sharp, clear letter. The Britannia metal, which has superseded the
use of pewter, consists of100 parts ofthe best block tin, with 8 parts of
the metal antimony, and either 24 parts of each copper and brass, or 2
parts of copper and bismuth. Asoft solder is used in the manufacture
ofBritanniaware, consisting offine tin alloyed with about 30 per cent. of
lead. Antimonywith tin, forms the metal onwhich music is engraved.
Theglass ofantimony, which is much used for making pharmaceu-
ticalpreparations, isamixture ofthe sulphuret and oxyd of antimony,
usually85 of the latter to15ofthe former; it is formed by partially re-
ducing the sulphuret to an oxyd by roasting, andthen raising the heat
till the whole melts.
Antimony in the condition of tartrate of antimony and potassa,is the
tartar emetic ofthe apothecary.
22. ARSENIC.

The metal arsenic occurs native, and united with oxygen

or sulphur. It also occurs in combinations with various
metals, as iron, cobalt, nickel, silver, copper, manganese, and
antimony ; also as an acid in combination with the oxyds of
iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, lead, and with lime. Its ores are
distinguished readily by giving off an odor like garlic when
heated on charcoal beforethe blowpipe. Its compounds with
the metals and bases have already beendescribed.
NATIVE ARSENIC.

Rhombohedral. R : R= 114° 26'. Cleavage basal, im-

perfect. Also massive,columnar, or granular.
Color and streak tin-white, but usually dark grayish from
tarnish. Brittle . H= 3.5. Gr 5.65-5.95.
Volatilizes very readily before fusing, with the odor of
garlic; also burns with a pale bluish flamewhen heated just
below redness.
Obs. Occurs with silver and lead ores . It is found in
considerable quantities at the silver mines of Freiberg and
How is crude antimony reduced? For what is antimony used ?
What is Britannia metal ? How does arsenic occur in the mineral
kingdom ? How is it distinguished ? Describe native arsenic. With
what is it found ?
 ORES OF ARSENIC. 305

Schneeberg ; also in Bohemia, the Hartz, at Kapnik in Up-

perHungary, in Siberia in large masses, and elsewhere.
In the United States, it has been observed at Haverhill,
N. H., in mica slate, and also at Jackson in the same state.
The name arsenic is derived from the Greek arsenikon,
or arrenikon, masculine, a term applied to orpiment, a sul-
phuret of arsenic, on account of its potent properties.
WHITE ARSENIC.-Arsenous Acid.
Inminute capillary crystals, and botryoidal or stalactitic.
Color white. Soluble ; taste astringent, sweetish. H=
15-Gr=3.7. Composition, arsenic 75-8, oxygen 24.2.
This is the same compound with the common arsenic of
the shops. It is found but sparingly native, accompanying
ores of silver, lead and arsenic in the Hartz, Bohemia, and
elsewhere.
Uses. It is a well known poison.
Pharmacolite, is an arsenate of lime, occurring in white or grayish
crystals. H=2-2.5 ; Gr 2.6-2.8.
Haidingerite. Haidingerite is another arsenate oflime.
SULPHURETS OF ARSENIC.

There are two sulphurets ofarsenic.

Orpiment or the yellow sulphuret of arsenic. In foliated
masses, and sometimes in prismatic crystals,
with a perfect diagonal cleavage. Color and a
streak fine yellow. Luster brilliant pearly, a

or metallic pearly on the face of cleav-

age. Subtransparent to translucent : sectile.
MaziMi
H-1.5-2 . G-3.4-3.5. Composition,
sulphur 39.1, arsenic 60.9. Wholly evapo-
rates before the blowpipe with an alliaceous
odor, and on charcoal burns with a blue
flame. From Hungary, Koordistan in Turkey in Asia,
China, and South America. Occurs at Edenville, N. Y., as
a yellow powder, resulting from the decomposition ofarseni.
cal iron.
Realgar, or Red sulphuret of arsenic. In oblique prisms,
and also massive : cleavage much less perfect than in orpi-
ment. Color fine clear red, aurora red to orange. Luster
resinous. Transparent to translucent. H=1.5-2. Gr =
What is white arsenic? What are the characters of orpiment ?
what of realgar ?
26*
306 METALS.

3.35-3-65. Composition, sulphur 30, arsenic 70. Like

the preceding before the blowpipe. From Hungary, Bohe-
mia, Saxony, the Hartz, Switzerland, and Koordistan in
Asiatic Turkey. It has been observed in the lavas of
Vesuvius.
GENERAL REMARKS ON ARSENIC AND ITS ORES.
Arsenic is most used in the state of arsenous acid, called also white
arsenic. This substance is prepared principally at Joachimstahl in Bo-
hemia, and in Hungary, and is obtained from arsenical cobalt and iron.
These ores are roasted in reverberatory furnaces, (the cobalt ores for the
cobalt they contain,) and the vapors (which are white arsenic) are con-
densed in a long horizontal chimney; after undergoing a second subli-
mation, usually with a little potash, it is ready for commerce. The
manufacture is very destructive to life, and those engaged in it seldom
live over 30 or 35 years.
White arsenic, besides its use as a poison, is employed as a flux for
glass, and also to give a peculiar milky or porcelain-like hue to glass
ware. When too much is added, the glass becomesunsafe for domestic
use.

The sulphurets afford valuable pigments. Orpiment is the basis of

the pigment called king's yellow. The ammoniacal solution of orpi-
ment is recommended for dyeing. It affords a yellow which is perma-
nent, but is injured by soap. Realgar is used in the preparation of the
pyrotechnical compound called white Indian fire, which consists of 24
partsofsaltpeter, 7 of sulphur, and 2ofrealgar,finely powdered and well
mixed. It burns with a white flame and great brilliancy.
The sulphurets are obtained for commerce by distilling arsenical
pyrites and iron pyrites, (sulphuret of iron,) or from white arsenic and
rough brimstone ; the product is realgar or orpiment according to the
proportions employed.
Acombination of the arsenous acid with oxyd ofcopper, obtained by
mixing arsenite ofpotash and sulphate of copper, produces a fine green
pigment called Scheele's green.
Arsenic is mixed in a small quantity (less than 1 per cent.) with lead,
in the manufacture of shot, as it renders the metal more ready to break
up into minute drops when caused to fall through a sieve from a height,
as in the shot tower, and the grains assume a more spherical form
on the descent, besides being less malleable than if of pure lead. In
shot towers, the melted lead falls usually about 150 feet into a vessel
of water at the bottom of the tower. They are afterwards sifted in
sieves of different degrees of fineness, from No. 1, the finest, to No. 12,
and thus the several sizes of shot are separated and assorted. There
are still some imperfect shot among them; and to separate them the
shot are made by a shake to roll from trays a little inclined into a bin ;
those that are imperfect roll sluggishly and are behind in the movement,
and are thus separated to be melted over again.

How do orpimentand realgardiffer in composition ? From what ores

is arsenic obtained ? How is white arsenic prepared ? For what is
arsenic used ? How are shot made ?
 PLATINUM. 307

2. NOBLE METALS.

1. PLATINUM.-IRIDIUM . PALLADIUM .

NATIVE PLATINUM.

In flattened or angular grains or irregular masses. Crys-

talline form cubic, and also rhombohedral, the metal being
dimorphous. Cleavage none.
Color and streak pale or dark steel-gray. Luster metallic,
shining. Ductile and malleable. H-4-4.5. Gr= 16-
19.
Composition. Platinum is usually combined with more or
less of the rare metals Iridium, Rhodium, Palladium, and
Osmium, besides copper and iron, which give it a darker
color than belongs to the pure metal, and increase its hard-
ness. ARussian specimen afforded, platinum 78.9, iridium
5.0, osmium and iridium 1.9, rhodium 0.9, palladium 0.3,
copper 0.7, iron 11.0 = 98.75.
Platinum is soluble in heated aqua regia. It is one of
the most infusible substances known, being wholly unaltered
before the blowpipe. It is very slightly magnetic, and this
quality is increased by the iron it may contain.
Dif. Platinum is at once distinguished by its malleabil-
ity and extreme infusibility.
Obs. Platinum was first detected in grains in the alluvial
deposits of Choco and Barbagoa in South America, where it
received the name platina, a diminutive of the word plata,
meaning silver. It was discovered by Ulloa, a Spanish
traveler in America, in the year 1735, and was made known
in Europe in 1748. It has since been found in the Urals,
on Borneo, in the sands of the Rhine, and in those of the river
Jocky, St. Domingo ; and recently traces have been observed
in the United States, in North Carolina.
The Ural localities of Nischne Tagilsk, and Goroblagodat,
have afforded much the larger part of the platinum of com-
merce. It occurs, as elsewhere, in alluvial beds ; but the
courses of platiniferous alluvium have been traced to a great
extent up Mount La Martiane, which consists of crystalline
What is the condition and appearance of native platinum ? What
is said of its crystallization ? What is its specific gravity? With what
isitusually combined? Where and when was it first found ? Where
else does it occur ?
308 METALS .

rocks, and is the origin ofthe detritus. One to three pounds

are procured from 3700 pounds ofsand.
Though commonly in smallgrains, masses ofconsiderable
size have occasionally been found. Amass weighing 1088
grains was brought by Humboldt from South America and
deposited in the Berlin Museum. Its specific gravity was
18-94. In the year 1822, a mass from Condoto was de-
posited in the Madrid museum, measuring 2 inches and 4
lines in diameter, and,weighing 11,641 grains. A more
remarkable specimen was found in the year 1827 in the
Urals, not far from the Demidoff mines, which weighed 114
(more accurately, 11.57) pounds troy ; and similar masses
are now not uncommon. The largest yet discovered weighed
21 pounds troy; it is in the Demidoffcabinet.
Russia affords annually about 80 cwt. of platinum, which
is nearly ten times the amount from Brazil, Columbia, St.
Domingo, and Borneo. Borneo affords six or eight hundred
pounds per year. :

The North Carolina platinum was found with gold in

Rutherford county. It was a single reniform granule, weigh-
ing 2.54 grains. Other instances are reported from the
southern gold region.
Uses. The infusibility of platinum and its resistance to
the action ofthe air, and moisture and most chemical agents,
renders it ofgreat value for the construction ofchemical and
philosophical apparatus. The large vessels employed in the
concentration ofsulphuric acid are nowmade ofplatinum, as
it is unaffected by this corrosive acid. It is also used for
crucibles and capsules in chemical analysis; for galvanic bat-
teries ; as foil or worked into cups or forceps for supporting
objects before the blowpipe. It alloys readily when heated
with iron, lead, and several of the metals, and is also at.
tacked bycaustic potash, and phosphoric acid, in contact with
carbon; and consequently there shouldbe caution when heat-
ing it not to expose it to these agents.
It is employed for coating copper and brass ; also for
painting porcelain and giving it a steel luster, formerly highly
prized. It admits of being drawn into wire ofextreme ten-
uity : Dr. Wollaston obtained a wire not exceeding a two-
thousandth ofan inch in diameter.
Platinum is coined in Russia, but is not a legal tender.

What are the uses of platinum ?

 PLATINUM. 309

The coins have the value of 11 and 22 rubles each. The

amount coined from 1826 to 1844 equals 21 millions of
dollars.
For many years after its discovery, platinum was almost a
useless metal on account of the difficulty of obtaining it in
masses. The grains weld when heated,but because of their
small size, this was interminable labor, and moreover the
metal was not pure. Dr. Wollaston introduced the process
now in use, which consists in dissolving the metal in nitro-
muriatic acid, and throwing down from the solution an orange
precipitate by means of muriate of ammonia. This precipi-
tate (a double chlorid ofplatinum and ammonium) is then
heated and thus reduced to the metallic state ; the platinum is
now in an extremely minute state of division. This black
powder (" spongy platinum") is next compressed in steel
moulds by the aid ofheat and strong pressure ; and when
sufficiently compact, is forged under the hammer and then re-
duced at last to solid masses.
This metal fuses readily before the " compound blowpipe ;"
and Dr. Hare succeeded in 1837 in melting twenty-eight
ounces into one mass.* The metal was almost as malle-
able and as good for working as that obtained by the other
process ; it had a specific gravity of 19.8. He afterwards
succeeded in obtaining from the ore masses which were 90
per cent. platinum, and as malleable as the metal in ordinary
use, though somewhat more liable to tarnish, owing to some
ofits impurities.
Platin- iridium . Grains of iridium have been obtained at Nischne
Tagilsk, consisting of 76.8 iridium, and 19.64 platinum, with some
palladium and copper. A similar platin-iridium has been obtained at
Ava in the East Indies. Another from Brazil contained 27·8 iridium,
55-5 platinum, and 6.9 of rhodium.
Iridosmine. A compound of iridium and osmium from the platinum
mines of Russia, South America and the East Indies. The crystals
are pale steel-gray hexagonal prisms: occurs usually in flat grains.
H=6.7. Gr=19.5-21.1 . Malleable with difficulty.
The composition varies. One variety contains iridium 46.8, osmiuin
49.3, rhodium 3.2, iron 0.7. Another, iridium 25.1 , osmium 74.9 ;
another, iridium 20, osmium 80. They are distinguished by their su-
perior hardness from the grains of platinum, and also by the peculiar
odor of osmium when heated with niter.

What is the value of Russian platinum coins ? How is platinum

worked into masses ?

* Amer. Jour. Sci. , xxxiii, 195 ; xxxvlii, 155, 163, and ii ser. iv, 39.
310 METALS.

The metal iridium is extremely hard, and is used aswell as rhodium

for nibs to gold pens. Its specific gravity is 21.8. Rhodium (1 to2 per
cent.) gives great hardness to steel, and would be a useful metal were
it more abundant.

NATIVE PALLADIUM.

Form supposed to be the regular octahedron. Occurs

mostly in grains, apparently composed of divergent fibers.
Color steel-gray, inclining to silver-white. Ductile and
malleable. H. above 4.5. Gr-11 ·8-12-2 .
Consists of palladium, with some platinum and iridium.
Fuses with sulphur, but not alone.
Obs. Occurs in Brazil with gold, and is distinguished
from platinum with which it is associated by the divergent
structure of its grains. Selenpalladite is nothing but the
native palladium ; and eugenesite is a similar compound.
Uses. This metal is malleable, and when polished has a
splendid steel-like luster which does not tarnish. A cup
weighing 34 pounds was made by M. Breant in the mint at
Paris, and is now in the garde-meuble of the French crown.
In hardness it is equal to fine steel. 1 part fused with 6 of
gold forms a white alloy ; and this compoundwas employed,
at the suggestion of Dr. Wollaston, for the graduated part of
the mural circle, constructed by Troughton for the Royal
Observatory at Greenwich. Palladium has been employed
also for certain surgical intruments.
Quite large masses of the metal palladium are brought
from Brazil. It is extracted from the auriferous sands by
first fusing it with silver, and consequently forming a quater-
nary alloy of gold, palladium, silver and copper, which is
granulated by projecting it into water. By means of nitric
acid all but the gold is dissolved; and from the solution, the
silver is first precipitated by common salt as an insoluble
chlorid, and then, after separating the chlorid, the palladium
and copper are precipitated by plates of zinc. This pre.
cipitate is redissolved in nitric acid, an excess of ammonia
added, and then hydrochloric acid sufficient to saturate ; a
double chlorid of palladium and ammonia is deposited as
acrystalline yellow powder, which on calcination produces
spongy palladium.

Describe native palladium ? Where and how does it occur ? How i

it used ?
 METALS. 811

2. GOLD.

God occurs mostly native,being either pure or alloyed

with silver and other metals. It is occasially found miner-
alized by tellurium.
NATIVE GOLD .

Monometric. In cubes, withoutcleavage. Also ingrains,

thin laminæ and masses ; sometimes filiform or reticulated.
Color various shades of gold-yellow ; occasionally nearly
silver-white, from the silver present. Very ductile and mal-
leable. H=2.5-3. Gr-12-20, varying according to
the metals alloyed with the gold.
Composition. Native gold usually contains silver, and in
very various proportions. The finest native gold from Rus-
sia yielded gold 98.96, silver 0.16, copper 0.35, iron 0.05 ;
Gr= 19.099. A gold from Marmato afforded only 73-45
per cent. ofgold, with 26.48 per cent. of silver ; Gr
=12.666.
This last is in the proportion of3 of gold to 1 of silver. The
following proportions also have been observed : 31 to 1 ; 5
to 1 ; 6 to 1 ; 8 to 1, and this is the most common ; 12 to 1,
also offrequent occurrence.
Copper is often found in alloy with gold, and also palla-
dium and rhodium. A rhodium-gold from Mexico gave the
specific gravity 15-5-16-8, and contained 34 to 43 per cent.
ofrhodium.
Dif. Iron and copper pyrites are often mistaken for gold
bythose inexperienced in ores. Gold is at once distinguished
by being easily cut in slices and flattening under a hammer.
The pyrites when pounded are reduced to powder ; iron
pyrites is too hard to yield at all to a knife, and copper pyr-
ites affords a dull greenish powder. Moreover, the pyrites
give off sulphur when strongly heated, while gold melts with-
out any such odor.
Obs. Native gold is to a large extent obtained from allu-
vial washings. It is also found disseminated through certain
rocks, especially quartz and talcose rocks, and it is often
In what condition does gold occur in nature ? What is the crystal-
lization of native gold ? What are its common forms in the rocks ?
Mention its characters. With what is it alloyed ? How is gold dis-
tinguished from iron and copper pyrites? How is gold obtained, and
from what rocks ?
312 METALS.

contained in pyrites, constituting the auriferous pyrites ; the

detritus affording gold dust has proceeded from some gold.
bearing rocks.
Gold is widely distributed over the globe. It occurs in
Brazil (where formerly a greater part of that used was ob-
tained) along the chain ofmountains which runs nearly par-
allel with the coast, especially near Villa Rica, and in the
province of Minas Geraes ; in New Grenada at Antioquia,
Choco, and Giron; in Chili ; sparingly in Peru and Mexico;
in the southern of the United States. In Europe, it is most
abundant in Hungary at Konigsberg, Schemnitz and Felso-
banya, and in Transylvania at Kapnik, Vorospatak, and Of-
fenbanya; it occurs also in the sands of the Rhine, the
Reuss and the Aar ; on the southern slope of the Pennine
Alps from the Simplon and Monte Rosa to the valley of
Aosta ; in Piedmont ; in Spain, formerly worked in Asturias ;
in the county of Wicklow, Ireland; in Sweden at Edelfors.
In the Urals are valuable mines at Berezof, and other
places on the eastern or Asiatic flank ofthis range, and the
comparatively level portions of Siberia ; also in the Altai
mountains. Also in the Cailas mountains in Little Thibet.
There are mines in Africa at Kordofan, between Darfour
and Abyssinia; also south of Sahara in the western part of
Africa, from the Senegal to Cape Palmas ; also along the
coast opposite Madagascar, between the 22 and 35 degrees
south latitude, supposed to have been the Ophir of the time
of Solomon. Other regions are China, Japan, Formosa,
Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, western coast of Borneo, and the
Philippines.
Nearly all the gold ofcommerce comes from Asiatic Rus-
sia, Brazil, Bohemia and Transylvania, Africa, the East
India Islands, and the United States : the whole amount an-
nually obtained has been estimated at 36 tons.
The Russian mines are at present the most productive in
the world. They are principally alluvial washings, and these
washings seldomyieldmore than 65 grains ofgold for 4000
pounds ofsoil ; never more than 120 grains. The alluvium
is generally most productive where the loose material is most
ferruginous. The mines of Ekaterinburg are in the parent
rock-a quartz constituting veins in a half decomposed
What is said ofthe distribution ofgold over the globe ? What coun-
tries afford the greatest part ofthe gold of commerce ? What country
yields the most gold at the present time ?
 GOLD. 313

granite called "beresite," which is connected with talcose

and chloritic schists. The shafts are sunk vertically in the
beresite, seldom below 25 feet, and from them lateral gal-
leries are run to the veins. These mines afforded between
the years 1725 and 1841, 679 poods ofgold, or about 30,000
pounds troy. The whole of the Russian mines yielded in
1842, 970 poods of golds, or 42,000 pounds troy, halfof
which wasfromSiberia, east ofthe Urals. In 1843, the yield
was nearly 60,000 pounds troy, or about $ 13,000,000 ; in
1845, it amounted to $ 13,250,000 ; and in 1846, to 1722-746
poods, equal to 75,353 troy pounds, and $16,500,000.*
At the Transylvania mines ofVöröspatak, the gold is ob.
tained by mining, and these mines have been worked since
the time of the Romans .
The annual yield of Europe, exclusive of Russia, is not
above $ 1,000,000. Austria afforded in 1844, 6785 marks.
The sands of the Rhone, Rhine, and Danube contain gold in
small quantites. The Rhine has been most productive be.
tween Bâle and Manheim; but at present only $9000 are
extracted annually. The sands of the richest quality con.
tain only about 56 parts ofgold in a hundred millions ; sands
containing less than half this proportion are worked. The
whole amount of gold in the auriferous sand of the Rhine
is estimated at $30,000,000, but it is mostly covered by soil
under cultivation.
Africayields annuallyatleast 4500pounds troy,($850,000,)
and Southern Africa 1250 pounds, ($235,000.)
The mines of South America and Mexico were estimated
by Humboldt to yield annually about $11,500,000 ; but the
amount has much diminished. Brazil of late has furnished
about 17,500 pounds troy. It is estimated that between
1790 and 1830, Mexico produced $31,250,000 in gold, Chili
$13,450,000, and Buenos Ayres $19,500,000, making an
average annual yield of $ 16,050,000.
The mines ofthe United States have produced of late about
a million ofdollars a year. They are mostly confined to the
۱

What amount was furnished by Russia in 1846 ? What is the an-

nual yield of the mines of the United States ?

*The value of gold, silver, and platinum coined in Russia from 1644
to 1844, at present rates, equals 545,360,317 silver rubles, or 409,020,000
dollars; in addition to which, during the same period, the value of
37,500,000 dollars in copper was coined.
27
314 METALS .

states ofVirginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia,

or along a line from the Rappahannock to the Coosa in
Alabama. But the region may be said to extend north to
Canada; for gold has been found at Canaan, N. H., Ded.
ham, Mass., Albion, Maine, and on the Chaudiére river in
Canada.
In Virginia, the principal deposits are in Spotsylvania
county, on the Rappahannock, at the United States mines and
at other places to the southwest ; in Stafford county, at the
Rappahannock gold mines, ten miles from Falmouth ; in Cul-
pepper county, at the Culpepper mines, on Rapidan river ; in
Orange county, at the Orange grove gold mine, and at the
Greenwood gold mines; in Goochland county, at Moss and
Busby's mines ; in Louisa county, at Walton's gold mine ;
inBuckingham county, at Eldridge's mine. In North Car-
olina, the gold region is mostly confined to the three ranges
ofcounties between Frederick and Charlotte, which are sit-
uated about in a line running NE. and sw., parallel nearly
with the coast. The mines at Mecklenburg are principally
veindeposits; those of Burke, Lincoln, and Rutherford, are
mostly in alluvial soil. The Davidson county silver mine
had afforded $7000 gold in 1844. In Georgia, the Shelton
gold mines in Habersham county have long been famous ;
and many other places have been opened in Rabun and
Hall counties, and the Cherokee country. In South Caro-
lina, the principal gold regions are the Fairforest in Union
district, and the Lynch's creek and Catawba regions, chiefly
in Lancaster and Chesterfield districts ; also in Pickens
county, adjoining Georgia. There is gold also in eastern
Tennessee.
Viewing the gold region of the United States as a whole,
it is perceived that it ranges along the Appalachians, par-
ticularly the eastern slope, from Maine to Alabama, having
nearly a northeast and southwest course.
The table here given, from the records of the United
States mint at Philadelphia, shows the amount of gold af-
forded by the gold mines of the country since 1824.* For
an account ofthe California mines, see Appendix, p. 430.
* This table was kindly furnished the author by R. M. Patterson,
Esq., Director ofthe U. S. Mint at Philadelphia.
 Gold
,from
branches
its
and
States
United
of
Mint
the
at
Coinage
for
.Deposited
Mines
S.
U.
Mint
and
UNITED
.
MINT
STATES
DEPOSITED
THE
AT .
MINTS
BRANCH
THE
AT
DEPOSITED branches
.
Branch
Branch Total
Total
at Total
at
South
North Georgia
Tennessee
.A labama Various the
S.
U. at
mint
mint
at
mint deposits
branch
the
.
Virginia . arolina
C
Carolina Dahlonega
Charlotte
,N ew S.
U.
of
sources
. Mint
. mints
.
Carolina
.ON rleans
.Georgia .
gold

Periods .
1824 5
$ ,000 5
$ ,000 ,000
5$
1825 17,000 17,000 17,000
1826 20,000 20,000 20,000
1827 21,000 21,000 21,000
1828 -
46,000 46,000 46.000
1829 134,000
2
$ ,500 3,500
$ 140,000 140.000
204,000
24,000
1830 26,000
212,000
$ 466.000 466,000
294,000
1831
26,000 1
176,000
,000
22,000
$ $ ,000
520,000
1 520,000
458,000
1832
34,000 1,000
140,000
45,000 678,000 678,000
216,000
66,000
475,000
104,000
1833 7,009 868,000 868,000
380,000
62,000
1834 415,000
38,000 3,000 898.000 898,000
263,500
60.400
1835 319,900
42,400 100 698,500
12,200 698,500
148,100
62,000
1836 201,400
55,200 300 467,000 467,000
116.900
1837
52,100 29,400 83,600 282,000 282,000
-

66,000
1838
55,000 36,000
13,000 1,500 171,700 1$$
735,700
00
$27.000 2$63,400 435,100
-

53,500
57,600
1839 6,300 20,300 300 500
$ 138,500 126,836 6,869
113,035 246,740 385,240
1840
36.804
38,995 91,113
5,319 104 4,431 124,726
176,766 121,858
2,835 249,419 426,1.85
70,431
25,736
1841 3,440 139,796 1,212 1.863 129,847
248,478 1.818
161,974 293,639
542,117

||||||| ཧྰུྃ ||||||||

61,629
42,163
1842 233 150,276 5,579 174.508
323,372 5,630
273,587 503,510 777,097
-

62,873
1843
48,148 5,099 56,619 2,788 4,786 272,064
180,728 570,080
22,573 864,717
1,045,445
194,917
1844
40,595 30,739
11,856 2,240 12,298 295.022 167.348 25,036
479.794 672,178
967,200
1845
365,886
86,783 17,325
5,386 3,202 6,472 489,382 -
20.313
498,632 1,008,327
518,945
386,105
1846
55,538 100,641 2,642
13,601 7,542 466,069 196,381 21,758
455,149 1,139,357
673,288
99,491
1847
67,736 1,102 10,547 2,511
2,022 9,256
344,054
183,409
352.366 705,676
889,085
945,294
3,886,136 479,866 12,741,653
3.211.960
4,991,512
116.788
34,247
1,662.764
7,750,141
28,899
45,493
2,330,246
316 METALS.

The gold rock of the United States is to a great extent a

micaceous or talcose schist, with veins or beds of quartz.
The gold is mostly confined to these veins, though also found
to some extent in the rock either side. The schist is often
halfdecomposed or rusted. The quartz is usually more or
less cellular, or wanting in perfect compactness, and some-
times tabular ; yet it is at times quite solid. Iron pyrites is
frequently present, and by decomposition it stains the rock
with iron rust. Other minerals often associated with the
gold, are copper pyrites, blende, galena, anglesite, sulphur,
(inminute yellow crystals, proceeding from the decomposi-
tion of pyrites.) Heavy spar is sometimes a large consti-
tuent of the vein, and fluor spar is now and then present.
The peculiar appearance of the quartz, somewhat cellular,
more or less rusted, and its position in veins though an im-
perfect shale, and generally not firmly attached to the en-
closing walls, affords the best indication of the presence of
gold, though the absence ofall these conditions is not evi-
dence that no gold is to be found. The grains of goldmay
sometimes be seen in the cavities of the quartz, or it sparkles
on a surface of fracture. But very commonly a mass of
quartz that shows nothing to the eye, yields gold on trial.
Masses of gold of considerable size have been found in
North Carolina. The largest was discovered in Cabarras
county ; it weighed twenty-eight pounds avoirdupois, (" steel-
yard weight," equals 37 lbs. troy,) and was 8 or 9 inches long
by4 or 5broad, and about an inch thick. In Paraguay, pieces
from 1 to 50 pounds weight were taken from a mass of rock
which fell from one of the highest mountains. Several
specimens weighing 16pounds have been found in the Ural,
and one of 27 pounds : and in the valley of Taschku-Tar-
ganka, in 1842, a mass was detached weighing very nearly
100 pounds troy. This mass is now in the musuem of the
Institute of Mining Engineers at St. Petersburgh.
An examination of a gold rock for gold is an extremely
simple process. The rock is first pounded up fine and sifted ;
a certain quantity of the sand thus obtained is washed in a
shallow iron pan, and as the gold sinks, the material above is
allowed to pass off into some receptacle. The largest
part of the gold is thus left in the angle ofthe pan ; by a re-
petition ofthe process a further portion is obtained; and when
What is said of the gold rock of the United States ?
 GOLD. 317

the bulk ofsand is thus reduced to a manageable quantity,

the gold is amalgamated with clean mercury ; the amalgam
is next strained to separate any excess ofmercury, and final-
ly is heated and the mercury expelled, leaving the gold. In
this way by successive trials with the rock, the proportion
ofgold is quite accurately ascertained. It is the same pro-
cess used with the largerwashings, though ona small scale.
Mercury unites readily with gold, and thus separates it from
any associated rock or sand; and it is employed in all exten-
sive gold minings, though much gold may be cften obtained
by simple washing without amalgamation.
The operation of hand washing is called inVirginia pan-
ning. With a small iron pan, they washthe earth in atub or
in some brook, and thus extract much gold from the gravel or
soil, which is said to pan well orpan poorly according to the
result. Masses of quartz, with no external indications of
gold, examined in the above way at a Virginia mine, afford-
ed an average of more than eight dollars to the bushel of
gold rock.
When gold is alloyed with copper or silver, the mode of
assay for separating the copper depends on the process of
cupellation ; and that for separating the silver, on the
power of nitric acid to dissolve silver without acting on the
gold.
The process of cupellation consists in heating the assay
in asmall cup (called a cupel,) made of bone ashes, (or in
acavity containing bone ashes,) while the atmosphere has
free access. The heated metal is oxydated by the air pass-
ing1over it, and the oxyd formed sinks into the2porous cup,
leaving the precious metal
behind. The shape of the
cupel is shown in fig. 1. In
order to fuse the alloy and .....
still have the atmosphere
circulating over it, the cupel is placed in a small oven-shaped
vessel, called a muffle (fig. 2 :) it is of infusible stone ware,
and has a number of oblong holes, through which to admit
the flame from the fire, and give exit to the atmosphere
which passes into it. The muffle is inserted in a hole fitting
it in the side of a vertical furnace, with the open mouth out-
How is a rock examined for gold ? What are the processes for sepa-
rating gold from silver or copper ? Describe the process of cupellation.
27*
318 METALS.

ward and even nearly with the exterior surface of the fur.
nace. The fire is made within the furnace, below, around,
and above ; and afterheating up, the cupel is put in the muffle
with the assay in its shallow cup-shaped cavity. It thus has
the heat of the furnace to fuse the assay, and the air at the
same time is drawn in over it through the large opening of
the muffle. The oxygen of the atmosphere unites with the
lead of the assay, and produces an oxyd, which oxyd sinks
into the cupel, leaving the silver or gold behind. The com-
pletion of the process is at once known by the change ofthe
assay suddenly to a bright shining globule.
Inthe cupellation ofgold containing copper, lead is melted
with the assay. The lead on being fused in adraft of air oxy-
dizes, and also promotes the oxydation of the copper, and
both oxyds disappear in the pores of the cupel leaving the
gold behind, and the silver alloyed with it. Inthis process
the gold is melted with three times its weight of silver, (c
quartation as it is termed, thegold being one part out of four
of the alloy,) in order by its diffusion to effect a more com-
plete removal of the silver as well as the contained copper.
The cupel is placed in the heated furnace, and the gold, sil.
ver, and lead, on the cupel ; the heat is continued until the
surface of the metal is quiet and bright, when the cupella-
tion is finished ; the metal then is slowly cooled and re-
moved. The button obtained, after annealing it by bringing
it to a red heat, is rolled out into a thin plate and boiled in
strong nitric acid. This process is repeated two or three
times with a change of the acid each time, and the silver is
thus finally removed. At the United States mint, half a
gramme of the gold is submitted to assay. The assay-gold
and quartation-silver are wrapped in a sheet of lead weigh-
ing about ten times as much as the gold under assay. After
cupellation, the plate of gold and silver, loosely rolled into a
coil, is boiled for 20 minutes in 44 oz. ofnitric acid, of20 to
22 Beaumé ; the acid is then poured off and another por-
tion of stronger acid is added, about half the former quantity,
and boiled 10 minutes ; then the same again. The gold
thus purified is washed and exposed to a red heat, for the
purpose ofdrying and annealing it, and then weighed.
Uses. The uses of gold are well known ; and also that
it owes a great part of its value to its extreme malleability,
and the fact of its not tarnishing on exposure. Although a
costly metal, it is one of the cheapest means of ornament,
 SILVER ORES . 319

on account of the thinness of the leaves into which it

is beaten. A grain of the metal may be made to cover
564 square inches of surface, and the thinnest leaf is but
1-280,000th ofan inch thick.
Perfectly pure gold is denominated gold of 24 carats, or
finegold. If it contains 22 parts ofpure gold to 2 of silver,
or to 1 ofcopper and 1 of silver, it is said to be 22 carats fine ;
so also for 20 carats fine, it contains 20 parts of pure gold.
The carat is divided into 4,, 고어, 공호 parts, for a more min-
ute specification of the quality of gold.
The standard gold of the United States consists of 900
parts of gold to 100 of an alloy of copper and silver. The
eagle (10 dollars) contains 232 grains of fine gold.
Aurotellurite, and Graphic Tellurium, are two species containing
gold combined with Tellurium.
3. SILVER.

Silver occurs native and alloyed ; also mineralized with

sulphur, selenium, arsenic, chlorine, bromine, or iodine, and
in combination with different acids.
The ores of silver fuse easily and decompose before the
blowpipe, affording a globule of silver either alone or with
soda; the globule is known to be silver by its flattening
out readily under a hammer, and also by its sectility. The
species vary in specific gravity from 5.5 to 10.5.
NATIVE SILVER.

Monometric. In octahedrons. No cleavage apparent.

Occurs often in filiform and arborescent shapes, the threads
having a crystalline character ; also in laminæ.
Color and streak silver-white and shining. Sectile. Mal-
leable. H=2.5-3. Gr- 10·3-10.5 .
Composition : native silver is usually an alloy of silver and
copper, the latter ingredient often amounting to 10 per cent.
It is also alloyed with gold, as mentioned under that metal.
A bismuth silver from Copiapo, S. A., contained 16 per cent.
ofbismuth.

What surfacemaya grain ofgold be made tocover ? How much

pure gold is there in the American eagle ? What is the use of the
term carat ? What is the condition of silver in nature ? Describe na-
Live silver.
320 METALS.

Before the blowpipe it fuses easily and affords a globule

which becomes angular on cooling. Dissolves in nitric acid,
from which it is precipitated by putting in a clean piece of
copper.
Dif. Distinguished by being malleable ; from bismuth
and other white native metals by affording no fumes before
the blowpipe ; by affording a solution with muriatic acid,
which becomes black on exposure.
Obs. Native silver occurs in masses and string-like ar-
borescences, penetrating rocks, and is found in igneous rocks
and in sedimentary strata, in the vicinity of dikes of trap
and porphyry.
The mines of Norway, at Kongsberg, formerly afforded
magnificent specimens of native silver, but they are now
mostly under water. One specimen from this locality, at
Copenhagen, weighs five hundred pounds. Other European
localities are in Saxony, Bohemia, the Hartz, Hungary,
Dauphiny. Peru and Mexico also afford native silver. A
Mexican specimen from Batopilas, weighed when obtained,
400 pounds; and one from Southern Peru, (mines ofHuan-
tajaya,) weighed over 8 cwt. In the United States, elegant
specimens are associated with the native copper of Lake Su-
perior. The silver generally penetrates the copper in masses
and strings, and is very nearly pure, notwithstanding the
copper about it.
Much ofthe galena of the west contains a very small per
centage ofsilver, and that ofMonroe, Conn., yields nearly 3
per cent.
Native silver has also been observed near the Sing Sing
state prison ; at the Bridgewater copper mines, N. J.; and
in handsome specimens at King's mine, Davidson county,
North Carolina.
Uses. The uses of silver are, for the manufacture of va-
rious articles of luxury, for plating other metals, for philo-
sophical instruments, for coinage, and also various purposes
in the arts. For coins, it is alloyed in this country with
copper, and is thus rendered harder and more durable ; 1000
parts of the coin contains 100 parts of copper. When this
alloy is boiled with a solution of cream of tartar and sea-
salt, or scrubbed with water of ammonia, the superficial
How is native silver distinguished ? How does it occur and in what
rocks ? Where does silver occur in the U. States, and how? What
are the uses of silver ?
 SILVER ORES . 321

particles of copper are removed, and1.surface of fine silver

is left. Silver is much less malleable than gold, and can-
not be beaten into unbroken leaves less than 160,000th
part of an inch thick.
In expressing in the arts the purity of silver, ifabsolutely
pure, it is said to be silver of 12 pennyweights ; if it con-
tain of its weight of alloy it is called silver of 11 penny.
weights ; if 2-12ths be alloy, it is called silver of 10 penny-
weights, and so on.
VITREOUS SILVER.-Sulphuret of Silver.
Monometric. In dodecahedrons more or less modified.
Fig. 22a, page 30, and also other modifications. Cleavage
sometimes apparent parallel to the faces of
the dodecahedron. Also reticulated and mas-
sive.
Luster metallic. Color and streak black- E
ish lead-gray ; streak shining. Brittle. H =
2-2.5 . Gr=7.19-7.4.
Composition : when pure, silver 87.04, sulphur 12.96.
Before the blowpipe it intumesces, gives off an odor of sul-
phur, and finally affords aglobule of silver. Soluble in di-
lute nitric acid.
Dif. Resembles some ores ofcopper and lead, and other
ores of silver, but is distinguished as a sulphuret by giving
the odor of sulphur before the blowpipe, and as an ore of
silver by affording a globule of this metal, by heat alone.
Its specific gravity is much higher than any copper ores.
Obs. This important ore of silver occurs in Europe,
principally at Annaberg, Joachimstahl, and other mines of
the Erzgebirge; at Schemnitz, and Kremnitz, in Hungary,
and at Freiberg in Saxony. It is a common ore at theMex-
ican silver mines, and also in the mines of South America.
Amass of sulphuret of silver, is stated by Troost, to have
been found in Sparta, Tennessee. It also occurs with na-
tive silver and copper in Northern Michigan.
Uses. This is a common and highly valuable ore of sil-
ver.

Besides this sulphuret of silver there are two others, which contain
also sulphuret of iron or copper.

What is the appearance ofvitreous silver ? Whatis its composition?

What is its value ? How is it distinguished ?
322 METALS.

Stromeyerite. This is a steel-gray sulphuret of silver and copper,

containing 52 per cent. of silver. Gr=6.26. Before the blowpipe it
fuses and gives an odor of sulphur ; but a silver globule is not obtained
except by cupellation with lead. A solution in nitric acid covers a
plate of iron with copper, and a plate of copper with silver indicating
the copper and silver present. From Peru, Siberia, and Europe.
Sternbergite. A sulphuret ofsilver and iron containing 33 per cent.
of silver. It is a highly foliated ore resembling graphite, and like it
leaving a tracing on paper; the thin lamine are flexible and may be
smoothed out by the nail. Luster metallic, color pinchbeck brown.
Streak black. It affords the odor of sulphur and a globule covered
with silver on charcoal, before the blowipe. With borax a globule of
silver is obtained. From Joachimstahl, in Bohemia.

BRITTLE SILVER ORE.-Sulphuret of Silver and Antimony.

Trimetric. In modified right rhombic prisms. M : M=
115° 39′. No perfect cleavage. Often in compound crys-
tals. Also massive.
Luster metallic ; streak and color iron-black. H= 2-2.5.
Gr
= 6.27 .
Composition : Sulphur 16.4, antimony 14.7, silver 68.5,
copper 0.6. Before the blowpipe it gives an odor of sulphur
and also fumes ofantimony, and yields a dark metallic glob-
ule from which silver may be obtained by the addition of
soda. Soluble in dilute nitric acid, and the solution indi-
cates the presence of silver by silvering aplate ofcopper.
Dif. The black color of this ore distinguishes it from
the preceding ; and more decidedly the fumes of antimony
given offbefore the blowpipe. By the trial with nitric acid
as well as by soda andthe blowpipe, it is ascertained to be
an ore of silver.
Obs. It occurs with other silver ores at Freiberg, Schnee.
berg, and Johanngeorgenstadt, in Saxony ; also in Bohe.
mia, and Hungary. It is an abundant ore in Chili, Peru,
and Mexico. It is sometimes called black silver.
An antimonial sulphuret of silver is said to occur with
native silver and native copper, at the copper mines in
Michigan.
Uses. This is a very important ore for obtaining silver,
especially at the South American mines.
Besides this there are other antimonial, and also arsenical and sele.
niferous ores of silver.

What is the composition of brittle silver ore ? its color and appear.
ance ? For what is it valued ?
 SILVER ORES . 323

Antimonial Silver, consists simply of silver and antimony, (84 parts

to 16,) and has nearly a tin-white color. Gr=94-9.8 . Before the
blowpipe gray fumes of antimony pass off, leaving finally a globule of
silver.
Polybasite is near brittle silver ore in color, specific gravity, and com-
position,but contains some arsenic and copper, with 64-3 per cent. of
silver. The crystals are usually in tabular hexagonal prisms, without
cleavage. From Mexico and Peru.
Miargyrite is an antimonial sulphuret of silver, containing but 36.5
per cent. of silver, and having a dark cherry-red streak, though iron-
black in color. Before the blowpipe gives off fumes of antimony and
an odor of sulphur; and with soda, aglobule is left which finally yields
abutton of pure silver.
Dark Red Silver Ore, and Light Red Silver Ore, are two allied ores
rhombohedral in their crystals. The former contains silver (59 per
cent.,) antimony, and sulphur, and has a color varying from black to
cochineal red, a metallic adamantine luster, and a red streak. H=2.5.
Gr
-5-7-5.9 .
The latter consists of silver, (64-7 per cent.) arsenic, and sulphur.
Its color and streak are cochineal red. H=2-2·5 . Gr=54-
5.6. Before the blowpipe these species fuse easily, give off fumes, one
of antimony, the other of arsenic; and finally a globule of silver is ob-
tained. They are abundant ores in Mexico, and occur also in Saxony,
Hungary, and Bohemia. These ores have been called ruby silver.
Eucairite is a seleniferous ore of silver and copper occurring in black
metallic films. It gives before the blowpipe fumes of selenium, having
an odor like that of decaying horse-radish. From Sweden. Another
seleniferous ore, from the Hartz, called selensilver, contains silver
and selenium, with a little lead, and crystallizes in cubes.
Telluric Silver is a Russian ore, of a steel-gray color, containing
silver 62-3 , and tellurium 36.9. Another variety contains 18 per cent.
of gold. Gr=8.3-8.8. With soda, silver is obtained.
Carbonate of Silver is a rare ore of an ash-gray color, consisting of
carbonic acid and oxyd of silver. It is easily reduced before the blow-
pipe.
HORN SILVER.-Chlorid of Silver.
Monometric. In cubes, with no distinct cleavage. Also
massive, and rarely columnar ; often incrusting.
Color gray, passing into green and blue, and looking
somewhat like horn or wax. Luster resinous, passing into
adamantine . Streak shining. Translucent to nearly opaque.
Cuts like wax or horn.
Composition : when pure, silver 75.3, chlorine 24.7.
Fuses in the flame ofa candle, and emits acrid fumes. Af-
fords silver easily on charcoal. The surface of a plate of
iron rubbed with it is silvered.

Describe horn silver. Of what does it consist ?

324 METALS .

Obs. A very common ore and extensively worked in the

mines of South America and Mexico, where it occurs with
native silver. It also occurs at the mines of Saxony, Sibe-
ria, Norway, the Hartz, and in Cornwall.
Iodic Silver. Bromic Silver. Silver also occurs in nature united
with iodine and bromine. These rare ores occur with the preceding
in Mexico, and the latter in Chile, and at Huelgoet, in Brittany.
Chenocoprolite, (gansekothig-erz of the Germans.) Mammillary, ofa
yellow or pale green color; luster resinous. Yields silver and allia-
ceous fumes before the blowpipe, and is supposed to be an arsenate of
silver and iron.

REMARKS ON SILVER AND ITS ORES.

The ores from which the silver of commerce is mostly obtained are
the vitreous silver, brittle or black silver ore, red silver ore and horn
silver, in addition to native silver. Besides these, silver is obtained in
large quantities from galena, (lead ore,) and from different ores ofcop-
per: and some galenas are so rich in silver that the lead is neglected
for the more precious metal. This metal occurs in rocks of various
ages, in gneiss, and allied rocks, in porphyry, trap, sandstone, lime-
stone, and shales ; andthe sandstone and shales may be as recent as the
middle secondary, as is the case in Prussia, and probably also in our
own Michigan mining region. The silver ores are associated often
with ores of lead, zinc, copper, cobalt, and antimony, and the usual
gangue is calc spar or quartz, with frequently fluor spar, pearl spar, or
.
'
heavy spar.
The silver of South America is derived principally from the horn sil-
ver, brittle silver ores, including arseniuretted silver ore, vitreous silver
ore, and native silver. Those of Mexico are of nearly the same charac-
ter. Besides, there are earthy ores called colorados, and in Peru pacos,
which are mostly earthy oxyd of iron, with a little disseminated silver ;
they are found near the surface where the rock has undergone partial
decomposition. The sulphurets of lead, iron, and copper, of the mining
regions, generally contain silver, and are also worked.
The mines of Mexico are most abundant between 18º and 24° north
latitude, on the back or sides of the Cordilleras and especially the west
side ; and the principal are those of the districts of Guanaxuato, Zaca-
tecas, Fresnillo, Sombrerete,Catorce, Oaxaca, Pachuca, Real del Monte,
Moran, and Pasco. The veins traverse very different rocks in these
regions. The vein of Guanaxuato, the most productive in Mexico, in-
tersects argillaceous and chloritic shale, and porphyry ; it affords one-
fourth of all the Mexican silver. The Valencian mine is the richest in
Guanaxuato, and has yielded for many years, from one to two millions
of dollars annually. In the district of Zacatecas the veins are in gray-

Where is horn silver a common ore ? From what ores is the silver
ofcommerce mostly obtained ? How do they occur ? What are the
common ores of South America ?
 SILVER ORES . 325

wacke. In Sombrerete they occur in limestone ; and there are exten-

sive veins of the antimonial sulphuret, one ofwhich gave in six months
700,000 marcs, (418,000 lbs. troy) of silver. The Pachuca, Real del
Monte, and Moran districts, are near one another. Four great parallel
veins transverse these districts, through a decomposed porphyry. From
the vein Biscaina, in Real del Monte, $5,000,000 were realized by the
Count de Regla, in twelve years.
In South America the Chilian mines are on the western slope of the
Cordilleras, and are connected mostly with stratified deposits, of a shaly,
sandstone, or conglomerate, character, or with their intersections with
porphyries. The chlorids and native amalgams are found in regions
more towards the coast, while the sulphurets and antimonial ores
abound nearer the Cordilleras. The mountains north of the valley of
Huasco contain the richest silver mines of Chili. The mines of Mt.
Chanarcillo produces at the present time more than 80,000 marcs of
silver per year. The veins abound in horn silver, and begin to yield
arsenio-sulphurets at a depth of about 500 feet. The mines of Punta
Brava, in Copiapo, which are nearer the Cordilleras, afford the arseni-
uretted ores.
In Peru, the principal mines are in the districts of Pasco, Chota, and
Huantaya. Those of Pasco are 15,700 feet above the sea, while those
ofHuantaya are in a low desert plain, near the port of Yquique, in the
southern part of Peru. The ores afforded are the same as in Chili.
The mines of Huantaya are noted for the large masses of native silver
they have afforded.
The Potosi mines in Buenos Ayres, occur in a mountain of argilla-
ceous shale, whose summit is covered by a bed of argillaceous porphyry.
The ore is the red silver, the vitreous ore along with native silver. It has
been estimated that they have afforded since their discovery $ 1,300,-
000,000. These mines have diminished in value, though they still rank
next to those of Guanaxuato .
In Europe the principal mines are those of Spain, of Kongsberg in
Norway, of Saxony, the Hartz, Austria, and Russia. The mines of
Kongsberg occur in gneiss and hornblende slate, in a gangue of calc
spar. They were especially rich in native silver, but are now nearly
exhausted. The silver of Spain is obtained mostly from galena, and
principally in the Sierra Almagrera in Grenada.
The mines of Saxony occur mostly in gneiss, in the vicinity of Frey-
berg, Ehrenfriedensdorf, Johangeorgenstadt, Annaberg and Schneeberg.
The ores of the Hartz are mostly argentiferous copper pyrites and
galena, yet the red silver, vitreous silver ore, brittle silver ore, and ar-
senical silver, occur, especially at Andreaskreutz, and the mines of that
vicinity. The rock intersected by the deposits is mostly an argillace-
ous shale. Carbonate of lime is the usual gangue, though it is some-
times quartz
In the Tyrol, Austria, sulphuret of silver, argentiferous gray copper,
and mispickel occur in agangue of quartz, in argillaceous schist. The
Hungarian mines at Schemmitz and Kremnitz , occur in syenite and
hornblende porphyry, in a gangue of quartz, often with calc spar or
heavy spar, and sometimes fluor. The ores arc sulphuret of silver

Where are the principal mines in Europe ?

28
326 METALS.

gray copper, galena,blende,pyritous copperand iron; and the galena,

and copperores are argentiferous.
The Russian mines ofKolyvan in the Altai, and of Nertchinsk in the
Daouriamountains, Siberia, (east of Lake Baikal,) are increasing in
value, and yield annually 76,500 marcs (47,800 troy pounds) of silver.
The Daouria mines afford an argentiferous galena which is worked for
its silver. It occurs in a crystalline limestone. The silver ores of the
Altai occur in silurian schists in the vicinity of porphyry, which con-
tain besides silver ores, gold, copper, and lead ores.
In England argentiferous galena is worked for its silver. 40,000
tons of the ore were reduced in 1837, one half of which contained 8 to
8 oz. ofsilver to the ton of lead, and the other half only 4 to 5 oz. of
silver.
In the United States, the Washington silver mine, in Davidson coun-
ty, N. Carolina, had afforded up to 1845, 30,000 dollars ofsilver. The
native silver of Michigan is associated with copper in trap and sand-
stone. These mines promise to be highly productive.
The silver mines ofthe world have been estimated to yield at the
present time $20,000,000 annually.
The annual product of the several countries of Europe is nearly as
follows:-
pounds troy. poundstroy.
British Isles. 7,500 | Saxony, the Hartz, and
France,
Austria,
4,150
63,000 Belgium,
other parts ofGermany, 78,500
440
Sweden and Norway, 13,000 Piedmont, Switzerland and
Spain, 130,000 Saxony, } 1,560
making in all 298,150 troy pounds, or about 4,500,000 dollars annually.
With the sum from Russia, about 730,000 dollars, it becomes 5,230,000
a year. This is small compared with the amount from America, which
at the beginning of the present century equalled 2,100,000 pounds, or
31 millions ofdollars, nearly six times the above sum ; and it is prob-
able that these mines will again yield this amount when properly
worked. The whole sum from Russia, Europe, and America, makes
nearly 2,000,000 pounds avoirdupois.
The common modes of reducing silver ores in the large way are two ;
by amalgamation, and by smelting. Both mercury and lead have a
strong affinity for silver, and these reducing processes are based on this
fact. In amalgamation,the silver ore is brought to the state of a chlo-
ridby a mixture of the powdered ore (or " schlich,") with about ten per
cent. of common salt ; the chlorid is reduced by means of salts or sul-
phurets of iron, or metallic iron in filings, and at the same time mer-
cury which has been added, combines with the liberated silver, and thus
separates it in the condition of an amalgam, (a compound ofmercury
and silver.) The mixture ofsalt and " schlich" requires several days to
become complete. Heat is employed at the Saxon mines, but not at
those of Mexico, where the climate is tropical. After the mercury is
put in, (6 or 8 parts to 1 ofsilver,) the mixture is kept in constant agi-

Where are the Russian mines ? What is the yield of the silver
mines of the world ? What was afforded by South America at the be-
ginning of this century ? Describe the process of amalgamation.
 SILVER ORES . 327

tation until the process is finished. In the best arrangements, as in

Saxony, this agitation is performed in revolving barrels, and the result
is accomplished in a few hours ; but in Mexico it is effected by the
treading ofmules or oxen, and requires two or three weeks or more.
The amalgam, separated from the muddy mass, by a current ofwater
or washing, is then filtered ofthe excess ofmercury; asa last step it is
subjected to heat in a distilling furnace, by which the silver is left be-
hind, the mercury passing off in a state of vapor to be condensed in a
condensing chamber or receptacle. The loss of mercury by the pro-
cess is oftenlarge.
Incase of the ordinary sulphurets and arseniurets of silver, or the
chlorid, in Mexico and South America, the poorer ores are first fused
with a flux, and the result, (called the " matt") is then roasted to expel
the sulphur ; afterwards it is mixed with better ores, again fused, and
on cooling, again roasted. This fusion and roasting is again repeated
with the best ores. The result from this fusion is next mixed thorough-
ly with melted lead ; the lead separates the silver ; and the impurities
which float on the surface, are removed in plates as a crust cools, to be
again melted with new ores, as the slag is apt to contain some of the
silver.
When the argentiferous galena is the ore, it is reducedby roasting in
•reverberatory furnace in the ordinary way for lead ore ; the resulting
bead contains also the silver.
The accompanying sketch represents the essential characters of a
reverberatory furnace. It is a transverse section. a is the grate on
which the fire is made,
and fromwhich the flame
e
proceeds throughthe hor-
izontal chamber or gen-
eral cavityofthe furnace,
(usually very low,) to
the flue at e. b is the
soleofthe hearth, for re-
receiving the ore or as-
say, having an elliptical or circular form according to the shape of
the furnace ; c is the fire bridge, separating the fire from the sole;
d is the arched roof. The flame plays horizontally over the charge of
ore, and as the air may be made to pass freely with it, we may have in
such a furnace a combined effect derived from the heat and the pres-
ence of the atmosphere ; the ore, or its metal, if capable ofuniting with
the oxygen of the atmosphere, may be oxydated by the process, pre-
cisely as in the outer or oxydating flame of the blowpipe. In an or-
dinary blast furnace, (page 233,) the ore and its flux are confined from
the atmosphere, (except the air that enters with the blast,) and the re-
sult is the reduction of an ore or its deoxydation, as in the inner or re-
ducing flame ofthe blowpipe. This latter effect may in many cases
be obtained also with a reverberatory furnace, when the atmosphere is
excluded except what is essential to feeding the fire.
In the reverberatory furnace, there is a small door near the fire-grate,
a, for putting in fuel. There is also an opening either at top, or on the

Describe a reverberatory furnace.

328 METALS.

side, for introducing the charge ; also there may be one ormore doors
on each side for working the charge while exposed to the heat. There
may also be a tap hole for drawing off the reduced metal into one or
more pots attached for the purpose; another in some cases for the es-
cape of slag as in cupellation,and where there is a vaporizable ingre-
dient to be condensed, one or two flues leading to a condensing cham-
ber. In large establishments several of these reverberatory furnaces
connect with a single chimney. They are actually like large elliptical
or circular ovens, of brick or stone, communicating with a common
flue.
In reverberatory furnaces adapted for melting metals, the hearth is
agently inclinedplane,sloping to a spot towards one end, in order that
the fused metal may flow down together and be convenient for drawing
off. For many other purposes, the sole is flat, and the depth is greater
than in the above figure.
To separate the silver from the lead, the lead is heated in a reverbe-
ratory furnace, the hearth of which is covered with wood ashes and
clay, so as to give it the nature of a cupel. The air received through
an aperture on one side,passes over the metal in fusion, in a constant
current, oxydizing it and changing it to litharge, which is from time to
time drawn out; finally the lead is thus removed, and the silver remains
nearly pure. The completion ofthe process is known by the metalbe-
coming brilliant. It is again subjected to another similar operation, and
thus rendered quite pure. The litharge from the latter part ofthe pro-
cess is also subjected to another operation for the silver it usually con-
tains.
According to Pattinson's new process, adopted in England, the silver
is separated by melting the lead, and, as it begins to cool, straining out
the crystals with an iron strainer. The portion left behind contains
nearly all the silver. This is several times repeated, each time the re .
maining lead becoming richer in silver. This is then cupelled. An
ore containing only 3 ounces of silver to the ton of lead, (or but 1-
10,000th part,) may thus be profitably worked, and with little loss of
lead.
When the ore containing silver is a copper ore, as is often the case
with gray copper ore, the calcined ore is mixed with lead or lead ore,
and fused and calcined, and the resulting products are either liquated to
sweat out the silver or cupelled. In liquation, the copper is run into
bigs, (called liquation cakes,) and kept above a redheat for two or three
days; the lead first melts and flows in drops into cast iron troughs, car-
rying with it the silver, which is afterwards obtained by cupelling.
The copper still contains some of the lead
In trials by cupellation, a piece of lead of known weight is placed in
acup ofbone-ashes, and this is subjected to heat in a small air cham-
ber or oven, and placed in a furnace so that the air shall have free ac-
cess. The lead is oxydized, and the oxyd sinks into the cupel, leaving
a globule of silver behind. The globule being then weighed, and com-
pared with the weight of lead, the proportion of silver is ascertained.
Silver may thus be found in almost any specimen of the lead of com-
What is the process ofamalgamation with an argentiferous lead ore ?
What is the mode of trial by cupellation ?
 SILVER ORES . 329

merce, however small the proportion. The weight of the globule, es-
pecially when quite minute, may be also ascertained by measurement,
according to a scale given by Prof. W. W. Mather, in the American
Journal of Science, volume iii, second series, page 414. Much that
has been mentioned in the preceding pages on the American mines of
silver, has been derived from an article by Prof. Mather, in volume
xxiv, of the same Journal.
Other modes of reducing silver ores without quicksilver, have been
proposed. According to one, the ore is calcined with common salt, as
in Mexico, and converted thus to achlorid. It is then removed to some
proper vessel , and ahot solution of salt poured over it ; this takes up
the chlorid of silver and holds it in solution. The liquid is transferred
to another vessel, and by means of metallic copper the silver is de-
posited.
Another process consists in roasting the sulphurets and converting
them in a reverberatory furnace to sulphates ; then by boiling water,
dissolving the sulphates in a proper vessel, and finally precipitating as
above by copper. This process requires the presence of a good deal of
sulphur, and is the best when there is much iron and copper pyrites
present.
In the assay to separate copper from silver, the alloy is dissolved in
nitric acid, and the silver precipitated in the state of a chlorid by com-
mon salt. The amount of silver may then be ascertained by weighing
the precipitated chlorid, and observing that 75-33 per cent. of the chlo-
rid is pure silver.
SUPPLEMENT TO THE DESCRIPTION OF MINERALS.

Bamlite. White or grayish-white; columnar. H= 6. Gr=2.98 .

Contains silica 56.9, alumina, 42, and 1 per cent. of peroxyd of iron.
From Norway. :

Berzeline. In minute white crystals from the Roman states. Ge-

latinizes .
Beudantite. A black mineral, with resinous luster: crystals rhom-
bohedral ; R : R=92° 30′ . Contains oxyds of lead and iron. From
Horhausen on the Rhine .
Castor. A colorless transparent, feldspar-like mineral, from Elba.
H= 6.5 . Gr=238-2.4. Angle between two distinct cleavages,
128 ° or 129°. Contains silica 78.0, alumina 18.9, oxyds of iron and
manganese 1.6, lithia, potash, and soda, 2.8.
Cereolite. A hydro-silicate of magnesia and alumina, occurring in
globules in wacke, and resulting from its decomposition.
Christianite. This is one of the names of anorthite. It has also
been recently applied to a mineral near Phillipsite, from Iceland, with
which the Marburg phillipsite is said to be identical.'
Danburite. Honey-yelow, vitreous. A hydrous silicate of lime.
Adoubtful species.
Gilbertite. In aggregated plates ; white or yellowish ; silky; trans-
lucent. H=2.75 . Gr 2.65. Composition : silica 45.2, alumina
40-1, lime 4.2, magnesia 1.9, peroxyd of iron 2.4, water 4:25. With
fluor spar, in Cornwall.
Hydrotalcite. Asteatitic mineral from Snarum, consisting ofmag-
nesia, alumina, peroxyd of iron, carbonic acid, and water.
28*
330 SUPPLEMENT.

Kaliphite. Fragile, feathery, resinous, opaque ; powder reddish-

brown. G=2.8. Contains oxyds of iron, manganese, and zinc, with
water and silica.
Licbigite. Carbonate of uranium and lime, in mammillary concre-
tions ofan apple-green color. From near Adrianople, Turkey.
Medjidite. Sulphate of uranium and lime, of a dark amber color.
From near Adrianople, Turkey.
Monticellite. In small prismatic crystals at Vesuvius. M : M=
132° 34' . Color yellowish ; transparent. Fuses with difficulty. Gela-
tinizes. Near chrysolite.
Ozarkite. Massive, of a white or reddish-white color, and feeble vi-
treous to resinous luster. H=45. Gr=275. Very easily fusible. Asso-
ciated with elæolite in veins and smallmasses, in the Ozark mountains,
Arkansas.
Pigotite. Massive ; brownish ; powder yellow. Insoluble. Burns
with difficulty. Consists of an organic acid, called mudescous acid,
combined with alumina.
Pollux. Resembles castor, but has only traces of cleavage. Gr=
2.85-2.9. Contains46per cent. ofsilica, 16.5 ofpotash,14.5 ofsoda,
and is hydrous.
Porcelain spar. In square prisms and allied to Scapolite. Ingran-
ite inBayern.
Praseolite. Imperfectly crystallized. Color light or dark green.
with aweak luster, clear green streak. H=3.5. Gr -2-75. Frac-
ture splintery. Composition: silica 40-9, alumina 28.8, protoxyd of
irón 7.0, magnesia 13.7, water 74. From Brevig, Norway, in granite.
Saussurite. A tough, massive mineral, cleavable and affording a
prism of 124°. Color white, greenish, or grayish. Luster pearly,
sometimes resinous. Composition : silica 49, alumina 24, lime 10.5,
magnesia 3.75, peroxyd of iron 6.5, soda 5.5. Fuses with great diffi-
cultybefore the blowpipe. Resembles nephrite, but contains largely
of alumina with but little magnesia. It constitutes in part the rocks
called gabbro and euphotide, and comes from the borders of the lake of
Geneva, where it was first observed by Saussure Senior. It is also
found in Corsica,Greenland, and Madras.
Stroganowite. Near scapolite. Said to have the constitution of
scapolite, with the addition ofcarbonate of lime.
Tachylite. Adoubtful glassy black mineral, resembling obsidian,
found on trap. Consists ofsilica and alumina, with lime, potash, soda,
and protoxyd of iron.
Tautolite. Velvet black and vitreous. H=6.5-7. Gr=3.865.
A siliceous mineral, containing oxyd of iron, besides magnesia and
alumina. Occurs in volcanic feldspathic rocks.
Botryogen. A hydrous sulphate of iron and magnesia, of a deep
Lyacinth-red color. From Fahlun, Sweden.
Forms of Gems.-Gems are cut either by cleaving, by sawing with
awire armed with diamond dust, or by grinding. Some remarks on the
cutting of the diamond are given on page 83. The harder stones, as
the sapphire and topaz, are cut on a copper wheel with diamond powder
soaked with olive oil, and are afterwards polished with tripoli. For
other gems, less hard, alead wheel with emery and water is first used,
and then a tin or zinc wheel with putty of tin or rotten stone andwater.
 SUPPLEMENT . 331

The following are some of the common forms. It will be remem-

bered that the upper truncated pyramid is called the table, the lower part
or pyramid, the collet, and the line of junction between the two parts,
the girdle. Figures 1 and 2 represent the brilliant, the best form of the
diamond, used also for other stones, as well as pastes. Figs. 3 and 4
areviews ofa variety ofthe rose diamond. Figs. 5 and 6 the same of
an emerald. The cut in steps is called the pavilion cut. Fig. 7 is an
2 3
1

7 10
8

9
11

14

13
12

upperview ofamode of cutting the sapphire. Aside view would be

nearly like figure 6, except thatthe collet is more like that of figure 8.
Fig. 8represents a side view of an oriental topaz. The table has the
brilliant cut, like figs. 1 and 2. Figure 9 represents a Bohemian gar-
net, which is made thin because its color is deep. The common topaz
is cut like figure 8 ; often also like figure 9 but much thicker, and fre-
quently having the table bordered by two or more rows of triangular
facets. Figure 10 is a very simple table. Figures 11 and 12 represent
the form " en cabochon" given the opal; and figures 12 and 13, " en
cabochon" with facets, amode of cutting the chrysoberyl.
332 ROCKS .

CHAP. VII.-ROCKS OR MINERAL AGGREGATES.

General Nature of Rocks. In the early part of this vol-

ume it is stated that the rocks of the globe are mineral in
their nature, and consist either of a single mineral in amas
sive state, or of intimate combinations of different minerals
Limestone, when pure, is a single mineral, it is the spe
cies calcite or carbonate oflime ; commongranite is a com-
pound or aggregate of three minerals, quartz, feldspar, and
mica. Sandstones may consist of grains of quartz alone, like
the sands of many sea-coasts, being such a rock as these
sands would make if agglutinated; itis common to find along
with the quartz, grains of feldspar, and sometimes mica.
Clayslates consist of quartz and feldspar or clay, with some-
timesmica, all so finely comminuted, that oftenthe grains can-
not be observed. Conglomerates or puddingstones, may be
aggregates of pebbles of any kind of granite pebbles, of
quartz pebbles, of limestone pebbles, or ofmixtures ofdiffer-
ent kinds, cemented together by some cementing material,
such as silica, oxyd of iron, or carbonate of lime .
Texture or structure of Rocks.-Rocks differ also in tex.
ture. In some, as granite, or syenite, the texture is crys-
talline : that is, the grains are more or less angular, and
show faces of cleavage ; the aggregation was the result
of a cotemporaneous crystallization of the several ingredi-
ents. Common statuary or white building marble, consists
of angular grains, and is crystalline in the same manner.
But apudding-stone is evidently not a result of crystalliza-
tion; it consists only ofadhering pebbles of other rocks with
a cementing material which is often not apparent. Sand-
stones also are an agglutination ofgrains of sand,-just such
rocks as would be made from ordinary sand by compacting
it together ; and clay slates are often just what would result
from solidifying a bed ofclay. There are therefore crystal-
line and uncrystalline rocks. It should be remembered,
however, that in each kind of rock the grains themselves
are crystalline, as all solid matter becomes solid by crystal-
lization. But the former kind is a crystalline aggregation
of grains, the latter a mechanical aggregation.
In crystalline rocks it is not always possible to distinguish
the grains, as they may be so minute, or the rock so com.
 ROCKS. 333

pact, that they are not visible. Much ofthe crystalline rock
called basalt is thus compact.
Positions, or modes of occurrence of Rocks. A great part
of the rocks of the earth's surface constitute extensive beds
or layers, lying one above the other, and varying in thick-
ness from a fraction of an inch to many scores of yards.
There are compact limestones, beds of sandstone, and shales
or clay slates, in many and very various alternations. In
some regions, certain of these rocks, or certain parts of the
series, may extend over large areas or underlie a whole
country, while others are wholly wanting or present only in
thin beds. The irregularities in their geographical ar-
rangement and in the order ofsuperposition are very nume.
rous, and it is one object of geology to discover order amid
the apparent want of system. Thus in Pennsylvania, over a
considerable part of the state, there are sandstones, shales,
and limestones, connected with beds ofcoal. In New York
there are other sandstones, shales, and limestones, without
coal ; and the geologist ascertains at once by his investiga-
tions, (as was observed in the remarks on coal,) that no coal
can be expected to be found in New York. These rocks
contain each its own peculiar organic remains, and these
are one source of the confident decision of the geologist.
The stratified rocks bear evidence in every part-in their reg-
ular layers, their worn sand or pebbles, and their fossils,-
that they are the result of gradual accumulations beneath wa-
ter, marine or fresh, or on the shores of seas, lakes or
rivers.
Besides the stratified rocks alluded to, there are others
which, like the ejections from a volcano, or an igneous vent,
forin beds, or break through other strata and fill fissures often
many miles in length. The rock filling such fissures, is
called a dike. Such are the trap dikes of New England
and elsewhere ; they are fissures filled by trap. Porphyry
dikes, and many of the veins in rocks, are of the same kind.
Similar rocks may also occur as extensive layers ; for
the lavas of a single volcanic eruption are sometimes con-
tinuous for 40 miles. They may appear underlying a wide
region of country, like granite.
The stratified rocks, or such as consist ofmaterial in reg.
ular layers, are of two kinds. The worn grains of which
they are made are sometimes distinct, and the remains of
shells farther indicate that they are the result ofgradual accu.
634 ROCKS.

mulation. But others, or even certain parts of beds that

elsewhere contain these indications, have a crystalline tex-
ture. A limestone bed may be compact in one part, and
granular or crystalline, like statuary marble, in another.
Here is an effect of heat on a portion of the bed ; heat,
which has acted since the rock was deposited. Other rocks,
such as mica slate, gneiss, and probably some granites, have
thus been crystallized.
In these few general remarks on the structure ofthe globe,
we have distinguished the following general facts :
1. The great variety of alternations of sandstone, conglo-
merates, clay shale, and limestones.
2. The existence of igneous rocks in beds and intersect-
ing dikes or veins.
3. The mechanical structure of sandstone, conglomerate,
and shales .
4. The crystalline character ofigneous rocks.
5. The crystalline character of many stratified or sedi-
mentary rocks, arising from the action of heat upon the beds
ofrock themselves, after they were first formed.
We follow this comprehensive survey of the arrangement
and general nature of rocks, with descriptions of the more
prominent varieties and a mention of their applications in
the arts.*

* One ofthe most important uses of stone is for architectural pur-

poses. The character of the material depends not only upon its dura-
bility, but also its contraction or expansion from changes of tempera-
ture. This latter cause occasions fractures or the opening of seams,
and produces in cold climates serious injuries to structures. The fol-
lowing table, by Mr. A. J. Adie,gives the rate of expansion in length
for different materials, for a change of temperature of 180° F.
-Proc.
Roy. Soc. Edinb ., i, 95, 1835.
Granite, 0008968-0007894
Sicilian white marble, •00110411
Carrara marble, •0006539
Black marble, from Galway, Ireland, -00044519
Sandstone, (Craigleith quarry, Scotland,) 0011743
Slate, Penryhn quarry, Wales, -0010376
Greenstone, •0008089
Best brick, •0005502
Fire brick, •0004928
Cast iron, 00114676-001102166
Rod of wedgewood ware, -00045294
 GRANITE . 335

GRANITE . SYENITE .

Granite consists of the three minerals, quartz, feldspar,

and mica. It has a crystalline granular structure, and usual-
ly a grayish-white, gray, or flesh-red color, the shade vary-
ing with the color of the constituent minerals. When it
contains hornblende in place of mica, it is called syenite ;
hornblende resembles mica in these rocks but the laminæ
separate much less easily and are.brittle.
Granite is said to be micaceous, feldspathic, or quartzose,
according as the mica, feldspar, or quartz, predominates.
It is called porphyritic granite, when the feldspar is in
large crystals, and appears over aworn surface like thickly
scattered white blotches, often rectangular in shape.
Graphic granite has an appearance of small oriental cha-
racters over the surface, owing to the angular arrangement
of the quartz in the feld-
spar, or of the feldspar in
the quartz.
When the mica of the
granite is wanting, it is
then agranular mixture
of feldspar and quartz,
called granulite or lepty-
nite. Graphic Granite.
When the feldspar is replaced by albite, it is called albite
granite. The albite is usually white, but otherwise resem-
bles feldspar.
Granite is the usual rock for veins of tin ore. It con-
tains also workable veins of pyritous, vitreous, and gray,
copper ore, of galena or lead ore, of zinc blende, of specu-
larandmagnetic iron ore, besides ores of antimony, cobalt,
nickel, uranium, arsenic, titanium, bismuth, tungsten, and
silver, with rarely a trace of mercury. The rare cerium and
yttriaminerals are found in granite, and mostly frequently in

The experiments of W. H. C. Bartlett, Lieut. U. S. Engineers, led

tothe following results. Amer. J. Sci., xxii, 136, 1832.
For 1 ° F. For 180° F.
Granite, •000004825 •00086904
Marble, -000005668 •00102024
Sandstone, •000009532 -00171596
•000009440 .00169920
Hammered copper,
336 ROCKS.

albitic granite. It also contains emerald, topaz, corundum,

zircon, fluor spar, garnet, tourmaline, pyroxene, hornblende,
epidote, and many other species.
Granite is one of the most valuable materials for build.
ing. The rock selected for this purpose, should be fine
and even in texture, as the coarser varieties are less dura.
ble ; it should especially be pure from pyrites or any ore of
iron, which on exposure to the weather will rust anddestroy,
as well as deface,the stone. The only certain evidence of
durability, must be learned from examining the rock in its na-
tive beds ; for some handsome granites which have every
appearance ofdurability, decompose rapidly from some cause
not fully understood. The more feldspathic are less en-
during than the quartzose, and the syenitic (or hornblendic)
variety more durable than proper granite itself. The rock,
after removal from the quarry, hardens somewhat, and is less
easily worked than when first quarried out.
Massachusetts is properly the granite state of the union.
New Hampshire and Maine also afford a good material.
The Quincy quarries in Massachusetts, south of Boston,
have for many years been celebrated. Besides this locality,
there are others in the eastern part of this state, between cape
Ann and Salem, in Gloucester, at Fall River, in Troy, in
Danvers ; also south between Quincy and Rhode Island, where
it is wrought in many places, as well as in Rhode Island,
even toProvidence. The so-called Chelmsford granite comes
from Westford and Tyngsborough, beyond Lowell, and an ex-
cellent variety is obtained at Pelham, a short distance north
in New Hampshire. Masses 60 feet in length are ob-
tained at several of the quarries. They are worked into
columns for buildings, many fine examples of which are
common inBoston, New York, and other cities.
Good granite is also quarried in Waterford, Greenwich,
and elsewhere, in Connecticut.
The granite is detached in blocks by drilling a series of
holes, one every few inches, to a depth of three inches, and
then driving in wedges of iron between steel cheeks. In this
manner masses ofany size are split out. There is a choice
ofdirection, as the granite has certain directions of easiest
fracture. Masses are often got out in long narrow strips, a
foot wide, for fence posts. The granite in a rough state
brings 12 to 15 cents the superficial foot ; ordinary hewn
granite 20 to 40 cents the foot ; worked into columns 50
cents to 1 dollar the foot, according to the size.
 CNEISS - MICA SLATE . 337

tramte is also used for paving, in small rectangular blocks

neatly fitted together, as in London and in some parts of
New York and other cities. The feldspathic granite is of
great value in the manufacture of porcelain, as remarked
upon under Feldspar.
Granite was much used by the ancients, especially the
Egyptians, where are obelisks that have stood the weather
for 3000 years.
GNEISS.

Gneiss has the same constitution as granite, but the mica

is more in layers, and the rock has therefore a stratified ap-
pearance. It generally breaks out in slabs a few inches to
a foot thick. It is hence much used both as a building ma-
terial and for flagging walks. The quarries in the vicinity
of Haddam, Conn., on the Connecticut river, are very exten-
sively opened, and a large amount of stone is annually taken
out and exported to the Atlantic cities, even as far as New
Orleans. There are also quarries at Lebanon and other
places, in Connecticut ; at Wilbraham, Millbury, Monson,
and manyot her places in Massachusetts.
MICA SLATE .

Mica slate has the constitution of gneiss, but is thin slaty,

and breaks with a glistening or shining surface, owing to the
large proportion of mica, upon which its foliated structure
depends. Gray or silvery gray is a common color.
The thin even slabs of the more compact varieties ofmica
slate are much used for flagging, and for door and hearth
stones ; also for lining furnaces. The finer arenaceous va-
rieties make good scythe stones.
It is quarried extensively of fine quality, in large even
slabs, at Bolton in Connecticut ; also in the range passing
through Goshen and Chesterfield, Mass. It is worked into
whetstones in Enfield, Norwich, and Bellingham, Mass., and
extensively at Woonsocket Hill, Smithfield, R. I. The south
part of Chester, Vt., affords a slate like that of Bolton. Mica
slate is used at Salisbury, Conn., for the inner wall of the
iron furnace.
Hornblende slate resembles mica slate, but has not as
glistening a luster, and seldom breaks into as thin slabs. It
is more tough than mica slate, and is an excellent materia.
for flagging.
29
 338 ROCKS.

TALCOSE SLATE -TALCOSE ROCK.

Talcose slate resembles mica slate,but has a more greasy

feel, owing to its containing talc instead ofmica. It is usu-
ally light gray or dark grayish-brown. It breaks into thin
slabs, but is generally rather brittle, yet it often makes good
fire-stones .
Atalcose slate in Stockbridge, Vt., is worked for scythe
stones and hones, and is ofexcellent quality for this purpose.
Talcose rock is a kind of quartzose granite, containing
more or less talc, and often quite compact. It is usually very
much intersected by veins of white quartz. Much of it
contains chlorite (an olive-green mineral) in place of talc,
here and there disseminated : andthere is a chlorite slate, of
adark green color, similar in general characters to talcose
slate. Talcose rock passes into a flinty quartz rock.
Thetalcose rocks are to a great extent the gold rocks of the
world, especially the quartzose veins, as mentioned under
Gold. It contains the topaz ofBrazil, and also euclase, and
many other minerals.
STEATITE, OR SOAPSTONE.
Steatite is a soft stone, easily cut by the knife and greasy
in its feel. Its color is usually grayish-green ; but when
smoothed and varnished it becomes dark olive-green. It
occurs in beds, associated generally with talcose slate.
Owing to the facility with which soapstone is worked, and
its refractory nature, it is cut into slabs for fire stones and other
purposes, as stated on page 144. The powder is employed
for diminishing friction, and for mixing with blacklead in the
manufacture of crucibles. It is also used, as observed by
Dr. C. T. Jackson, for the sizing rollers in cotton factories,
one ofwhich is 44 feet long and 5 to 6 inches in diameter.
The most valuable quarries in Massachusetts are at Middle-
field, Windsor, Blanford, Andover, and Chester ; in Vermont.
at Windham and Grafton ; in New Hampshire, at Frances-
town and Oxford ; in Orange county, North Carolina. The
Francestown soapstone sells at Boston at from 36 to 42 dol-
lars the ton, or from 3 to 31 dollars the cubic foot.*
Steatite often contains disseminated crystals of magnesian
carbonate of lime, (dolomite,) and brown spar ; also crys-
tals ofpyrites and actinolite.
* Geol. N. H. , by C. T. Jackson, 1844 ; p. 168.
 SERPEN ΓΙΝΕ .-TRAP . 339

Potstone is a compact steatite. Rensselaerite is another

compact variety, (page 144,) foundinJefferson andSt. Law-
rence counties, N. Y., and used for inkstands.
SERPENTINE .

This dark green rock is ussually associated with talcose

rocks, and often also with granular limestones. It has been
described on page 145, where its uses are alluded to. It
often contains disseminated a foliated green variety of horn-
blende called diallage. A compound rock consisting ofdial-
lage and feldspar, has been called diallage rock or euphotide.
TRAP .-BASALT .

Trap is a dark greenish or brownish-black rock, heavy

and tough. Specific gravity 2.8-3.2. It has sometimes
agranular crystalline structure, and at other times it is very
compact without apparent grains. It is an intimate mixture
of feldspar and hornblende. It is often called greenstone ;
and when consisting of albite and hornblende, it is called
diorite.
Amygdaloid, (from the Latin amygdalum, an almond,) is
a trap containing small almond-shaped cavities, which are
filled with some mineral: usually a zeolite, quartz, or chlorite.
Porphyritic trap is a trap containing, like porphyritic gran-
ite (p. 335,) disseminated crystals offeldspar.
Basalt is a rock resembling trap, but consisting of augite
and feldspar. It varies in color from grayish to black.
In the lighter colored, which are sometimes denominated
graystone, feldspar predominates ; and in the darker, iron, or
a ferruginous augite. It oftencontains chrysolite (or olivine)
in small grains of a bottle-glass appearance. Magnetic or
titanic iron are also frequentlypresent in the rock. When
feldspar crystals are coarsely disseminated, it is called por-
phyritic basalt ; and when containing minerals in small
nodules, it is amygdaloidal basalt; when consisting of labra-
dorite and augite, it is called dolerite .
Wacke or toadstone is an earthy basalt, or a sedimentary
rock of trap or basaltic material.
Both trap and basalt occur in columnar forms, as at the
Giant's Causeway and other similar places.
Trap and basalt are excellent materials for macadamizing
roads, on account of their toughness. Trap is also used for
buildings. It breaks into irregular angular blocks, and is
 340 ROCKS.

employed in this condition. For a Gothic building it i well

fitted, on account ofan appearance ofage which it has
PORPHYRY.-CLINKSTONE.-TRACHYTE .

Porphyry consists mainly of compact feldspar, with dis.

seminated crystals of feldspar. Red or brownish-red and
green, are common colors ; but gray and black are met with.
The feldspar crystals are from avery small size to half or
three quarters of an inch in length, and have amuch lighter
shade of color than the base, or are quite white. It breaks
with a smooth surface and conchoidal fracture. The specific
gravity and other characters of the rock are the same nearly
as for the mineral feldspar ; the hardness is usually a little
higher than in that mineral.
Porphyry receives a fine polish, and has been used for
columns, vases, mortars, and other purposes. Green por-
phyry is the oriental verd antique of the ancients, and was
held inhigh esteem. The red porphyry of Egypt is also a
beautiful rock. It has a clear brownish red color, and is
sprinkled with small spots of white feldspar.
Clinkstone or Phonolite is a grayish-blue rock, consisting,
like porphyry, mainly of feldspar. It passes into graybasalt,
and is distinguished by its less specific gravity. It rings
like iron when struck with a hammer, and hence its name.
Trachyte is another feldspathic rock, distinguished by
breaking with a rough surface, and showing less compact-
ness than clinkstone. It sometimes contains crystals of
hornblende, mica, or some glassyfeldspar mineral. It occurs
in volcanic regions.
LAVA . OBSIDIAN.-PUMICE .

The term lava is applied to any rock material which has

flowed in igneous fusion from avolcano. Basalt is one kind
of lava; and when containg cellules, it is called basaltic
lava. Trachyte is also a lava. There are thus both feld-
spathic and basaltic lavas. The feldspathic are light colored,
and of low specific gravity, (not exceeding 2.8) ; the basaltic
vary from grayish-blue to black, and are above 2.8 in specific
gravity. The general term basaltic sometimes includes
doleritic lava, which is closely allied. Chrysolite is often
present in basaltic lavas; and they are not unfrequentler-
phyritic, or contain disseminated crystals of feldspar.
 SHALE 341

The light cellular ejections of a volcano are called scoria

or pumice.
Pumice is feldspathic in constitution ; it is very porous,
and the fine pores lying in one direction make the rock ap-
pear to be fibrous. It is so light as to float on water. It is
much used for polishing wood, ivory, marble, metal, glass,
etc., and also parchment and skins. The principal localities
are the islands of Lipari, Ponza, Ischia, and Vulcano, in the
Mediterranean between Sicily and Naples. Both scoria
and pumice are properly the scum ofa volcano.
Volcanic ashes are the light cinders, or minute particles
of rock, ejected from avolcano in the course ofan eruption.
Obsidian is a volcanicglass. It resembles ordinary glass .
Black and smoky tints are the common colors. In Mexico,
it was formerly used both for mirrors, knives and razors.
Pitchstone is less perfectly glassy in its character, and has a
pitch-like luster. Otherwise it resembles obsidian. Pearl-
stone has a grayish color and pearly luster. Spherulite is a
kind of pearlstone, occurring in small globules in massive
pearlstone. Marekanite is a pearl-gray translucent obsidian
from Marekan in Kamschatka.

ARGILLACEOUS SHALE, OR CLAY SLATE.-ARGILLITE.

Slate is an argillaceous rock, breaking into thin laminæ ;

shale a similar rock, with the same structure usually less
perfect and often more brittle ; schist includes the same va-
rieties of rock, but is extended also to those of a much coarser
laminated structure. The ordinary clay slate has the same
constitution as mica slate ; but the material is so fine that
the ingredients cannot be distinguished. The two pass into
one another insensibly. The colors are very various, and
always dull or but slightly glistening.
Roofing slate is a fine grained argillaceous variety, com-
monly of a dark dull blue or bluish-black color, or some-
what purplish. To be a good material for roofing, it should
split easily into even slates, and admit ofbeing pierced for
nails without fracturing. Moreover, it should not be ab-
sorbent of water, either by the surface or edges, which may
be tested by weighing, after immersion for a while in water.
It should also be pure from pyrites and every thing that can
undergo decomposition on exposure.
Roofing slates occur in England, in Cornwall and Devon,
Cumberland, Westmoreland.
29*
342 ROCKS.

In the United States, agood material is obtained in Maine

at Barnard, Piscataquies, Kennebec, Bingham and elsewhere,
also in Massachusetts, in Worcester county, in Boylston,
Lancaster, Harvard, Shirley, and Peperell ; in Vermont, at
Guilford, Brattleborough, Fairhaven, and Dummerston ; in
Hoosic, New York ; on Bush creek and near Unionville
Maryland ; atthe Cove of Wachitta,Arkansas. At Rutland
Vt., is a manufactory of slate pencils, from a greenish slate
These slate rocks are also used for gravestones ; and we
cannot go through New England cemetries without frequent
regret that a material which is sure to fall to pieces in a few
years, should have been selected for such records.
Drawing slate is a finer and more compact variety, of
bluish andpurplish shades of color. The best slates come
from Spain, Italy, and France. A good quality is quarried in
Maine and Vermont.
Novaculite, hone-slate, or whet-stone, is a fine grained slate,
containing considerable quartz, though the grains of this
mineral are not perceptible. It occurs of light and dark
shades of color, and compact texture. It is found in North
Carolina, 7 miles west of Chapel Hill, and elsewhere ; in
Lincoln and Oglethorpe counties, Georgia; on Bush creek,
and near Unionville, Maryland; at the Cove of Wachitta,
Arkansas.
Argillite is a general term given to argillaceous or clay
slate rocks. Many shales or argillites crumble easily, and
are unfit for any purpose in the arts, except to furnish a
clayey soil.
Alum shale is any slaty rock which contains decomposing
pyrites, and thus will afford alum or sulphate of alumina on
lixiviation. (See under Alum, page 128.)
Bituminous shale is a dark colored slaty rock containing
some bitumen, and giving off a bituminous odor.
Plumbaginous schist is a clay slate containing plumbago
or graphite, and leaving traces like black lead.
The Pipestone ofthe North American Indians was in part
a red claystone or compacted clay from the Coteau de
Prairies. It has been named catlinite. A similar material.
now accumulating, occurs on the north shore of Lake Supe-
rior, at Nepigon bay. Anothervariety ofpipestone is a dark
grayish compact argillite ; it is used by the Indians of the
northwest coast of America.
Agalmatolite is a soft mineral, impressible by the nail,
 QUARTZ ROCK . 343

and waxy in luster when polished,presenting grayish and

greenish colors and other shades. Gr 2.8-2.9. It has a
greasy feel. It consists of silica 55.0, alumina 30.0, potash
7.0, water 3 to 5 per cent., with a trace of oxyd of iron. It
is carved into images, and is hence calledfigure-stone.
QUARTZ ROCK .

Quartz rock is a compact rock consisting of quartz, and

often appearing granular. Its colors are light gray, reddish
or dull bluish ; also sometimes brown.
When the granular quartz contains a little mica, it often
breaks in slabs like gneiss or mica slate. The itacolumite
of Brazil, with which gold and topaz are associated, is a
micaceous granular quartz rock ofthis kind.
Flexible sandstone is an allied rock of finer texture. Gran-
ular quartz graduates into the proper sandstones, which are
treated of for convenience on a following page. The two
rocks are properly parts ofone series.
Granular quartz is one ofthe most refractory of rocks. It
is consequently used extensively for hearthstones, for the
lining of furnaces, and for lime kilns. At Stafford, Conn.,
aloose grained micaceous quartz rock is highly valued for
furnaces; it sells at the quarry for 16 dollars a ton.*
Granular quartz is also used for flagging, and a fine
quarry is opened in Washington, near Pittsfield, Mass.; it
also occurs of good quality at Tyringham and Lee, Mass.
In the shape ofcobble stones, it is acommon paving material.
Ahighly important use of this rock is in the manufacture
ofglass and sandpaper, and for sawing marble. In many
places it occurs crumbled to a fine sand, and is highly con-
venient for these purposes. In Cheshire, Berkshire county,
Mass., and in Lanesboro', Mass., it occurs of superior qual-
ity, and in great abundance. It is also in demand for the
manufacture ofglass and pottery. In Unity, N. H., a gran-
ular quartz is ground for sandpaper and for polishing powder ;
the latter is a good material for many purposes.
A fine variety of granular quartz is a material much
valued for whet-stones.
BUHRSTONE .

Buhrstone is a quartz rock containing cellules. It is as

hard and firm as quartz crystal, and owes its peculiar value
* Rep. on Connecticut, by C. U. Shepard-p. 78.
344 ROCKS.

to this quality and the cellules, which give it a very rough

surface. In the best stones for wheat or corn the cavities
about equal in space the solid part. The finest quality
comes from France, inthe basin of Paris and some adjoin-
ingdistricts.
The stonesare cut into wedge-shaped parallelopipedscalled
panes, which are bound together by iron hoops into large
millstones. The Paris buhrstone is from the tertiary forma-
tion, and is therefore of much more recent origin than thre
quartz rock above described.
Buhrstone ofgood quality is abundant in Ohio, and others
ofthe western states. It is associated there with proper
sandstones, as more particularly mentioned on page 346.
The quartz rock of Washington, near Pittsfield, Mass., is
in some parts cellular, and makes good millstones.
A buhrstone occurs in Georgia, about 40 miles from the
sea, near the Carolina line ; also in Arkansas, near the
Cove of Wachitta.

SANDSTONES. GRIT ROCKS .-CONGLOMERATES .

Sandstones consist of small grains, aggregated into acom

pact rock. They have a harsh feel, and every dull shade of
color from white through yellow, red and brown to black.
Many sandstones are very compact and hard, while others
break or rub to pieces in the fingers. They usually consist
of siliceous sand ; but grains of feldspar are often present.
In many compact sandstones there is much clay, and the
rock is then an argillaceous sandstone.
Sandstones are ofall geological ages, from the lower Silu-
rian to the most recent period. The older rocks are in
general the most firm and compact. The " old red" sand-
stone is a sandstone below the coal in age ; while the so
called " new red" is more recent than the coal. But these
terms beyond this particular point, are of somewhat indefi-
nite application. The sandstone of the Connecticut valley
is called the new red sandstone.
Grit rock. When the sandstone is very hard and harsh,
and contains occasional siliceous pebbles, it is called a grit
rock, or millstone grit.
Conglomerates. Conglomerates consist mostly ofpebbles
compacted together. They are called pudding stone when
the pebbles are rounded, and breccia when they are angular.
They may consist of pebbles of any kinds, as of granite,
 SANDSTONES . 345

quartz, limestone, etc., and they are named accordinglygran-

itic, quartzose, calcareous, conglomerates.
The use of sandstone as abuilding material is well known.
For this purpose it should be free, like granite, from pyrites
or iron sand, as these rust and disfigure the structure. It
should be firm in texture, and not liable to peel off on ex-
posure. Some sandstones, especially certain argillaceous
varieties, which appear well in the quarry, when exposed for
a season where they will be left to dry, gradually fall te
pieces. The same rock answers well for structures beneath
water, that is worth nothing for buildings. Other sandstones
which are so soft as to be easily cut from their bed without
blasting, harden on exposure, (owing to the hardening of
silica in the contained moisture,) and are quite durable.
These are qualities which must be tested before a stone
is used. Moreover it should be considered that in frosty
climates, a weak absorbent stone is liable to be destroyed in
a comparatively short time, while in a climate like that of
Peru, even sunburnt bricks will last for centuries.
Mr. Ure observes, that " such was the care of the ancients
to provide strong and durable materials for their public edi.
fices, that but for the desolating hands ofmodern barbarians,
in peace and in war, most of the temples and other public
monuments of Greece and Rome would have remained
perfect at the present day, uninjured by the elements during
2000 years . The contrast in this respect of the works of
modern architects, especially in Great Britain, [much more
true of the United States,] is very humiliating to those who
boast so loudly of social advancement ; for there is scarcely
a public building of recent date which will be in existence
a thousand years hence." Many splendid structures are
monuments (not endless) of folly in this respect. He ob-
serves also that the stone intended for a durable edifice ought
to be tested as to its durability by immersion in a saturated
solution of sulphate ofsoda, and exposure to the air for some
days : the crystallization within the stone will cause the same
disintegration that would result in time from frost.
The dark red sandstone (freestone) of New Jersey and
Connecticut, when of fine gritty texture and compact, is gen-
erally an excellent building material. Trinity Church in
New York is built of the stone from Belville, New Jersey.
At Chatham, on the Connecticut, is a large quarry, which
supplies great quantities of stone to the cities of the coast ;
346 ROCKS.

and there are numerous others in the Connecticut valley,

both in Connecticut and Massachusetts. A variety in North
Haven, at the east end of Mount Carmel, has been spoken
of as excellent for ornamental architecture. That of Long-
meadow and Wilbraham, in Massachusetts, is a very fine
and beautiful variety and is much used. A freestone occurs
also at the mouth ofSeneca creek, Maryland, convenient for
transportation by the Chesapeake and Ohio canal ; white
and colored sandstones occur aiso at Sugarloaf mountain,
Maryland.
The sandstone of the Capitol at Washington, is from the
Potomac; it is a poor material.
Sandstones when splitting into thin layers, form excellent
flagging stones, and are in commonuse.
Hard, gritty sandstones and the grit rocks are used for the
hearths offurnaces, on account of their resistance to heat.
They are also much used for millstones, and when of firm
texture, make a good substitute for the buhrstone.
The true buhrstone has been described as a cellular
siliceous rock, without an apparent granular texture: The
buhrstone of Ohio approaches this character ; it is in part
atrue sandstone containing fossils in some places, and over-
lying the coal. Much ofit contains lime; and it is possible
thatthe removal ofthe lime by solution,since its deposition,
may have occasioned its cellular character. It has an open
cellular structure where quarried for millstones. It occurs
in Ohio, in the county of Muskingum, and the counties south
and west of south, on the Raccoon river and elsewhere.
The manufacture commenced in this region in 1807, and in
Richland, Elk, and Clinton, and in Hopewell, the manufac-
ture is now carried on extensively. Stones 4 feet in diame-
ter bring $150.*
The "green sand" of the cretaceous formation contains
grains of silicate of iron and potash, to which it owes its
greenish tint. It occurs abundantly in New Jersey as a soft
rock, and is much used for improving lands : a value it owes
mostly to the alkali it contains.
Pudding stones and breccias are fitted, in general, only for
the coarser uses of stone, as for foundations, butments of
bridges. Occasionally when oflimestone, they make hand-
some marbles, as the " Potomac breccia marble" on the

S. P. Hildreth , Geol. Report, Ohio.

 LIMESTONES . 347

Monocacey, of which the columns in the Hall of Represen-

tatives at Washington.
Porphyry couglomerates, basaltic conglomerates, pumiceous
conglomerates, consist respectively of pebbles or fragments of
porphyry, basalt, pumice.
Tufa is a sandrock consisting ofvolcanic material, either
cinders or the comminuted lavas. Pozzuolana is a kind of
tufa found in the vicinity of Rome, Italy. It consists of
silica 34.5, alumina 15, lime 8.8, magnesia 4.7, potash 1.4,
soda 4.1, oxyds of iron and titanium 12, water 9.2. Pepe-
rino is a coarse sandrock, made up of volcanic cinders or
fine fragments of scoria, partially agglutinated.
LIMESTONES .

Limestones consist essentially of carbonate of lime, and

belong to the species calcite, (p. 115,) or ofthe carbonates of
lime and magnesia. They are distinguished by being easily
scratched with a knife, and by effervescing with an acid.
They are either compact or granular in texture : the com-
pact break with a smooth surface, often conchoidal ; the
granular have a crystalline granular surface, and the fine
varieties resemble loaf sugar.
Granular limestone. The finest and purest white crystal-
line limestones are used for statuary and the best carving,
and are called statuary marble. A variety less fine in texture
is cinployed as a building material. Its colors are white, and
clouded of various shades. It often contains scales of mica
disseminated, and occasionally other impurities, from which
the cloudings arise.
The finest statuary marble comes from the Italian quarry
at Carrara ; from the Island of Paros, whence the name
Parian ; from Athens, Greece ; from Ornofrio, Corsica, of
a quality equal to that of Carrara. The Medicean Venus
and most ofthe fine Grecian statues are made of the Parian
marble. These quarries, and alsothose ofthe Islands ofScio,
Samos and Lesbos, afforded marble for the ancient temples of
Greece and Rome. The Parthenon at Athens was con.
structed of marble from Pentelicus.
Statuary marble has been obtained in the United Sates,
but not of a quality equal to the foreign. Fine building
material is abundant along the Western part of Vermont,
and south through Massachusetts to Western Connecticut
and Eastern New York. In Berkshire county, Mass., mar.
348 ROCKS .

ble is quarried annually to the value of $200,000 ; the prin

cipal quarries are at Sheffield, West Stockbridge, New
Ashford, New Marlborough, Great Barrington, and Lanes-
borough.* The columns of the Girard College are from
Sheffield, where blocks 50. feet long are sometimes blasted
out; the material of the City Hall, New York, came from
West Stockbridge ; that of the Capitol at Albany, from Lanes .
boro'. At Stoneham is a fine statuary marble ; but it is dif
ficult to obtain large blocks. The variety from Great Bar-
rington is a handsome clouded marble. Some of the West
Stockbridge marble is flexible in thin pieces when first taken
out. There are Vermont localities at Dorset, Rutland,
Brandon, and Pittsford. In New York extensive quarries
are opened not far from New York, at Sing Sing ; also at Pat-
terson, Putnam county ; at Dover in Dutchess county, N. Y.;
in Connecticut there are marble quarries at New Preston ;
in Maine at Thomaston : in Rhode Island at Smithfield, a
fine statuary ; in Maryland, a few miles east ofHagerstown ;
in Pennsylvania, a fine clouded variety, 20 miles from
Philadelphia. A fine dun colored marble is obtained at New
Ashford and Sheffield, Mass., and at Pittsford, Vt.
The granular limestone when coarse usually crumbles
easily, and is not a good material for building. But the
finer varieties are not exceeded in durability by any other
architectural rock, not even by granite. The impurities are
sometimes so abundant as to render it useless. For statu-
ary, it is essential that it should be uniform in tint and with-
out seams or fissures ; the liability offinding cloudings within
the large blocks would altogether discourage their use for
statuary.
The common minerals in this rock are tremolite, asbestus,
scapolite, chondrodite, pyroxene, apatite, besides sphene,
spinel, graphite, idocrase, mica.
Verd antique marble-verde antico-is a clouded green
marble, consisting of a mixture of serpentine and limestone,
as mentioned under Serpentine, page 147. It occurs at
Milford, near New Haven, Connecticut, of fine quality ; and
also in Essex county, N. Y., at Moria and near Port Henry
on Lake Champlain. A marble of this kind occurs at
Genoa and in Tuscany, and is much valued for its beauty
A variety is called polzivera di Genoa and vert d'Egypte.

* Hitchcock's Geol. Rep., p. 162.

 LIMESTONES. 349

The Cipolin marbles of Italy are white, or nearly so, with

shadings or zones of green talc. The bardiglio is a gray
variety from Corsica.
Compact limestone usually breaks out easily into thick
slabs, and are a convenient and durable stone for building
and all kinds of stone work. It is not possessed of much
beauty in the rough state. When polished it constitutes a
variety ofmarbles according to the color ; the shades are very
numerous, from white, cream and yellow shades, through
gray, dove-colored, slate blue or brown, to black.
The Nero-antico marble ofthe Italians is an ancient deep
black marble ; the paragone is a modern one, ofa fine black
color, from Bergamo ; and panno di morte is another black
marble with a few white fossil shells.
The rosso-antico is deep blood-red, sprinkled with minute
white dots. The giallo antico, or yellow antique marble, is
deep yellow with black or yellow rings. A beautiful mar-
ble from Sienna, brocatello di Siena, has a yellow color, with
large irregular spots and veins of bluish-red or purplish.
The mandelato of the Italians is a light red marble, with
yellowish-white spots ; it is found at Luggezzana. At
Verona, there is a red marble, inclining to yellow, and ano-
ther with large white spots in a reddish and greenish paste.
'
The black marble used in the United States comes mostly
from Shoreham, Vt., and other places in that state near Lake
Champlain. The Bristol marble ofEngland is a black mar-
ble containing a few white shells, and the Kilkenny is another
similar. There are several quarries at Isle La Motte. It
is quarried also near Plattsburgh and Glenn's Falls, N. Y.
The portor is a Genoese marble very highly esteemed. It
is deep black, with elegant veinings of yellow. The most
beautiful comes frorn Porto-Venese, and under Louis XIV a
great deal of it was worked up for the decoration of Versailles.
Gray and dove-colored compact marbles are common
through New York and the states West.
'
The bird's-eye marble of Western New York is a compact
limestone, with crystalline points scattered through it.
Ruin marble is a yellowish marble, with brownish sha-
dings or lines arranged so as to represent castles, towers or
cities in ruins. These markings proceed from infiltrated
iron. It is an indurated calcareous marl.
Oolitic marble has usually a grayish tint, and is speckled
with rounded dots, looking much like the roe ofa fish.
30
350 ROCKS.

Shell marble contains scattered fossils, and may be ofdif-

ferent colors. It is abundant through the United States.
Crinoidal or encrinital marble differs only in the fossils being
mostly remains of encrinites, resembling thin disks. Large
quarries are opened in Onondaga and Madison counties, N.
Y., and the polished slabs are much used. Madreporic
marble consists largely of corals, and the surface consists of
delicate stars : it is the pietra stellaria of the Italians. It is
common in some of the states on the Ohio. Fire marble, or
lumachelle, is a dark brown shell marble, having brilliant
fire or chatoyant reflections from within.
Breccia marbles and pudding stone marbles are the pol-
ished calcareous breccia or pudding stone, alluded to on
page 346.
Stalagmites and stalactites (page 116) are frequentlypol-
ished, andthe varietyofbanded shades is often highlybeautiful.
The Gibraltar stone, so wellknown, is ofthis kind. Itcomes
from a cavern in the Gibraltar rock, where it was.deposited
from dripping water. It is made into inkstands, letter-holders,
and various small articles .
Wood is often petrified by carbonate of lime, and occasion-
ally whole trunks are changed to stone. The specimens
show well the grain of the wood, and some are quite hand-
some when polished.
Marble is sawn by means of a thin iron plate and sand,
either by hand or machinery. In polishing, the slabs are
first worn down by the sharpest sand, either by rubbing two
slabs together or by means ofa plate ofiron. Finer sand is
afterwards used, and then a still finer. Next emery is ap-
plied of increasing fineness by means ofa plate oflead ; and
finally the last polish is given with tin-putty, rubbed on with
coarse linencloths or baggings, wedged tight into an iron
planing tool. More or less water is used throughout the
process.
Quicklime. Limestone when burnt produces quicklime,
owing to the expulsion of the carbonic acid by the heat.
The purest limestone affords the purest lime, (what is called
fat lime.) But some impurities are no detriment to it
for making mortar, unless they are in excess. Hydraulic
lime, which is so called because it will set under water, is
made from limestone containing some clay, silica, and often
magnesia. The French varieties contain 2 or 3 per cent.
ofmagnesia, and 10 to 20 of silica and alumina or clay. The
 LIMESTONES. 351

varieties in the United States contain 20 to 40 per cent. of

magnesia, and 12 to 30 per cent. of silica and alumina. A
variety worked extensively at Rondout, N. Y., afforded Prof.
Beck, carbonic acid 34.20, lime 25.50, magnesia 12.35, silica
15.37, alumina 9.13, peroxyd of iron 2.25.* Oxyd of iron
is rather prejudicial than otherwise.
In making mortar, the lime is mixed with water and
siliceous sand. The final strength of the mortar depends
principally on the formation of a compound between water,
the silica (or sand) and the lime ; of course therefore the
finer the sand, the more thorough the combination. In
hydraulic lime, there is silica and alumina present in a thor-
oughly disseminated and finely divided state, which is favor-
able for the combination alluded to; and to this fact appears
`to be mainly owing its hydraulic character. Much less sand
is added in making mortar from this lime than from that of
ordinary limestone.
Pozzuolana (page 347) forms a hydraulic cement when
mixed with a little lime and water. Similar cements may be
made with tufa, pumice stone, and slate clay, by varying the
proportions of lime ; these materials consist essentially of
silica and alumina or magnesia with alkalies, and often some
lime, and therefore produce the same result as with hydrau-
lic limestone.
In the burning oflime, the most common mode is to erect
a square or circular furnace of stone, with a door for manag-
ing the fire below. An arched cavity for the fire is first
made of large pieces of limestone, and then the furnace
is filled with the stone placed loosely so as to admit of the
passage of the flame throughout : the carbonic acid is ex.
pelled by the heat, and when the fires are out,the lime now
in the state of quicklime, or in other words, pure lime, is
taken out. Great economy of fuel is secured by means of
what is called a perpetual kiln. The cavity within is best
made nearly of the shape of an egg with the narrow end
uppermost. The inner walls are offquartz rock, mica slate,
or some refractory stone or fire brick, and between the inner
and outer there is a layer of cinders or ashes, as in the iron
furnace, page 233. Below are three or more openings for
furnaces which lead into the main cavity, a few feet from the
bottom ; and alternate with these are other openings at a

*Mineralogy of New York, page 78.

 352 ROCKS .

lower level for withdrawing the lime. The lime is taken

out below and the stone thrown in above, and this may be
kept up without intermission as long as the kiln lasts. Be-
neath the furnaces there are also ash pits. Such a kiln is
most convenient for being filled and emptied when situated
on a side hill.
The localities of limestone in the United States are too
common to need enumeration. Hydraulic limestone is also
abundant.
Quicklime is much used for improving lands; also for
clarifying the juice ofthe sugar cane and beet root; for puri-
fying coal gas ; for clearing hides of their hair in tanneries,
and for various other purposes.
SAND .-CLAY.

The loose or soft material of the surface of the earth con-

sists ofsand, clay, gravel or stones, and whatwe callingeneral
terms, soil or earth. These materials are either in layers
or irregular beds. Most clay beds, and many of gravel,
when cut through vertically, show indications of horizontal
layers, a result ofdeposition, or distribution, by water.
Ingeological language,these stratified deposits are often
classed with rocks, as they graduate into true rocks, and dif-
fer only in the amount of cementing material.
The ordinary constituents of earth are quartz, feldspar or
clay, oxyd of iron and lime ; but these vary with the source
from whence they are derived When the rock that has
afforded the soil is granite, mica slate, or the allied rocks,
mica is usually present, as well as feldspar and quartz ; so
aquartzose rock will furnish siliceous gravel ; a magnesian,
will give magnesia to the soil ; calcareous, lime ; trap, the
ingredients of decomposed feldspar or hornblende. The
material will be coarse or gravelly, or fine earthy, according
to the nature of the rock, or the condition under which it is
worn down, or its subsequent distribution by flowing waters.
Besides the prominent constituents mentioned, there are
small proportions ofphosphates, nitrates, chlorids, etc., toge.
ther with the results of vegetable decomposition ; and these
comparatively rare ingredients are of great importance to
growing vegetation. The pebbles of a soil are commonly
siliceous, as this kind resists wear most effectually.
Sand is usually pulverized quartz, often with some feldspar.
Clay is a plastic earth, consisting mainly of alumina one
 SAND. 353

third part, and silica (quartz) two thirds. It owes its plas.
ticity to the alumina, and ceases to be called clay when the
proportion of silica is too great for plasticity. It is afforded
by the decomposition of feldspar and all argillaceous rocks.
Oxyd of iron, carbonate of lime, and magnesia are often
present in clays.
Sand for glass manufacture should be pure silica, free
from a taint of iron. This purity is apparent in the clear-
ness of the grains, under a lens, or their white color. The
sand of Cheshire and Lanesboro', in Massachusetts, is a
beautiful material.
In the manufacture of glass, the object is to form a trans-
parent fusible compound, and not an opaque infusible one as
in pottery. This result is secured by heating together to
fusion, silica (quartz sand or flint powder) and the alkali pot-
ash or soda. The ingredients combine and produce a sili-
cate of potash or soda-in other words, glass.
Besides these ingredients, lime or oxyd of lead are added
for glass of different kinds. A small proportion of lime in-
creases the density, hardness, and luster of glass, producing
a specific gravity between 2.5 and 2.6 ; while with lead a
still denser material is formed-called crystal orflint glass-
whose specific gravity is from 3 to 3.6.
From 7 to 20 parts of lime are added for 100 of silica, and
25 to 50 of calcined sulphate or carbonate of soda; common
salt (chlorid of sodium) may also be employed. A good
colorless glass has been found by analysis to consist of silica
76.0, potash 13.6, and lime 10.4 parts, in a hundred. For
coarse bottle-glass, wood-ashes and coarse sea-weed soda,
called kelp, or else pearlashes, are used along with siliceous
sand and broken glass. For a hard glass, the proportion of
alkali is small.
The best English crystal glass analyzed by Berthier, af-
forded 59 parts of silica, 9 ofpotash, 28 of oxyd of lead, and
1.4 of oxyd ofmanganese. Crownglass contains, ingeneral,
less alkali than crystal glass, and is superior in hardness.
The alkali, moreover, in England, is soda instead of potash.
Plate glass also contains soda, and this soda (the carbonate)
is prepared with great care. The proportions are 7 parts of
sand, 1 of quicklime, 24 of dry carbonate of soda, besides
cullet or broken plate.
The materials are first well pounded and sifted, and mixed
into a fine paste ; they are then heated together in pots made
30*
354 ROCKS.

ofa pure refractory clay, until fusion has taken place and the
material has settled. The glass is afterwards worked by
blowing, or moulded, into the various forms it has in market ;
and it is finally annealed or in other words, is very slowly
cooled to render it tough. A little oxyd of manganese is
usually employed to correct the green color which glass is
apt to derive from any oxyd ofiron present. But ifthe man-
ganese is in excess, it gives a violet tinge to it.
The following chemical distribution of glasses has been
proposed:
Soluble glass. A simple silicate of potash or soda, or of
both of these alkalies.
Bohemian or crown glass. Silicate ofpotash and lime.
Common window and mirrorglass. Silicate of soda and
lime; sometimes also ofpotash.
Bottle glass. Silicate ofsoda, lime, alumina, and iron.
Ordinary crystal glass. Silicate ofpotash and lead..
Flint glass. Silicate ofpotash and lead; more lead than
in the preceding.
Strass. Silicate of potash and lead-still more lead.
Enamel. Silicate and stannate, or antimonate of potash
or soda and lead.
Glass was manufactured by the Phoenicians, and the later
Egyptians. According to Pliny and Strabo, the glass works
of Sidon and Alexandria were famous in their times, and
produced beautiful articles. The Romans employed glass
to some extent in their windows, and remains of this glass
are found in Herculaneum. Window glass manufacturewas
first commenced in England in 1557.
Sandfor casting is a fine siliceous sand, containing a little
clay to make it adhere somewhat and retain the forms into
which it may be moulded. It must be quite free from lime .
Tripoli is a fine grained earthy deposit, having a dry,
harsh feel and a white or grayish color. It contains 80 per
cent. of silica, mostly derived from the casts of animalcules.
It is valuable as a polishing material.
Marl. Marl is aclaycontainingcarbonate of lime. The
material is valuable as manure. The term is also improper-
ly applied to any clayey earth used in fertilizing land. The
green sand in New Jersey is sometimes called marl.
Fuller's earth is a white, grayish, or greenish-white earth,
having a soapy feel, which was formerly used for removing
oil or grease from woolen cloth. It falls to pieces in water,
 CLAY. 355

and forms a paste which is not plastic. A variety consists

of silica 44.0, alumina 23.1 , lime 4.1, magnesia 2.0, pro-
toxyd of iron 2.0 . Gr = 2.45.
Lithomarge is a compact clay of a fine smooth texture,
and very sectile. Its colors are white, grayish, bluish-white,
reddish-white, or ocher-yellow, with a shining streak. Gr=
2.4-2.5. The tuesite of Thomson, awhite lithomarge from
the banks of the Tweed, is said to make good slate pencils.
Clay for bricks is the most ordinary kind; it should have
slight plasticity when moistened, and a fine even character
without pebbles. It ordinarily contains some hydrated oxyd
of iron, which when heated turns red by the escape of the
water in its composition, which reduces it to the red oxyd of
iron, and gives the usual red color to the brick. It also fre-
quently contains lime ; but much lime is injurious, as it
renders the brick fusible. A clay is extensively employed
at Milwaukie, in Michigan, which contains no iron, and
produces a very handsome cream-colored brick. About
9,000,000 of this kind of brick were made at that place in
1847.
In making bricks, the clay is first well worked by the tread-
ing of cattle or by machinery : after this, it is moulded in
moulds of the requisite size, (9 inches, by 4 and 24,) and
then taken out and laid on the ground. A good workman
will make by hand 5000 in a day, and the best 10,000.
After drying till stiff enough to bear handling, the bricks are
trimmed off with a knife when requiring it, and piled up in
long walls for farther drying. They are then made into a
kiln by piling them in an open manner, (so that the flame
and heated draft may have passage among them,) and leav-
ing places beneath for the fires. The heat is continued 48
hours or more .
The best brick are pressed in moulds. They have a
smooth, hard surface. Near Baltimore, Md., bricks are thus
made by a machine, worked by a single horse, which will
mould 30,000 bricks in 12 hours ; the bricks are dry enough
when first taken from the mould for immediate burning.
Burnt bricks were not used in England before the elev-
enth century, when they were employed in the construction
of the abbey of St. Albans. But they date historically as
far back as the city of Babylon. Unburnt bricks have also
been used in all ages. Those of Egyptian and Babylonish
times were made of worked clay mixed with chopped straw,
356 SAND-CLAY .

to prevent it from falling to pieces. The adobies of Peru,

are large sun-baked bricks or blocks of clay ; and in that
dry climate they are very durable.
Clay for Fire-bricks should contain no lime, magnesia,
or iron, as its value depends on its being very refractory.
There is a large manufactory in the United States, at Balti-
more, from the tertiary clays of eastern Maryland. In Eng-
land a slate clay from the coal series is employed.
Potter's clay and pipe clay are pure plastic clays, free from
iron, and consequently burning white. The clay of Mil-
waukie, from which the cream-colored bricks are made,
is much used also for pottery.
In the manufacture of coarse pottery, the clay is worked
with water and tempered ; and then the required form of a
pot or pan is given on a wheel. The ware is dried under
cover for a while, and next receives the glaze in a cream-
like state. The glaze for the most common ware consists
ofvery finely pulverized galena, mixed with clay and water.
The ware after drying again is next placed in the kiln,
which is very gradually heated; the heat causes the baking
ofthe clay, and drives off the sulphur of the galena, thus
producing an oxyd of lead, which forms akind of glass (or
glaze,) with the alumina. For a better stone ware, common
salt is used, and it is put on after the baking has begun.
For the finer earthenware, a mixture of red and white
lead, feldspar, silica and flint-glass, is used for a glaze, the
proportions differing according to the ware. The clay for
this ware is mixed with flint powder (ground flints or sand,)
to render it less liable to contract or break, and it is worked
with great care, and through various processes to prepare it
for moulding. The ware is usually baked to a biscuit, be-
fore the glazing is put on, as in the manufacture of porcelain.
Kaolin or porcelain clay, is derived from the decomposi-
tion of feldspar, as stated on page 117. The foreign kaolin
occurs in Saxony ; in France at St. Yrieux-la-Perche, near
Limoges ; in Cornwall, England ; also in China and Japan.
The kaolin used at the Philadelphia porcelain works comes
mostly from the neighborhood of Wilmington, Delaware.
The name kaolin is a corruption ofthe Chinese Kau-
ling, meaning high-ridge, the name of a hill near Jauchau
Fu, where this material is obtained.
In the manufacture of porcelain, the kaolin, and also the
other ingredients, are first ground up separately to an im
 SAND-CLAY. 357

palpable powder The kaolin is mixed with a certain pro-

portion of feldspar, flint and lime. The whole are worked
up together in water, by mallets and spades, and well knead-
ed by the hands and sometimes the feet of the workmen.
The plastic material is then laid aside in masses ofthe size of
aman's head, and kept damp till required; the dough, as it is
called, is now ready for the potter's lathe, (or other means,)
by which it is moulded into the various forms ofchina ware.
After moulding, they are slowly and thoroughly dried, and
then taken to the kiln, for a preliminarybaking. They come
out in the state of biscuit, and are ready for painting and
glazing. The colors are metallic oxyds, which are put on
either from a wet copper-plate impression on bibulous paper,
or by means of a brush. The former is used for flat sur-
faces; the paper is rubbed on carefully to transfer the im-
pression to the porcelain, and is then wet and washed off.
It is then carefully heated to evaporate any oil or grease em-
ployed in the printing. The glaze is made of a quartzose
feldspar; it is ground to a very fine powder and worked into
a paste with water, and a little vinegar. The articles are
dipped for an instant into this milky fluid, and as they absorb
the water they come out with adelicate layer of feldspar in
adry state. They are touched with a brush wherever not
well covered. They are then ready to be finally baked in
the kiln, for which purpose each vessel is placed in a sepa.
rate baked clay case or receptacle, called a sagger. In this
process the material undergoes a softening, amounting al-
most to a partial fusion, and thus receives the translucency
which distinguishes porcelain from earthen or stone ware.
The blue color of common china is produced by means
of oxyd ofcobalt ; carmine, purple and violet, by means of
chlorid of gold ; red of all shades by oxyd of iron ; yellow
by oxyd oflead, or white oxyd of antimony and sand ; green
by oxyd of copper or carbonate of lead ; brown by oxyd of
iron, manganese, or copper. A steel luster is produced from
chlorid of platinum.
The best Sèvres ware is made from 63 to 70 parts of
kaolin, 22 to 15 of feldspar, nearly 10 of flint, and 5 or 6 of
chalk. In China the kaolin is mixed with a quartzose feld-
spar rock, consisting mainly of quartz, called peh-tun-tsz.
Soapstone is sometimes used in this manufacture ; and as
it substitutes magnesia for a part of the potash, it makes a
harder ware ; but it is also more brittle.
358 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS.

CATALOGUE OF AMERICAN LOCALITIES OF

MINERALS .

The following catalogue may aid the mineralogical tourist

inselecting his routes and arranging the plan of a journey.
Only important localities, affording cabinet specimens, are in
general included. The names of those minerals which are
obtained in good specimens at the several localities, are dis-
tinguished by italics. When the specimens are remarkably
good, an exclamation mark (!) has been added, or two of
these marks (!! ) when the specimens are quite unique.
MAINE .

Mt. Abraham.--Andalusite, staurotide.

Albany. Beryl ! green and black tourmalines,feldspar,rose quartz.
Albion.-Iron pyrites.
Aroostook. Red hematite.
Bingham.-Massive pyrites, galena, blende,andalusite.
-Arsenical iron, molybdenite ! galena, apatite!fluor
Blue Hill Bay.
spar! black tourmaline, (Long Cove,) black oxyd of manganese, (Os-
good's farm,) red manganese,bog manganese, wolfram.
Bowdoinham.-Beryl, molybdenite.
Brunswick. Green mica, garnet ! black tourmaline ! molybdenite.
Buckfield.
-Garnet, (estates of Waterman and Low,) iron ore.
Camdage farm. (Near the tide mills,) molybdenite, wolfram.
Camden. Macle.
Carmel, (Penobscot county.)-Gray antimony.
Corinna.-Iron pyrites, arsenical pyrites
Deer Isle. Serpentine, verd antique, asbestus, diallage.
Dexter. Galena, pyrites,blende, copper pyrites, green talc.
Dixfield.-Native copperas, graphite.
Farmington.-(Norton's ledge,) pyrites, graphite, bog ore.
Georgetown.-(Parker's island,) beryl ! black tourmaline.
Greenwood.-Graphite, black manganese.
Hartwell . Staurotide .
Lenox. Galena, pyromorphite.
Lewiston. Garnet .
Litchfield. Hauyne, nepheline, zircon.
Lubec lead mines.-Galena, copper pyrites, blende, pyromorphite, an
ore of bismuth .
Newfield, (Bond's mt.)-Mispickel, olive phosphate of iron in botry-
oidal masses.
Paris. Green ! red !! black, and blue tourmaline ! mica ! lepidolite !
feldspar, albite, quartz crystals ! rose quartz, blende .
Parsonsfield. Idocrase! yellow garnet, pargasite,adularia, scapo-
lite, galena, blende, copper pyrites.
Perry.-Prehnite and calc spar,(above Loring's cove,) quartz crystal,
calcspar,analcime, apophyllite,agate, (Gincove.)
 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS. 359

Peru.-Crystallized pyrites.
Phipsburg. Yellow garnet ! manganesiangarnet, idocrase, parga-
⚫ite, axinite, laumonite ! chabazite, anore ofcerium.
Poland. Idocrase.
Raymond.-Magnetic iron, scapolite, pyroxene, lepidolite, tremolite,
hornblende.
Rumford.- Yellow garnet, idocrase, pyroxene, apatite, scapolite,
graphite.
Searsmont,-Andalusitc.
Streaked mountain.
-Beryl ! black tourmaline, mica, garnet.
Thomaston. Calc spar, tremolite, hornblende, sphene,arsenical iron,
(Owl's head,) black manganese,(Dodge's mountain.)
Warren. Galena, blende.
Waterville.-Crystallized pyrites.
Windham, (near the bridge.)-Staurotide ! spodumene, garnet.
Woodstock, (New Brunswick.)-Graphite, specular iron.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

Acworth. Beryl ! mica !! tourmaline, feldspar, albite, rose quartz,

columbite !
Alstead. Mica !! albite, black tourmaline.
Amherst. - Idocrase ! yellow garnet, pargasite, calc spar.
Bartlett. Magnetic iron, specular iron, brown iron ore in large veins
near Jackson (on " Bald face mountain")-quartz crystals, smoky
Quartz.
Bath. Galena.
Bellows Falls.-Kyanite, wavellite, near Saxton's river.
Benton.- Quartz crystals.
Canaan. Gold in pyrites.
Charlestown.-Staurotide macle ! andalusite-macle, bog iron ore.
Cornish. Gray antimony, antimonial argentiferous gray copper, ru-
ile in quartz !!
Eaton, (3 m. S. of.)-Galena, blende ! copper pyrites, limonite, (six
mile pond.)
Francestown.-Soapstone, arsenical pyrites.
Franconia. Hornblende, staurotide ! epidote ! zoisite, specular iron,
magnetic iron, black and redmanganesiangarnets ! mispickel ! (Dana-
ite,) copper pyrites, molybdenite.
Gilford.- (Gunstock mt.)-Magnetic iron ore, (native " lodestone.")
Goshen. Graphite, black tourmaline.
Grafton.-Mica ! (extensively quarried,) albite ! asparagus stone,blue,
green, and yellow beryls, tourmaline.
Grantham.-Gray staurotide !
Hanover.-Garnet, aboulder ofquartz containing rutile ! black tour-
maline, quartz.
Haverhill. Garnet ! arsenical pyrites, native arsenic,galena,blende,
aronand copper pyrites, magnetic and white iron pyrites.
Hillsboro, (Campbell's mountain.) Graphite.
Hinsdale. Manganese spar, black oxyd of manganese, (photozite
and rhodonite.)
Jackson.-Drusy quartz, tin ore, arsenical pyrites, native arsenic,
 360 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS.

fluor spar, apatite, magnetic iron ore, molybdenite, woltram, copper

pyrites, arsenate ofiron.
Jaffrey, (Monadnock mt.)-Kyanite.
Keene. Graphite, soapstone, milky quartz.
Landaff.- Molybdenite, lead and iron ores.
Lebanon.-Bog iron ore.
Lisbon.-Staurotide, garnets black and red,granular magnetic iron.
ore, hornblende, epidote, zoisite, specular iron.
Lyme. Kyanite, (N. W. part,) black tourmaline, rutile, iron pyrites
copper pyrites, (E. ofF. village,) sulphuret of antimony.
Merrimack.-Rutile ! (in gneiss nodules in granite vein.)
Moultonborough, (Red Hill.)-Hornblende, bog ore, pyrites, tour
maline.
Newport.-Molybdenite.
Orange. Blue beryls !
Orford. Brown tourmaline ! steatite, rutile, kyanite, brown iron.
ore, native copper, green malachite, galena.
Pelham. Steatite .
Piermont. Micaceous iron, heavy spar, green, white, and brown
mica, apatite.
Richmond. Iolite ! rutile, soapstone, iron pyrites.
Saddleback mt.-Black tourmaline, garnet, spinel.
Shelburne.
-Argentiferous galena,crystalline blackcupreous blende!
copperpyrites, iron pyrites, manganese.
-Beryls, (very large, 8 inches diameter,) manganesian
Springfield
garnets! in mica slate, albite, mica.
Swanzey, (near Keene.)-Magnetic iron, (in masses in granite.)
Tamworth, (near White Pond.)-Galena.
Unity, (estate of James Neal.)-Copper and iron pyrites, chloro-
phyllite, green mica, magnetic iron, radiated actinolite, garnet, titan-
iferous iron ore, magnetic iron ore.
Walpole, (near Bellows Falls.)-Macle.
Warren. Copperpyrites, blende, epidote, quartz, iron pyrites, tre-
molite ! galena, rutile, talc, molybdenite .
Westmoreland. (South part.) Molybdenite ! apatite ! blucfeldspar,
bogmanganese, (north village,) quartz,fluor spar,copper pyrites, oxyd
ofmolybdenum and uranium.
White mts., (notch behind " old Crawford's house.")-Green octahe-
dral fluor, quartz crystals, black tourmaline, chiastolite.
Wilmot. Beryl.
Winchester.-Pyrolusite, photozite, diallogite, black oxyd ofmanga-
nese, magnetic iron ore, granular quartz.
VERMONT .
Addison . Iron sand.
Alburgh.-Quartz crystals on calc spar, iron pyrites.
Athens. Steatite, rhomb spar, actinolite.
Barnet. Graphite.
Belvidere. Steatite, chlorite.
Bennington.-Pyrolusite, brown iron ore, pipe clay, yellow ocher.
Bethel.-Actinolite, talc, chlorite, octahedral iron.
Brandon.-Braunite, pyrolusite, psilomelane.
 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS . 361

Brattleborough.-Black tourmaline in quartz.

Bridgewater. Talc, dolomite, magnetic iron, steatite, chlorite.
Bristol. Rutile, brown hematite, manganese ores.
Brookfield. Mispickel, iron pyrites.
Cabot.-Garnets, staurotide, hornblende, albite.
Cavendish.-Garnet, serpentine.
Chester.
-Asbestus .
Chittenden.- Psilomelane, pyrolusite,braunite,brown iron ore, specu-
and magnetic iron, galena.
Colchester-Brown iron ore, iron sand,jasper, alum.
Corinth. Copperpyrites, magnetic iron pyrites.
Coventry.
-Manganese spar.
Dummerston .-Rutile .
Fletcher. Pyrites, octahedral iron, acicular tourmaline.
Grafton. The steatite quarry is properly in Athens.
Guilford. Scapolite.
Jay. Chromic iron, serpentine, picrosmine, amianthus.
Lowell.
-Picrosmine, amianthus.
Marlboro. Rhomb spar, steatite,garnet, magnetic iron.
Mendon.-Octahedral iron ore.
Middlebury.
-Zircon .
Monkton.
- Pyrolusite, brown iron ore.
Moretown.-Smoky quartz ! steatite, talc, wad.
Morristown.-Argentiferous galena.
Mount Holly.-Asbestus , chlorite.
New Fane. Glassy and asbestiform actinolite, steatite,groen quarz,
(called chrysoprase at the locality,) chalcedony, drusy quartz, garnet,
chromic iron, rhomb spar.
Norwich.- Actinolite, feldspar, brown spar in talc.
Pittsford.- Brown iron ore, manganese ores.
Plymouth. Spathic iron,magnetic and specular iron, both in octa-
kedral crystals.
Plympton.-Massive hornblende.
Putney. Fluor, brown iron ore, rutile, and zoisite in boulders.
Reading. Glassy actinolite in talc.
Readsboro' .-Glassy actinolite, steatite.
Ripton.- Brown iron ore, augite in boulders, octahedral iron pyrites.
Roxbury. Dolomite, talc, serpentine, asbestus.
Salisbury.
-Brown iron ore.
Sharon.-Quartz, kyanite.
Shoreham.- Iron pyrites.
Shrewsbury.- Magnetic iron, and copper pyrites.
Somerset. Magnetic iron, native gold.
Stafford. Magnetic iron, and copper pyrites, native copper, horn-
b.ende.
Starksboro' .
-Brown iron ore .
Stirling. Copper pyrites, talc, serpentine.
Stockbridge. Mispickel, magnetic ironore.
Thetford. Blende, galena, kyanite.
Troy.-Crystalline magnetic iron, talc, serpentine, picrosmine, ami
anthus, steatite.
Warren.-Actinolite, magnetic iron ore, wad.
31
362 LICALITIES OF MINERALS.

Waterbury.- Mispickel, copper pyrites.

Waterville. Steatite, actinolite, talc.
Westfield. Steatite, chromic iron, serpentine.
Westminster.
-Zoisite in boulders.
Wardsboro'.-Zoisite.
Windham.-Glassy actinolite, steatite.
Woodbury. Massive pyrites.
Woodstock. Quartz crystals.
MASSACHUSETTS.

Alford.-Galena, iron pyrites.

Athol. Allanite, fibrolite, (?) epidote !
Auburn.-Masonite.
Barre. Rutile ! mica, pyrites, beryl,feldspar, garnet.
Great Barrington.-Tremolite.
Bedford. Garnet.
Belchertown.-Allanite .
Bernardston. Magnetic oxyd of iron.
Beverly.-Polymignite, columbite, green feldspar, tin ore.
Blanford.
-Marmolite, schiller spar, serpentine, anthophyllite, acti-
nolite ! chromic iron, kyanite, rose quartz in boulders.
Bolton. -Scapolite ! petalite, sphene, pyroxene, nuttalite, diopside,
boltonite, apatite, magnesite, rhomb spar, allanite, yttrocerite, cerium
ocher, (on the scapolite,) spinel.
Boxborough.-Scapolite, spinel, garnet, augite, actinolite, apatite.
Brighton. Asbestus.
Brimfield, (road leading to Warren.)-Iolite, adularia, molybdenite,
mica, garnet.
Carlisle. Tourmaline, garnet ! scapolite, actinolite.
Charleston.-Prehnite, laumonite, stilbite, chabazite, quartz crystals.
Chelmsford.-Scapolite, chondrodite, blue spinel, amianthus ! rose
quartz.
Chester. Hornblende, scapolite, zoisite, spodumene, indicolite, apa-
tite-magnetic iron and chromic iron, (west part)-stilbite, heulandite,
analcime and chabazite.
Chesterfield. Blue, green, and red tourmaline, cleavelandite, (al-
bite,) lithia mica, smoky quartz,pyrochlore, (microlite,) spodumene, kya-
nite, apatite, rose beryl, garnet, quartz crystals, staurotide, tin ore,
columbite, variegated copper ore, zoisite, uranite.
Conway. - Pyrolusite, fluor spar, zoisite, rutile !! native alum, galena.
Cummington-Manganese spar ! cummingtonite, white iron pyrites,
garnet.
Dedham-Asbestus, galena.
Deerfield. Chabazite, heulandite, stilbite, amethyst, carnelian, chal-
cedony, agates.
Fitchburg, (Pearl hill.)-Beryl, staurotide ! garnets, molybdenite.
Foxborough. Iron pyrites, anthracite.
Franklin.-Amethyst.
Goshen. Lithia mica, albite, spodumene ! blue and green tourma-
line, beryl, zoisite, smoky quartz, columbite, tin ore, galena.
Hatfield. -Heavy spar, yellow quartz crystals, galena,blende, yellow
copper pyrites.
 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS. 363

Hawley. Micaceous iron, massive pyrites,magnetic iron, zoisite.

Heath. Pyrites, zoisite.
Hinsdale.-Brown iron ore, apatite, zoisite.
Hubbardston.-Massive pyrites.
Lancaster.-Kyanite, chiastolite ! apatite, staurotide, pinite, an-
dalusite.
Lee. Tremolite ! sphene ! (east part.)
Lenox.-Brown hematite, gibbsite (?)
Leverett. Heavy spar,galena, blende, copper pyrites.
Leyden. Zoisite, rutile.
Littleton.-Spinel, scapolite, apatite.
Lynnfield.-Magnesite on serpentine.
Martha's Vineyard.-Brown iron ore, amber, selenite, radiated
pyrites.
Mendon.-Mica ! chlorite.
Middlefield.
-Glassy actinolite, rhomb spar, steatite, serpentine,
feldspar, drusy quartz, apatite, zoisite,nacrite,chalcedony, talc !
Montague. Specular iron.
Newbury. Serpentine, amianthus, epidote, massivegarnet, carbon-
ate of iron.
Newburyport.-Serpentine, nemalite, uranite.
New Braintree.
-Black tourmaline.
Norwich.-Apatite ! black tourmaline, beryl, blende,quartz crystals.
Palmer, (Three Rivers.)-Feldspar, prehnite, calc spar.
Pelham.-Asbestus, serpentine,quartz crystals, beryl, molybdenite,
green hornstone.
Plainfield. Cummingtonite, pyrolusite, red manganese.
Richmond.- Brown iron ore, Gibbsite !!
Rowe. Epidote, talc.
Russel. Schiller spar, (diallage?) prismatic mica, serpentine, beryl,
galena, copper pyrites.
Saugus. Porphyry.
Sheffield.
-Asbestus, pyrites, native alum, pyrolusite.
Shelburne .-Rutile .
Shutesbury, (east of Locke's Pond.)-Molydenite.
Southampton.-Galena, white lead ore, anglesite, molybdate of
lead, fluor,heavy spar,copper and iron pyrites,blende, corneous lead,
pyromorphite.
South Royalston.
-Beryl!! common mica !! feldspar ! ilmenite,
allanite.
Sterling. Spodumene, chiastolite, spathic iron, mispickel, blende,
galena, iron and copper pyrites.
Stoneham. - Nephrite.
Sturbridge. Graphite, pyrope, apatite, bog ore.
Turner's Falls, (Conn. R.)-Copper pyrites, prehnite, chlorite, chlo-
rophæite ! spathic iron,green malachite, magnetic iron sand,anthra-
cite.
Tyringham.-Pyroxene, scapolite.
Uxbridge. Argentiferous galena.
Warwick. Massive garnet, black tourmaline, magnetic iron, beryl,
epidote.
Washington.-Graphite.
364 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS.

Westfield. Schiller spar, (diallage ?) serpentine, steatite, kyanite,

scapolite, actinolite.
Westford.
-Andalusite !
West Hampton.-Galena, argentine, pseudomorphous quartz.
West Springfield.-Prehnite, ankerite, satin spar, celestine, bitumin-
ous coal.
West Stockbridge .-Hematite, fibrous pyrolusite, spathic iron.
Whately. Native copper, galena.
Williamsburg. Zoisite, pseudomorphous quartz, apatite, rose and
sınoky quartz, galena, pyrolusite, copper pyrites.
Williamstown.-Cryst. qartz.
Windsor. Zoisite, actinolite, rutile !
Worcester. Mispickel, idocrase, pyroxene, garnet, amianthus,bu-
cholzite, spathic iron, galena, anthracite.
Worthington. Kyanite.
Zoar. Bitter spar, talc.
RHODE ISLAND.
Bristol. Amethyst .
Cranston.-Actinolite in talc.
Cumberland.-Manganese, epidote, actinolite, garnet, titaniferous
iron, magnetic iron, red hematite, copper pyrites.
Foster.-Kyanite !
Johnson.-Talc, brown spar.
Newport. Serpentine.
Portsmouth.-Anthracite, graphite, asbestus, iron pyrites.
Smithfield.--Dolomite, calc spar, bitter spar, nacrite, nephrite, tre
molite, asbestus, quartz, magnetic iron in chlorite slate, talc !!
Warwick, (Naticvillage.)-Masonite, garnets, graphite.
Westerly. Ilmenite.
CONNECTICUT.
Berlin.
-Heavy spar, datholite, blende, quartz crystals.
Bolton.-Staurotide, copper pyrites.
Bradleyville, (Litchfield.)-Laumonite.
Bristol. Vitreous copper !! copper pyrites, heavy spar, variegated
copper ore, talc.
Brookfield.-Galena, calamine, blende, spodumene, magnetic pyrites.
Cannan. Tremolite and augite ! in dolomite.
Chatham. Mispickel, smaltine, copper nickel, beryl.
Cheshire.-Heavy spar ! vitreous copper, cryst. variegated copper !
greenmalachite, kaolin, natrolite, prehnite, chabazite, datholite.
Chester. Sillimanite ! monazite, epidote.
-Graphite, pyroxene.
Cornwall, near the Housatonic.
Farmington.- Prehnite ! chabazite, heavy spar,agate, native copper.
-Green malachite.
Granby.
Greenwich.-Black tourmaline.
Haddam. Chrysoberyl ! beryl !! epidote !! tourmaline ! feldspar,
anthophyllite, garnet ! iolite ! chlorophyllite ! automolite, magnetic
iron, adularia, apatite, columbite ! white and yellow iron pyrites, mo-
lybdenite ! allanite, sulphuret of bismuth.
 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS . 365

Hadlyme.
-Chabazite and stilbite in gneiss, with epidote and garnet.
Hartford. Datholite, (Rocky Hill quarry.)
Kent.- Brown iron ore, pyrolusite, ochrey iron ore.
Litchfield.-Kyanite with corundum, apatite and andalusite, Ilmen-
ite, (Washingtonite.)
Lyme.-Garnet, sunstone.
Meriden. Datholite .
Middlefield Falls. Datholite, chlorite, &c., in amygdaloid.
Middletown. Mica, lepidolite with green and red tourmaline, al-
bite, feldspar, columbite ! prehnite, rutile ! beryl, topaz, uranite, apa-
tite.
Milford. Sahlite, pyroxene, asbestus, zoisite, verd-antique marble,
pyrites.
New Haven.-Serpentine, asbestus, chromic iron, sahlite, stilbite,
prehnite.
Norwich. Sillimanite, monazite ! (edwardsite of Shepard,) zircon,
iolite, corundum, feldspar.
Orange.-Pyrites.
Oxford, near Humphreysville . Kyanite.
Roaring Brook, (Cheshire .)-Datholite ! calcspar,prehnite, saponite.
Reading,(near th line of Danbury.)-Pyroxene, garnet.
Reading,(nearthe
Roxbury. Massive spathic iron, blende.
Salisbury. Brown iron ore, ochrey iron, pyrolusite !
Saybrook. Molybdenite, stilbite, plumbago.
Simsbury.- Vitreous copper, green malachite.
Southbury. Rose quartz, Laumonite, prehnite.
Southington.-Heavy spar, datholite.
Stafford. Massive pyrites.
Stonington.- Stilbite and chabazite on gneiss.
Thatchersville, (near Bridgeport.)-Stilbite on gneiss,babingtonite.
Tolland. Staurotide, massive pyrites.
Trumbull and Monroe.--Chlorophane, topaz, beryl, euclase (?) mag-
netic pyrites, iron pyrites, tungstate oflime, wolfram (pseudomorph of
tungsten,) rutile, native bismuth , tungstic acid, spathic iron, mispickel ,
argentiferous galena,blende, scapolite, tourmaline, garnet, albite, augite,
graphic tellurium (? )
Washington. Triplite, ilmenite ! (Washingtonite of Shepard,) dial-
logite, natrolite, andalusite (New Preston,) kyanite.
Watertown, near the the Naugatuck. -White sahlite, monazite.
West Farms -. Asbestus.
Winchester and Wilton.-Asbestus.

NEW YORK.

ALBANY CO.-Coeyman's Landing.

-Epsom salt.
Guilderland.-Petroleum .
Watervliet. Quartz crystals.
ALLEGANY Co.-Cuba.-Petroleum .
CATTARAUGUS Co.
-Freedom.-Petroleum.
CAYUGA Co.-Auburn.-Fluor, epsom salt.
Ludlowville.-Epsom salt.
Springville.-Nitrogen springs.
31*
366 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS.

CHATAUQUE CO.-Fredonia.-Petroleum, carbureted hydrogen.

Laona. Petroleum .
COLUMBIA CO.-Ancram Lead Mine.
-Galena,blende,copperpyrites
heavy spar.
-Earthy manganese, molybdate of lead, vitreous copper.
Austerlitz.
Hudson . Selenite !
Lebanon.-Nitrogen Spring.
DUTCHESS CO.-Dover.-Garnet (Foss ore-bed.)
Fishkill.-Graphite, green actinolite ! talc, hydrous anthophyllite.
Rhinebeck. Granular epidote.
Union Vale. Gibbsite (Clove mine.)
Amenia . Brown hematite .
ESSEX Co.-Alexandria. Kirby's graphite mine, graphite, pyroxene,
scapolite, sphene.
Crown Point. Garnet, massive feldspar, epidote, epsom salt, apa-
tite, (eupyrchroite ofEmmons,) magnetic iron(Peru.)
Lewis. Tabular spar, colophonite, garnet, labradorite.
Long Pond.-Apatite, garnet, pyroxene, idocrase, coccolite!! sca-
polite,magnetic iron ore, blue calc spar.
McIntyre. Labradorite, garnet, magnet iron ore.
Moriah. Zircon ! calc spar, apatite, actinolite, (Sanford ore-bed,)
labradorite, mica, specular iron.
Newcomb.-Labradorite, feldspar.
Port Henry. Brown tourmaline, mica,rose quartz, serpentine, green
and black pyroxene, hornblende, cryst. pyrites, magnetic pyrites,
adularia.
Roger's Rock.-Graphite,tabular spar,garnet,colophonite,feldspar,
adularia, pyroxene, sphene, coccolite.
Schroon. -Calc spar, pyroxene, chondrodite.
Ticonderoga.-Graphite,pyroxene, sahlite, sphene,black tourmaline,
cacoxene, (Mt. Defiance.)
Westport.
-Labradorite,prehnite.
Willsboro.- Tabular spar, colophonite, garnet, green coccolits, horn-
blende.
FRANKLIN CO.-Chateaugay.-Nitrogen springs.
Malone. Massive pyrites, magnetic iron ore.
-Calc spar.
GREENE CO.-Catskill.
Diamond Hill.
- Quartz crystals.
HERKIMER CO.-Little Falls.-Quartz crystals, heavy spar,calc spar,
anthracite.
Middleville. Quartz crystals ! cale spar, brownand pearl spar.
Salisbury.-Quartz crystals ! blende,galena,ironand copperpyrites.
Stark. Fibrous celestine, gypsum.
JEFFERSON CO.-Antwerp.-Quartz crystals ! serpentine ! calcspar.
spinel, mica, spathic iron, specular iron, arragonite, cacoxene ! tremo
lite, fluor, green malachite.
Brownville . Celestine.
Carthage. Cacoxene.
Champion.-Pyrites.
ChaumontBay. Celestine.
Depauville. Celestine.
 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS . 367

Henderson.-Mica !
High Island, (in the St. Lawrence.)-Tourmaline.
Muscolonge Lake.-Fluor !! mica, strontianite, idocrase.
Natural Bridge-Chalcedony.
Oxbow. Calc spar !! heavy spar.
VroomanLake, near Oxbow. Apatite ! quartz crystals, calc spar
pyroxene, mica ! tourmaline, pyrites.
Pillar Point.-Massive heavy spar:
Theresa. Carbonate of strontia.
Watertown.- Tremolite .
LEWIS Co.-Diana, (natural bridge.)-Scapolite ! tabular spar, green
coccolite, feldspar, apatite, sphene, mica, quartz crystals, drusy quartz,
cryst. pyrites,magnetic pyrites,blue calc spar, serpentine,rensselacrite,
zircon.
Greig. Magnetic iron ore,
Houseville. Earthy manganese.
Leyden.-Calc spar.
Lowville. Calc spar, fluor spar, pyrites, galena, blende.
MONROE CO.-Rochester.-Pearl spar, calc spar, snowy gypsum,
Huor, celestine, galena, blende.
MONTGOMERY Co. -Root.-Pearl spar, drusy quartz, blende.
Palatine. Quartz crystals, drusy quartz.
NEW YORK CO.-Corlaer's Hook.-Apatite.
Kingsbridge. Tremolite, pyroxene, mica , tourmaline, pyrites, rutile.
Harlem.- Epidote, apophyllite, stilbite, tourmaline, vivianite, lamel-
lar feldspar, mica.
New York. Serpentine, amianthus, actinolite, talc, pyroxene, hy-
drous anthophyllite, garnet, staurotide, molybdenite, graphite.
NIAGARA CO.-Lewiston.-Epsom salt.
Lockport. Celestine ! calc spar, selenite, anhydrite, fluor, pearl
opar ! blende.
Niagara Falls.-Calc spar, fluor, blende.
ONEIDA CO.- Boonville.-Calc spar, tabular spar, coccolite.
Clinton.-Blende, lenticular argillaccous iron ore.
Onondaga Co.-Camillus.-Selenite and fibrous gypsum.
Manlius. Gypsum and fluor.
Syracuse. Serpentinc, celestine.
ORANGE Co. Cornwall.-Zircon, chondrodite, hornblende, spinel,
massive feldspar, fibrous epidote, hudsonite, ilmenite, serpentine,
boltonite.
Deer Park.
-Cryst. pyrites, galena.
Monroe. Mica ! sphene ! garnet, colophonite, epidote, chondrodite,
allanite, bucholzite, brown spar, boltonite, spinel, hornblende, talc, ilme-
nite, magnetic pyrites, common pyrites, chromic iron, graphite.
At Wilks and O'Neil mine in Monroe. -Arragonite.
At Two Ponds in Monroe.-Pyroxene ! chondrodite, hornbiende,
scapolite ! zircon, sphene, apatite, boltonite.
At Greenwood Furnace.-Chondrodite, pyroxene.! mica ! hornblende,
spinel, scapolite, mica, ilmenite.
368 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS.

AtForest of Dean.-Pyroxene, spinel, zircon,scapolite,hornblende,

boltonite.
Town of Warwick.-
Warwick village.-Spinel, zircon, scrpentine ! brown spar, pyroxene!
hornblende ! pseudomorphous steatite,feldspar ! (Rock Hill,) ilmenite,
clintonite, tourmaline (R. H.,) rutile, sphene, molybdenite, mispickel,
white iron pyrites, common pyrites, yellow iron sinter.
Amity. Spinel, garnet, scapolite, hornblende, idocrase, epidote !
clintonite ! magnetic iron ! tourmaline, warwickite, apatite, chondro-
dite, ilmenite, talc, pyroxene ! rutile, zircon, corundum, feldspar,
sphene, calc spar, serpentine, schiller spar. (?)
Edenville. Apatite, chondrodite ! hair brown hornblende ! tremolite,
spinel, tourmaline, warwickite, pyroxene, sphene, mica, feldspar, mis-
pickel, orpiment, rutile, ilmenite, scorodite, copper pyrites.
West Point. Feldspar, mica, scapolite, sphene, hornblende.
Carmel, (Brown's quarry.)-Anthophyllite,schiller spar, (?) orpiment,
mispickel.
Cold Spring.-Chabazite, mica, sphene.
Patterson. White pyroxene ! calc spar, asbestus, tremolite, dolo-
mite, massive pyrites.
Phillipstown.-Tremolite, amianthus, serpentine, sphene, diopside,
green coccolite, hornblende,scapolite, stilbite, mica, laumonite,gurhofite,
calc spar, magnetic iron, chromic iron.
Phillip's ore bed.-Hyalite, actinolite, massive pyrites.
RENSSELAER Co.-Hoosic.-Nitrogen springs.
Lansingburgh.-Epsom salt, quartz crystals, iron pyrites.
Troy. - Quartz crystals, iron pyrites, selenite !
RICHMOND CO. Rossville.-Lignite, cryst. pyrites.
Quarantine. Asbestus ! amianthus, magnesite, dolomite, gurhofite,
brucite, serpentine, talc.
ROCKLAND CO.-Caldwell.-Calc spar !
Grassy Point.-Serpentine, actinoite.
Haverstraw.-Hornblende.
Ladentown.-Zircon, red copper ore, green malachite.
Piermont. Datholite, stilbite, apophyllite, stellite, prehnite, thom-
sonite, nemalite, calc spar.
Stony Point.-Kerolite, lamellarhornblende, asbestus.
ST. LAWRENCE Co.-Canton.-Massive pyrites, calc spar, brown
tourmaline, sphene, serpentine, talc, rensselaerite, pyroxene, specular
iron, copper pyrites.
Dekalb.- Hornblende,heavy spar,fluor, tremolite, tourmaline.
De Long's Mills, in Hammond.-Feldspar ! pyroxene, satin spar,
zircon, apatite.
Edwards. Brown and silvery mica ! scapolite, apatite, quartz crys-
tals, actinolite, tremolite, specular iron.
Fowler. Heavy spar, quartz crystals ! specular iron, blende, galena,
iron and copper pyrites, actinolite.
Gouverneur. Calc spar ! serpentine ! hornblende ! scapolite ! feld-
spar !! tourmaline ! pyroxene, apatite, rensselaerite, sphene, heavy
spar, rutile, pseudomorphous steatite, black and copper olored mica,
tremolite, asbestus.
 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS . 369

Hainmond.-Apatite !! zircon ! feldspar, heavy spar, pyrites, pur-

ple fluor.
Hermon.- Quartz crystals, specular iron, spathic iron.
Mineral Point, Morristown.-Fluor, blende, galena, mica, (Pope's
Mills, Morristown.)
Potsdam.- Hornblende !-eight miles from Potsdam on road to
Piermont ; feldspar ! tourmaline, black mica.
Rossie, (Parish ore bed.)-Heavy spar, specular iron, coralloidal ar-
ragonite.
Rossie lead mine. Calc spar !! galena !! pyrites ! celestine, copper
pyrites, white lead ore, anglesite.
Rossie, (Laidlaw Lake.)-Calc spar, heavy spar, quartz crystals,
chondrodite, pargasite, pyroxene, sphene. Elsewhere in Rossie.-
Feldspar ! pargasite ! apatite, pyroxene, mica, apatite, fluor, serpen-
tine, automolite.
Somerville. Chondrodite, light blue spinel.
SARATOGA Co.-Greenfield.- Chrysoberyl ! garnet, tourmalinc !
mica, feldspar, apatite,graphite.
SCOHARIE CO .-Ball's Cave, and others.
-Calc spar, stalactites.
Carlisle. Fibrous sulphate of baryta, cryst. and fib. carbonate of
lime.
Scoharie. Fibrous celestine, strontianite ! cryst. pyrites !
SENECA CO.-Canoga.-Nitrogen springs.
SULLIVAN CO.-Wurtzboro'.-Galena, blende, pyrites, copperpyrites.
ULSTER CO.
-Ellenville.
-Galena, blende, copper pyrites, quartz.
Marbletown.-Pyrites .
WARREN CO.-Caldwell.-Massive feldspar.
Chester.
- Pyrites, tourmaline, rutile, copper pyrites.
Diamond Isle, (Lake George.)-Calc spar, quartz crystals.
Glenn's Falls.-Rhomb spar.
Johnsburg. Fluor ! zircon !! graphite, scrpentine, pyrites.
WASHINGTON Co.-Fort Ann.-Graphite.
Granville. Lamellar pyroxene, massive feldspar, epidote.
WAYNE CO.- Wolcott.-Heavy spar.
WESTCHESTER Co. -Anthony's Nose. -Apatite, pyrites.
Davenport's Neck.-Serpentine, garnet, sphene.
Eastchester. Blende, copper and ironpyrites, dolomite.
Hastings. Tremolite, white pyroxene.
New Rochelle. Serpentine, brucite, magnesite, quartz, mica, tremo-
lite, garnet.
Peekskill.-Mica, feldspar, hornblende, stilbite.
Rye. Serpentine, chlorite, black tourmaline, tremolite, kerolite.
Singsing.-Pyroxene, tremolite, iron pyrites,
pyr copper pyrites, beryl,
azurite, green malachite,white lead ore,pyromorphite, anglesite, vau-
quelinite,galena,native silver.
West Farms.-Apatite, tremolite, garnet, stilbite, heulandite, chaba-
zite, epidote, sphene.
Yonkers. Tremolite, apatite, calc spar, analcime, pyrites, tour-
maline.
Yorktown. Sillimanite, monazite, magnetic iron.
370 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS.

NEW JERSEY.

Allentown, (Monmouth Co.)-Vivianite.

Belville. Copper mines.
Bergen.- Calc spar, datholite, thomsonite, pectolite, (called stellite,)
analcime, epistilbite, apophyllite, prehnite, sphene, stilbite, natrolite,
heulandite,laumonite, chabazite, pyrites, pseudomorphous steatite imi-
tative of apophyllite.
Brunswick. Copper mines, native copper, malachite, mountain
leather.
Danville, (Jemmy Jump ridge.)-Graphite, chondrodite, augite,
mica.
Flemington. Copper mines.
Frankfort. Serpentine.
Franklin and Hamburgh, near the Franklin furnace.-Spinel !! gar-
net ! manganese spar, (fowlerite) !! troostite !! franklinite !! red zinc
ore ! dysluite ! hornblende, tremolite, chondrodite, white scapolite,
black tourmaline, epidote, pink calc spar, mica, actinolite, augite, sah-
lite, coccolite, asbestus, jeffersonite, calamine, graphite, fluor, beryl,
galena, serpentine, honey-colored sphene, quartz, chalcedony, amethyst,
zircon, molybdenite, vivianite.
Franklin and Warwick mts.-Pyrites.
Greenbrook. Copper mines.
Griggstown. Copper mines.
Imleytown.-Vivianite.
Lockwood.-Graphite, chondrodite, talc, augite, quartz, green
spinel.
Mullica Hill, (Gloucester Co.)-Vivianite, lining belemnites.
Newton.-Spinel, blue and white corundum, mica, idocrase, horn-
blende, tourmaline, scapolite, rutile, pyrites, talc, calc spar, heavy spar,
pseudomorphous steatite.
Patterson. Datholite.
Schuyler's mines. Green malachite, red copper ore, native copper,
chrysocolla.
Somerville. Redcopper ore,native copper, chrysocolla, green mal-
achite, bitumen, (two miles to the northeast.)
Sparta. Chondrodite ! spinel, sapphire, green talc, graphite, epidote,
augite.
Suckasunny, on the Morris canal.
-Brown apatite in magnetic
pyrites.
Trenton.- Zircon, amber, lignite.
Vernon. Green spinel, chondrodite.
NOTE. From Amity, N. Y., to Andover, N. J., a distance of about
thirty miles, the outcropping limestone, at different points, affords more
or less of the minerals enumerated as occurring at Franklin. (SeeGeol.
Rep. on N. J., by H. D. Rogers.)
PENNSYLVANIA .

BERKSCo.
-Morgantown.-Malachite ! chrysocolla ! oct. and dodee
magnetic iron, copper pyrites, micaceous iron ore .
 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS . 371

BUCKS Co , three miles west of Attleboro'.-Pyroxene, scapolite,

feldspar, tabular spar, (a boulder, now exhausted,) zircon, apatite, sphene,
green coccolite, graphite.-Opposite New Hope in N. J., black tour-
maline.
CAMBRIA Co. Strasberg.-Epsom salt.
CHESTER CO. Coralloidal arragonite. At London Grove : tremolite,
apatite. At Newlin: corundum, beryl. At Phenixville : pearl spar !
calc spar, quartz crystals, brookite (?) on quartz. Near Westchester : zir-
con, cryst. magnesite, amethyst, mang. garnet, oxyd of manganese.
South part of Chester Co.: epidote, magnetic iron ore, rutile. At
Chester Ridge : oxyd ofcobalt, hematite.
DELAWARE CO.-Corundum, andalusite, aventurine feldspar, ame-
thyst, green quartz. At Leiperville : beryl ! black tourmaline ! apatite,
garnet. At Concord, Greene's creek : garnet, (pyrope ?) ! bucholzite.
HUNTINGTON Co.--Frankstown, Logan's valley, and near Alexandria :
Abrous celestine !
LANCASTER CO.-Anthophyllite. At Little Britain : cryst. pyrites,
moss agate. chalcedony. At Sadsbury : rutile !! Calamine, green hy-
drate of nickel, chromic iron.
MONTGOMERY Co. -At Perkiomen lead mine : blue malachite, blende,
zalena, pyromorphite, white lead ore, molybdate of lead,cupreous sul-
phateoflead ? anglesite, heavy spar, calamine.
NORTHUMBERLAND Co.-Opposite Selim's grove.-Electric calamine.
NORTHAMPTON Co.
-Easton.-Zircon !! (rare,) nephrite, saussurite ?
tremolite, serpentine, (pseudomorphic of calc spar-rare,) pyroxene,
soccolite, pink carbonate oflime, argillaceous iron ore.
PHILADELPHIA Co. -Near Columbia railroad bridge, on the Schuyl-
kill.
- Laumonite ! (inaccessible.) On the Schuylkill road, nearDarnley
bridge: kyanite. At Chesnut Hill : mica, serpentine, dolomite, asbestus,
tremolite, nephrite, talc, tourmaline, sphene. Near the Wissahiccon
creek: staurotide, actinolite. Near Germantown: mica, apatite,
(coarse,) beryl, feldspar.
Near Nicholson's Gap,BlueRidge: blue malachite.
DELAWARE .

Dixon's quarry, seven miles from Wilmington.-Cinnamon stone !!

(exhausted,) blue apatite, glassyfeldspar, sahlite, sphene in pyroxene,
kyanite.
Brandywine Springs.-Bucholzite, sahlite.
Chesapeake and Delaware canal.-Retinasphalt.
Newcastle Co.
-Vivianite.
MARYLAND.

Baltimore, (Jones Falls, 14 miles from B.)-Haydenite, heulandite,

(beaumontite of Levy,) pyrites, lenticular carbonate of iron, mica,
stilbite .
Sixteenmiles from Baltimore, on the Gunpowder.-Graphite.
Twenty-three miles from B., on the Gunpowder. Talc.
Twenty-five miles from B., on the Gunpowder.-Magnetic iron,
sphene, pycnite.
372 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS.

Eight to ten miles north ofB.-Brown hematite.

Eight to twenty miles north of B., in limestone.-Tremolite, augite,
pyrites, brown and yellow tourmaline.
Fifteen miles north ofB.---Sky-blue chalcedony in granular lime--
storie.
Eighteen miles north ofB., at Scott's mills.-Magnetic iron, kyanite.
Bure Hills. Chromic iron, asbestus, tremolite, talc, hornblende, ser-
pentine, chalcedony, meerschaum.
Cape Sable, near Magothy R.-Amber, pyrites, alum slate.
Catoctin mts.-Pyritous copper, carbonate ofcopper.
Cecil county, north part.-Chromic iron in serpentine.
Cooptown, Harford Co. Olive-colored tourmaline, diallage, talc of
green, blue, and rose colors, ligniform asbestus, chromic iron, ser-
pentine.
Deer creek.-Magnetic iron ! chlorite slate.
Liberty. Specular iron.
Meadow mt.-Quartz crystals.
Montgomery Co. -Peroxyd ofmanganese.
Six miles north of the Potomac.-Chromic iron, in serpentine,
dolomite.
Newmarket, (between Newmarket and Taneytown, east of the
Monocacey.)-Vitreous copper, copper pyrites, malachite.
" Soldier's Delight."-Serpentine (kerolite?) gray antimony.
Somerset and Worcester Cos., north part. -Bog iron ore, vivianite.
St. Mary's river. Gypsum ! in clay.
VIRGINIA AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.

Albemarle Co., a little west of the Green mts. Steatite, graphite.

AmherstCo., along the west base of Buffalo ridge.
-Copper ores, eto.
Buckingham Co., Willis's mt.-Kyanite, tourmaline, actinolite.
Eldridge's Gold mine.
-Gold, auriferous pyrites, heavy spar.
Culpepper Co., on Rapidan river.-Gold, pyrites.
Franklin Co.-Grayish steatite.
Fauquier Co., Barnet's mills.
-Asbestus.
Phenix copper mines.- Copper pyrites, etc.
J. Hood's plantation.
-Heavy spar.
Georgetown, D. C.
-Rutile.
Loudon Co.-Tabular quartz, prase, pyrites, talc, chlorite, soap-
stone, asbestus, chromic iron, actinolite, quartz crystals.
Louisa Co., near Tinder's gold mine.-Brown iron ore.
Luzerne Co. , Walton gold mine. -Gold, pyrites, copper pyrites, ar-
gentiferous galena, spathic iron, blende, anglesite.
Orange Co., western part, Blue Ridge.-Specular Iron.
U. S. Copper Mine District.-Vitreous copper.
Greenwoodgold mines. -Gold.
Rockbridge Co., three miles southwest of Lexington.-Heavy spar.
Shenandoah Co. , near Woodstock.-Fluor spar.
-Argillaceous ironore.
Mt. Alto, Blueride.
SpotsylvaniaCo. ,two miles northeast of Chancellorville. Kyanite.
WytheCo.,(Austin'smine
mines.)-White lead ore,minium, plumbicocher
blende, electric calamine, galena.
 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS . 373

Spotsylvania Co., eighteen miles above Fredericksburgh, on the Rap-

pahannock.-Gold.
Stafford Co., eight or ten miles from Falmouth.-Micaceous iron,
gold, silver, galena, vivianite.
Washington Co., eighteen miles from Abingdon.--Rock salt with
gypsum.
Wier's cave and other caves in Virginia. Calc spar and stalactites.
Kenawha. Petroleum, brine springs.
Shepardstown.-Fluor spar,
On the Potomac,25 miles north of Washington city.
-Native sulphur
in gray compact limestone.
NOTE. The minerals usually associated with the gold are, arsenical
iron, iron and copper pyrites, carbonate ofcopper, blende,galena, phos-
phate of lead in crystals, sulphur, peroxyd of iron, and rarely oxyd of
tin andbismuth. (ROGERS.)

SOUTHERN STATES .
-NORTH CAROLINA.

Buncombe Co.
-Zircon ! rutile in quartz, nitrogen from a warm
spring.
Burke Co.
-Gold.
Cabarras Co.-Gold; also in Lincoln, Rutherford, and Mecklenburg
Cos.-Phosphate copper,malachite.
Chatham Co.-Mineral coal, pyrites.
Gaston Co.
-Iron ores.
Rutherford Co.-Gold, graphite, platinum, bismuthic gold, diamond,
itacolumite ; on the road to Cooper's gap.-Kyanite.
Davidson Co., (King's mine.)-Lamellar native silver, carbonate of
lead! pyromorphite ! galena, blende,malachite,black copper, oxyd of
tinand manganese.
At Conrad Hill, five miles from King's mine.-Gold, copper ores.
Lincoln Co. , near Crowder's mountain.-Gold, iron ores, lazulite,
tyanite,garnet, graphite.
Stokes and Surrey Cos. -Iron ores, graphite.
Yancey Co. -Iron ores, amianthus.

SOUTH CAROLINA .

Abbeville Dist.-Gold, galena, phosphate oflead.

Anderson Dist.
-Galena.
Cheowee Valley.-Galena, tourmaline, gold.
Chesterfield Dist.
-Gold, (Brewer's mine,) talc, pyrites, native bis-
n...th, oxyd of bismuth, red and yellow ocher, whetstone.
Greenville Dist.-Galena, phosphate of lead, kaolin.
Lancaster Dist.-Gold, (Hale's mine,) talc, pyrites ; also at Black-
man's mine, Massey's mine, Ezell's mine.
Picken's Dist -Gold, manganese ores, kaolin.
Spartanburg Dist.-Magnetic iron ore; at the Cowpens-brown
lematite, graphite, limestone, copperas.
Union Dist.- Fairforest gold mines, pyrites, copper pyrites.
York. Limestone, whetstones.
32
374 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS.

GEORGIA .

Burke and Scriven Cos.

-Hyalite.
Habersham Co.-Gold, iron and copper pyrites,galena, hornblende,
garnet, quartz, kaolin, soapstone, chlorite, rutile, iron ores,galena, tour-
maline, staurotide, zircon.
Hall Co. Gold, quartz, kaolin, diamond.
Hancock Co.-Agate, chalcedony.
Lumpkin Co.-Gold, quartz crystals.
Rabun Co.-Gold, copper pyrites.
ALABAMA.

Centerville. Iron ores, marble, heavy spar, coal, cobalt.

Tuscaloosa Co.-Coal, galena.
FLORIDA .

Near Tampa bay.

--Limestone, sulphur springs, chalcedony, carne-
lian, agate, silicified shells and corals.

WESTERN STATES.
-OHIO.

Bainbridge, (Copperas mt.,a few miles east of B.)-Calc spar,heavy

spar, iron pyrites, copperas, alum.
Canfield. Gypsum ! -
Duck creek, Monroe Co. - Petroleum.
Liverpool -
. Petroleum .
Marietta. Argillaceous iron ore ; iron ore abundant also in Scioto
and Lawrence Cos.
Poland. Gypsum !
ARKANSAS.

Ouachita springs.-Quartz ! whetstones.

Magnet Cove.-Arkansite, ozarkite, schorlomite, eleolite, magnetis
iron, quartz, green coccolite.
MICHIGAN.

Lake Superior mining region. Native copper ! silver ! copper pyr-

ites, black oxyd of copper, (at Copper Harbor,) horn silver, gray copper,
manganese ores, prehnite, datholite, (large vein on W. point ofEagle
harbor,) stilbite, laumonite, analcime, tabular spar, calc spar; galena
and sulphuret of copper on Chocolate river ; copper pyrites and native
copper at Presqu' Isle.
Isle Royal . Copper ores.
ILLINOIS.
Gallatin Co., on a branch ofGrand Pierre creek, 16 to 30 miles froin
Shawneetown, down the Ohio, and from 3 to 8 miles from this river.-
Violet fluor spar ! heavy spar, galena, blende, brown iron ore.
In Northern Illinois, townships 27, 28, 29, several important mines
ofgalena.
 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS . 375

INDIANA .

Limestone caverns.-Epsom salt; in most of the S. W. counties

pyrites, sulphate of iron, and feather alum ; on Sugar creek, pyrites
and sulphate of iron !; in sandstone of Floyd Co., near the Ohio,
gypsum , at the top of the blue limestone formation, brown spar ! calc
spar.

WISCONSIN

At Mineral Point and elsewhere, copper and lead ores abundant,

principally silicate and carbonate of copper and galena. Also pyrites ,
capillary pyrites, blende, white lead ore, leadhi!lite, calamine, angle-
site, heavy spar, and calc spar; often in highly interesting forms.
IOWA .

Du Buque lead mines, and elsewhere. -Galena ! calc spar, black

oxyd of manganese ; at Ewing's and Sherard's diggings, calamine !;
at Des Mains, quartz crystals ; Mahoqueta R., brown iron ore.
MISSOURI.
Jefferson Co., at Valle's diggings.-Calamine, galena, white leadore,
anglesite, pyritous copper, blue and green malachite, carbonate of
baryta.
Mine à Burton.-Galena, white lead ore, anglesite, heavy spar, calc
spar.
Deep Diggings.-Carbonate of copper, white lead ore in crystals, and
manganese ore .
Mine La Motte. Galena ! malachite, earthy cobalt and nickel, bog
manganese, sulphuret of iron and nickel, white lead ore in crystals, cora-
cite, caledonite, plumbo-resinite, wolfram.
Perry's Diggings, and elsewhere. Galena, etc.
Forty miles west of the Mississippi and ninety south of St. Louis, the
iron mountains, specular iron, brown hematite.
KENTUCKY .

Mammoth cave.-Gypsum in imitative forms, stalactites, niter, epsom

salt.

TENNESSEE .

Brown's creek. -Galena, blende, heavy spar, celestine.

Carter Co.,foot ofRoan mt.-Suhlite, magnetic iron.
Claiborne Co.-Calamine, galena, electric calamine, chlorite, steatite,
and magnetic iron.
Cocke Co., near Brush creek.-Cacoxene, kraurite, iron sinter, stilp-
nosiderite, brown hematite.
Davidson Co.-Selenite with granular and snowy gypsum, or alabas-
ter, crystallized and compact anhydrite, fluor in crystals ! calce spar in
crystals. Near Nashville, blue celestine, (crystallized, fibrous and radi-
ated,) with heavy spar in limestone. Haysboro, galena, blende, with
heavy spar as the gangue ofthe ore.
376 LOCALITIES OF MINERALS .

Dickson Co.-Manganite.
Jefferson Co.
-Calamine, galena, fetid heavy spar.
Knox Co. -Magnesian limestone.
Maury Co. -Wavellite in limestone.
Morgan Co.-Epsom salt, nitrate oflime.
Roan Co., eastern declivity of Cumberland mts.-Wavellite in lime-
stone.
Severn Co., in caverns.-Epsom salt, soda, alum, saltpeter, nitrate
oflime.
Smith Co -Fluor.
White Co., Sparta, about the CalfKiller's creek. A rolled fragment
of sulphuret ofsilver, fluor, liquid bitumen.
Stone creek,near Mr. Holland's.-Iron ore, black oxyd of manganese
Smoky mt., on declivity.-Hornblende, garnet, staurotide.
 FOREIGN MINING REGIONS . 377

BRIEF NOTICE OF FOREIGN MINING REGIONS .

The geographical positions of the different mining re-

gions are learned with difficulty from the scattered notices
in the course ofa mineralogical treatise. A general review
of the more important is therefore here given, to be used
in connection with a good map.
Acourse across Europe from southeast to northwest, passes
over a large part of the mining regions, and it will be found
most convenient to the memory to mention them in this or-
der, commencing with the borders of Turkey.
1. The mines of the Bannat in southern Hungary, near
the borders of Turkey, (about latitude 45') situated princi-
pally at Orawitza, Saszka, Dognaszka, and Moldawa. Ores.
Argentiferous copper ores, vitreous copper, malachite, copper
pyrites, red copper ore, galena, ores of zinc, cobalt, native
gold, yielding silver, gold, copper, and lead. Rock. Syenite,
and granular limestone.
2. The mines of western Transylvania, about latitude
46', situated between the rivers Maros and Aranyos, at Nagy-
ag, Offenbanya, Salathna, and Vöröspatak. Ores. Na-
tive gold, telluric gold, telluric silver, white tellurium, with
galena, blende, orpiment, realgar, gray antimony, fahlerz,
carbonate of manganese, manganblende ; especially valua-
ble in gold and silver.
3. In the mountain range, bounding Transylvania on
the north, about latitude 47° 40', at Nagy-banya, Felso-ban-
ya, and Kapnik. Ores. Native gold, red silver, argentife-
rous gray copper, pyritous copper, blende, realgar, gray an-
timony. Rock. Porphyry.
4. In the Königsberg mountains, northern Hungary, about
latitude 48 ° 45', at Schemnitz and Kremnitz. Ores. Ar-
gentiferous galena and copper pyrites, native gold, red silver
ore, gray antimony, some cobalt ores and bismuth, inispickel ;
particularly valuable for gold, silver, and antimony. Rock.
Diorite and porphyry.
5. To the east of the Königsberg mountains, at Schmol-
nitz and Retzbanya. Ores. Pyritous copper, gray copper
ore, blende, gray antimony, particularly valuable for copper.
Rock. Clay slate.
6. Illyria, west of Hungary, at Bleiberg and Raibel, (in
Carinthia.) Ores. Argentiferous galena, calamine, with
32
*
378 FOREIGN MINING REGIONS.

some copper pyrites and other ores, affording silver and

zinc abundantly. Rock. Mountainlimestone. -Also at Idria,
native mercury and cinnabar, in argillaceous schist.
7. In Western Styria, at Schladming. Ores. Arsenical
nickel, copper nickel, native arsenic, arsenical iron, largely
worked for nickel. Rock. Argillaceous slate. Illyriaand
Styriaare noted also fortheir iron ores, especially spathic iron.
8. In the Tyrol, at Zell. Ores. Argentiferous copper
and iron ores, auriferous pyrites, native gold. Rock. Ar-
gillaceous slate.
9. In the Erzgebirge separating Bohemia from Saxony,
and consisting principally of gneiss.
A. Bohemian or southern slope, at Joachimstahl, Mies,
Schlackenwald, Zinnwald, Bleistadt, Przibram, Katherinen-
berg. Ores. Tin ores, argentiferous galena, (worked prin-
cipally for silver,) arsenical cobalt ores, copper nickel, af-
fording tin, silver, cobalt, nickel, and arsenic.
B. Saxon or northern slope, at Altenberg, Geyer, Marien-
berg, Annaberg, Schneeberg, Ehrenfriedersdorf, Johann-
georgenstadt, Freiberg. Ores. Argentiferous galena, (worked
only for silver,) tin ore, various cobalt and nickel ores, vi-
treous and pyritous copper, affording silver, tin, cobalt, nickel,
bismuth, and copper.
10. In Silesia, in the Riesen-gebirge, aneastern extension
of the Erz-gebirge, at Kupferberg, Jauer, Reichenstein.
Ores of copper, cobalt, affording copper, cobalt, arsenic and
sulphur.
11. In Silesia, inthe low country east of the Riesen-ge.
birge, near the boundary of Poland, at Tarnowitz. Ores.
Calamine, electric calamine, blende, argentiferous galena,
affording zinc, silver andlead. Rock. Mountain limestone.
12. Northwest of Saxony, near latitude 51° 30', at Eisle-
ben, Gerlstadt, Sangerhausen, and Mansfeld. Ores. Gray
copper, somewhat argentiferous, variegated copper ore, af-
fording copper. Rock. A marly bituminous schist (kupfer-
schiefer) more recent than the coal strata.
13. In the Harz-gebirge, ( Hartz mountains,) north of west
from Eisleben, about latitude 51° 50', at Clausthal, Zeller.
feld, Lauthenthal, Wildemann, Grund, Andreasberg, Goslar,
Lauterberg. Ores. Vitreous copper, gray copper, pyritous
copper, cobalt ores, copper nickel, ruby silver ore, argentif-
erous galena, blende, antimony ores, affording silver, lead,
copper, and some gold.
 FOREIGN MINING REGIONS . 379

14. In Hesse-Cassel to the southwest of the Hartz, at

Riechelsdorf. Ores. Arsenical cobalt, arsenical nickel,
nickel ocher, native bismuth, bismuth glance, galena, af-
fording cobalt. Rock. Red sandstone. Also at Bieber,
cobalt ores in mica slate.
15. In the Bavarian or Upper Rhine, (Palatinate,) near
latitude 49° 45', at Landsberg near Moschel, Wolfstein, and
Morsfeld. Ores. Cinnabar, native mercury, amalgam, horn
quicksilver, pyrites, brown iron ore, some gray copper ore,
and copper pyrites. Rocks. Coal formation.
16. Province of the Lower Rhine, at Altenberg, near
Aix la Chapelle (or Aachen.) Ores. Calamine, electric
calamine, galena, affording zinc. Rock. Limestone. The
same, just south in Netherlands, at Limburg, and also to the
west at Vedrin, near Namur.
17. There are also copper mines at Saalfeld, west of Sax-
ony, in Saxon-Meiningen, in Southern Westphalia near
Siegen, in Nassau at Dillenberg, and elsewhere.
18. In Switzerland, Canton du Valais. Ores. Argentif-
erous lead, and valuable nickel and cobalt ores.
19. The range of the Vosges, in France, parallel with
the Rhine, about St. Marie-aux-Mines. Ores. Argentifer-
ous galena, (affording 1-1000 of silver,) with phosphate of
lead, gray copper, antimonial sulphuret of silver, native sil-
ver, arsenical cobalt, native arsenic, and pyrites, occasion-
ally auriferous ; affording silver and lead. Rocks. Argil-
laceous schist, syenite, and porphyry.
20. In France there are also the mining districts of the
Alps, Auvergne or the Plateau of Central France, Brit-
tany, and the Pyrenees, but none are very productive, ex-
cept in iron ores. Brittany resembles Cornwall, and for-
merly yielded some tin and copper. The valley of Oisans
in the Alps, at Allemont, contains argentiferous galena,
arsenical cobalt and nickel, gray copper, native mercury, and
other ores, in talcose, micaceous, and syenitic schists, but
they are not now explored. The region of Central France
is worked at this time only at Pont-Gibaud, in the department
of Puy-de-Dome, and at Vialas and Villefort in the Gard.
The former is a region of schistose and granite rocks, inter-
sected byporphyry, affording some copper,antimony, lead, and
silver ; the latter of gneiss, affording lead and silver, from
argentiferous galena. The French Pyrenees are worked at
the present time only for iron.
380 FOREIGN MINING REGIONS .

21. In England there are two great metalliferous dis-

tricts.
A. On the southwest, in Cornwall, and the adjoining
county of Devonshire. Ores. Pyritous copper and various
other copper ores, tin ore, galena, with some bismuth, co-
balt, nickel, and antimony ores, affording principally copper,
tin, and lead. Rocks. Granite, gneiss, micaceous and ar-
gillaceous schist.
B. On the North, in Cumberland, the adjoining parts of
Durham, with Yorkshire and Derbyshire, just south. Ores.
Galena, and other lead ores, blende, copper ores, calamine,
(the last especially at Alstonmoor in Cumberland, and
Castleton and Matlock, in Derbyshire,) affording largely of
zinc, and three-fifths of the lead of Great Britain, and some
copper. Rock. Carboniferous limestone.
C. There is also a rich vein of calamine, blende, and ga-
lena, in the same limestone at Holywell, in Flintshire, on
the north of Wales; another of calamine at Mendip Hills,
in Southern England, south of the Bristol channel, in Sorm.
ersetshire, occurring in magnesian limestone ; mines of
copper onthe isle ofAnglesey, in North Wales, in Westmore-
land and the adjacent parts of Cumberland and Lancashire,
in the southwest of Scotland, the Isle of Man, and at Ecton
in Staffordshire, &c .
22. In Spain, there are mines-
A. On the south, in the mountains near the Mediterranean
coast, in New Grenada, and east to Carthagena, in Murcia ;
situated in New Grenada, inthe Sierra Nevada, or the moun.
tains of Alpujarras, the Sierra Almagrera, the Sierra de Ga-
dor, just back of Almeria, and at Almazafron near Cartha.
gena. Ore. Galena, which is argentiferous at the Sierra
Almagrera, and at Almazarron, affording full 1 per cent. of
silver. Rock. Limestone, associated with schist and crys-
talline rocks.
B. The vicinity of the range of mountains running west-
ward from Alcaraz, (in the district of La Mancha,) to Por
tugal. 1. On the south, near the center of the district of
Jaen, at Linares, latitude 38' 5', longitude 3º 40. Ores •
Galena, carbonate of lead, red copper ore, malachite, 111
granite and schists ; affording lead and copper. 2. In La
Mancha, at Alcaraz, northeast of Linares, latitude 38° 45 :
Ores. Calamine affording abundantly zinc. 3. In the
west extremity of La Mancha, near latitude 38° 38', at
 FOREIGN MINING REGIONS. 381

Alnaden. Ores. Cinnabar, native mercury, horn quicksil.

ver, pyrites, in clay slate. 4. Southwest of Almaden, in
Southern Estremadura, and Northwestern Sevilla, at Guadal-
canal, Cazalla, Rio Tinto. Ores. Gray copper, copper
vitriol, malachite, with some red silver ore, and native silver,
in ancient schists or limestones .
There are also mines of lead and copper at Falsete in
Catalonia ; in Galicia, a little tin ore ; in the Asturias at
Cabrales, copper ores.
23. In Sweden :-1. At Fahlun, in Dalecarlia. Ores.
Copper pyrites, variegated copper. Rock. Syenite and
schists . At Finbo and Broddbo. Ores. Columbium ores,
tin ore. At Sala. Ore. Argentiferous galena, affording
lead and silver. Rock. Crystalline limestone. At Vena,
(or Wehna,) and at Tunaberg. Ores. Arsenical cobalt,
arsenate of cobalt. Rock. Mica slate and gneiss.- At Dan-
nemora and elsewhere. Ore. Magnetic iron.
24. In Norway, at Kongsberg, vitreous silver, native sil-
ver, horn silver, native gold, galena, native arsenic, blende.
Rock. Mica slate .-At Modum and Skutterud. Ores. Co-
balt ores, native silver. Rock. Mica slate. At Arendal,
magnetic iron.
25. In Russia :-1. In the Urals, (mostly onthe Asiatic
side,) at Ekatherinenberg, Beresof, Nischne Tagilsk, &c.
Ores. Native gold, platinum, iridium, native copper, red oxyd
of copper, malachite. 2. The Altai, (southern Siberia,) at
Kolyvan and Zmeof. Ores. Native gold, native silver, ar-
gentiferous galena, carbonate of lead, native copper, oxyds
of copper, malachite, pyritous copper, calamine. Rocks.
Metamorphic beds, and porphyry. 3. In the Daouria moun-
tains, east of Lake Baikal, at Nertchinsk. Ores. Argen-
tiferous galena, carbonate of lead, arsenate of lead, gray an-
timony, arsenical iron, electric calamine, cinnabar. Rocks.
Ancient compact limestone and schists.
Other important foreign mines, are the copper mines of
Cuba, South America, Southern Australia ; the silver mines
of South America and Mexico; the gold mines of South
America, Africa, and the East Indies ; the quicksilver mines
of Huanca Velica, Peru, and those of China ; the tin of
Malacca, (principally on the island of Junck Ceylon,) of
Banca ; of zinc, in China ; of platinum, in Brazil, Colum-
bia, St. Domingo, and Borneo; of palladium, in Brazil ; of
382 MINERALOGICAL INSTRUMENTS.

arsenic in Khoordistan, China. Copper mines are also re-

ported from New Zealand.
MINERALOGICAL IMPLEMENTS.

For the examination and collection of minerals, the min.

eralogist should be provided with a few simple implements.
1. A three-cornered or small flat file, for testing hardness.
2. A knife with a pointed blade, of good steel, for trying
hardness. Berzelius suggests that it may be magnetized, to
be used as a magnet.
3. The series of crystallized minerals, constituting the
scale of hardness (see page 64.) The diamond and talc
are least essential.
4. Small glass-stoppered bottles (one-ounce) ofeach ofthe
acids muriatic, sulphuric, and nitric, in a dilute state, (page
66.)
5. A blowpipe, (page 67.)
6. The common fluxes, (page 69.)
7. Pieces of charcoal for blowpipe purposes, (page 69.)
Also strips of mica for holding the assay when platinum is
not at hand.
8. Acandle or lamp for blowpipe trials, (page 68.)
9. Platinum foil, wire, and forceps, (page 69.)
10. Also a pair of small steel spring forceps, for holding
fragments of minerals in the blowpipe flame, and for man-
aging the assay.
11. A piece of glass tube, & inch bore ; and two or three
test tubes (of hard glass,) or small mattresses, for trying the
action of acids, and testing the presence of water by the
blowpipe.
12. A pair of cutting pliers, for removing chips ofa min-
eral for blowpipe or chemical assay.
13. A common goniometer ; or a pair ofarms pivoted to-
gether to use with a scale, as explained on pages 47, 48.
The reflecting goniometer (page 50) is also a desirable in-
strument.
14. Models of the common crystalline forms ; they may
be made by the student, out of chalk, or wood ; and when
finished, a coat of varnish or gum will give great hardness
to the chalk.
15. A pair of balances for specific gravity, (page 63.)
16. A hammer weighing about two pounds, resembling a
 MINERALOGICAL IMPLEMENTS . 383

stone cutter's hammer, having a

slightly rounded face, and at
the opposite end, an edge hav-
ing the same direction as the
handle. The handle should be
made of the best hickory, and the mortice to receive it
should be as large as the handle.
17. Another hammer of half a pound weight, similar to
the preceding, except that the face should be flat ; to be used
in trimming specimens.
18. A smalljeweller's hammer, for trying the malleabili-
ty of globules obtained by the blowpipe, and for other pur-
poses.
19. A piece of steel, say inch thick, 1 or 2 wide, and 2
or3long, tobe used as an anvil. Afragment maybe broken
or pulverized upon it, by first folding it in a piece ofthin pa-
per, to prevent its flying off when struck. A half inch cir-
cular cavity on one side, and a pestle to correspond, will be
found very convenient.
20. Two steel chisels of the form of a wedge, as in the
annexed figure ; one 6 inches long, and the other 3. When
it is desired to pry open seams in rocks with the larger
chisel, two pieces of steel plate should be provided to
place on opposite sides of the chisel, after an opening
is obtained ; this protects the chisel and diminishes
friction while driving it.
21. Bone ashes, to be used uponmica, or in a small cav-
ity in charcoal, in cupelling for silver, with the blowpipe.
A rounded cavity should be made in the charcoal, as large
as the end of the little finger, and the bone ashes (slightly
moistened, and mixed with a little soda,) should be pressed
into it firmly with the head of a small pestle ; after tho-
roughly drying, it is in a condition to receive the assay.
22. A pocket microscope.
23. A small agate mortar and pestle.
24. Amagnetic needle.
25. A pair of scissors.
26. A box of matches .
Forblasting and other heavy work, the following tools
and appliances are necessary :-
1. Three hand-drills, 18, 24, and 36 inches long, an inch
in diameter. The best form is a square bar of steel, with
adiagonal edge at one end. The three are designed to fol-
low one another.
384 WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND COINS.

2. A sledge hammer of 6 or 8 pounds weight, to use in

driving the drill.
3. A sledge hammer of 10 or 12 pounds weight, for break.
ing up the blasted rock.
4. A round iron spoon, at the end of a wire 15 or 18
inches long, for removing the pulverized rock from the drill-
hole.
5. A crowbar, a pickaxe, and a hoe, for removing stones
and earth before or after blasting.
6. Cartridges of blasting powder, to use in wet holes.
They should one-third fill the drill-hole. After the charge
is put in, the hole should be filled with sand and gravel
alone without ramming. If any ramming material is used,
plaster of Paris is the best, which has been wet and after-
wards scraped to a powder.
7. Patent fuse for slow match, to be inserted in the car-
tridge, and to lead out of the drill-hole.

WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND COINS.

For the convenience of the student, the following infor.
mation is here inserted, of such weights, measures, and
coins, of different countries, as are likely to be met with in
the course of his ordinary reading on minerals and mining.
24 grains, Troy,66
1 pennyweight (dwt.)
20 dwt. 1 ounce (oz.)
66
12 oz. 1 pound (lb.)
16 drams Avoirdupois, 1 oz.
66
16 oz. 1 pound.
66
112 lbs. 1 hundred (cwt.)
66
20 cwt. 1 ton.
1 lb. troy = 5760 grs. troy = 13 oz. 2.65143 drams av.
1 lb. av. = 7000 grs. troy = 1 lb. 2 oz. 1 dwt. 16 gr. troy.
To reduce pounds troy, to pounds avoirdupois, multiply by
the decimal .822857 ; or, approximately, diminish by 3-17.
To reduce pounds avoirdupois, to pounds troy, multiply by
1-215 .
100 lbs. av. is now the usual 1 cwt., and 25 lbs. the quar.
ter cwt.
112 pounds, formerly 1 quintal.
100 pounds, now usually 1 quintal.
1 French gramme 15-433159 grs. troy.
 WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND COINS. 385

1 French kilogramme = 1000 grammes 2-21 lbs. av.

nearly = 2.68 lbs. troy = 2.0429 French livres..
Toreduce Approximately.
Fr. kilograms to Eng. av. pounds, mult. by 2-2055 or add 6-5,
Prussian, (including Hanoverian, Bruns-
wick, and Hessian,) pounds, to Eng. " "
avoir. pounds, 1-031114 " " 1-32.
" "

Fr. livre, (poids de marc) to Eng. av. lbs. 1.079642 " " 2-25.
" "

Eng. av. lb. to French kilogram, 0-453414 “ sb . 11-20.

" " " "

Eng. av. lb. to French livre, 0-9262 1-13 .

Eng. cwt. (112 lbs.) to a metric quintal, " H
(= 100 kilog. French,) 0-5078
" "
Eng. cwt. to a Prus, centner, (=110lbs .) 0-9875 " " 1-80.
Eng. cwt. to a quintal, (old measure= " "
100 livres,) "
1-0385 " add 2-53 .
"
Ametricquintal to an English cwt. 1-971
"
Aquintal, old meas. to an Eng. cwt. 0.963 " sub.1-27.
« "
APrussian centner to an Eng. cwt. 1.0127 " add 1-80.

The old French livre contained 2 marcs, or 16 ounces ;

a marc = 3778 Eng. grs. A marc at Cologne, (Ham-
burgh, etc.,) = 8 oz. = 3608 Eng. grs.
The Russian pood ( or pud) = 40 Russian pounds = 36
English pounds avoirdupois.
12 inches English, 1 foot.
3 feet, 1 yard.
40 rods, 1 furlong.
8 furlongs, 1 mile.
3miles, 1 league .
6 feet, 1 fathom.
60 geographical miles, 1 degree.
69 statute miles (nearly,) 1 degree.
A French meter 3 feet, 3.371 inches English, or more
correctly, 39-37079 inches English-3 feet, 0 inches, 11.296
lines French.
A French toise=6.3946 English feet 6 old French feet.
English. French. Prussian, Danish andRhenish.
Foot:
- -9382928 = •9711361 .
Toreduce Approximately.
multiply by 1.065765 or add 1-15.
French feet toEnglish,
English feet to French,
"
" 0-9382928 or subt. 1-16.
" "
French meters to English feet, 3-280899 or add 23-7.
French meters to English yards,
"
1-093633 or add 1-11.
"
English feet to French meters, " 0-3047945 or subt. 7-10

The French foot according to an act in 1812, is af of a

33
386 WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND COINS.

meter, but this measure has not been adopted, the old Fiench
foot, ( 1:066 English feet) continuing to be used. :

A German geographical mile 4 English geographica.

miles, or about 4.633 Eng. statute miles = 7407-40 meters.
French stere, (cubic measure) = 35-34384cubicft. U. S.
French litre (liquid and drymeasure,) = 61.07416 cubic
inches, or 1.05756 quarts wine measure.
Value of different weights, in English avoirdupois pounds,
of measures in English feet and inches, and of coins in
American dollars .
Amsterdam.- 1 centner (100lbs.) = 108.923 av. lbs.
Batavia.- 1 picul = nearly 136 av. lbs.
Bremen.- 1 centner = 116 av. lbs. ; 1 lb. = 1 · 1 av. lbs.;
1 foot = 110in; 1 rix dollar, (silver) = $0.787 ; 72 grotes
= 1 rix dollar.
Calcutta.
- 1 rupee, (gold) =$6.75 ; 1 rupee (silver,)=
$0.45,6; 1 candy = 20 maunds, = 500 lbs. av.
Canton.- 1 picul = 1334 av. lbs.; 1 catty = If av. lbs. ;
1 tael = 1 oz.; 1 tael = $ 1.48 ; 10 mace = 1 tael.
Denmark.- 1 centner (100 lbs.) = 1104 av. lbs.; 1 foot
=124 inches ; 1 rix dollar, (silver) $0.52 ; 6 marcs = 1
rix dollar ; 16 skillings = 1 marc.
Florence and Leghorn.- 1 cantaro, (100 lbs.) = 74.86
av. lbs.; 1 palmo= 94 inches.
France.
- 1 franc = $0.186 ; 10 decimes = 1 franc ; 10
centimes = 1 decime .
Genoa.- 1 peso grosso (100 lbs.) = 764 av. Ibs ; 1 peso
sottile = 69.89 av. lbs ; 1 palmo = 91 in.
Great Britain.-£1 = 20 shillings sterling = $4.84 ; 1
guinea = 21 shillings sterling = $5.081.
Hamburg.- 1 foot = 11.3 inches ; 1 mile = 4.68 miles ;
1marcbanco = $0.35; current marc = $0.28; 3 marcs
= 1 rix dollar.
Malta.
-1 foot, 10 inches ; 1 cantaro, (100 lbs.) =
174-5 av. lbs.; 1 pezza = $1.
Manilla.- 1 arroba = 26 av. lbs.; 1 picul = 143 av. lbs.;
1 palmo 10.38 in.; 8 rials = $1 ; 34 maravedis = 1
rial.
Naples.- 1 cantaro grosso = 196.5 av. lbs. ; 1 cantaro
piccolo = 106 av. lbs.; 1 palmo = 10 in.; 1 ducat, (sil-
ver)= $0.80 ; 10 carlini = 1 ducat; 10 grani = 1 carlino.
Portugal.- 100 lbs. == 101.19 av. lbs.; I arroba = 22-26
 WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND COINS. 387

av. lbs.; 1 quinta. = 89.05 av. lbs. ; 1 pe or foot, = 124

in.; 1 mile = 1 mile ; 1 milree, or crown = $1.12 =
1000 rees ; 400 rees = 1 cruzado.
Prussia.- 100 lbs. = 103-11 av. lbs.; 1 quintal, (110
lbs.) = 113.42 av. lbs.; 1 foot= 1.03 feet ; 1 mile = 4.68
miles ; 1 thaler, $0.69 = 30 groschen ; 12 pfennigs = 1
grosch.
Rome.- 100 libras = 74-77 av. lbs. ; 1 foot = 114 in.;
1 canna = 6 feet ; 1 mile = 73 fur.
Russia.- 100 lbs. = 90.26 av. lbs. ; 1 pood, (40 lbs. )=
36 lbs.; 1 Russian pound = 32 loths = 96 zolotniks ; 1
verst, (mile) = 3500 Eng. feet = 5.3 fur.; 1 inch = 1
English inch ; 1 foot (in general) = 1 Eng. foot ; 1 ruble,
(silver) = $0.78 = 100 copecks. Bank ruble = $0.223,
or nearly 224 cents.
Sicily.-100 libras = 70 av. lbs ; 1 cantaro grosso
192.5 av. lbs.; 1 cantaro sottile= 175 av. lbs. ; 1 palmo =
9 in.; 1 canna= 6+ feet ; 1 oncia, (gold) = $2.40 = 30
tari ; 20 grani = 1 taro.
Spain.- 1 quintal = 101.44 av. lbs. ; 1 arroba = 25.36
av. lbs.; 1 fanega = 1.6 bu.; 1 foot = 11-128 in.; 1
league = 4.3 m. nearly ; 1 vara = 2.78 feet ; 20 rials =
$1; 16 quintos = 1 rial ; 2 maravedis = 1 quinto.
Sweden.- 100 lbs . (victualie) = 73-76 av. lbs.; 1 foot
= 11.69 in.; 1 mile = 6.64 m.; 1 ell = 1.95 feet.
Smyrna.- 100 lbs. (1 quintal) = 129.48 av. lbs.
Trieste.- 100 lbs. = 123·6 av. lbs. ; 1 foot Austrian =
1.037 feet ; 1 mile Austrian = 4.6 miles; 1 florin, (silver)
= $0.485 ; 60 kreutzers = 1 florin.
Venice.- 1 peso grosso, (100 lbs.) = 105·18 av. lbs. ;
1 peso sottile = 64.42 av. lbs. ; 1 foot = 1.14 feet ; 1 li-
ra = 1 franc French = $0.186 ; 100 centesimi = 1 lira.
Atroy pound of fine silver is worth at the mint, $15-51,515.
Atroy pound of standard silver, (American) $13.86,615.
A troy pound of fine gold, $248-27,586.
Atroy pound of standard gold, (American) $223-25,581 .
1 dwt. of fine gold, $1.034.
1 dwt. of American native gold, usually, $0.95 to 1.01 .
A troy pound of platinum in bars, $90 to $100.
Apound av. of copper, about $0.21 .
A pound av. of tin, about $0.20.
Acarat, see page 82.
 TABLES FOR THE DETERMINATION OF
MINERALS .

In the following tables, the more common mineral species

(comprising allthe American) are arranged in subdivisions,
to afford aid in ascertaining the names of species. These
tabies will be found valuble as a means of instruction ; the
use of them fixes the attention on distinctive characters, and
thereby impresses the peculiarities ofspecies onthe mind.
Ageneral view of the arrangement in Table I. is her
annexed.

I.-SOLUBLE MINERALS.
A. No effervescence with muriatic acid.
a. No deflagration on burning coals.
b. Deflagration on burning coals.
B. Effervesce with muriatic acid.

II. INSOLUBLE MINERALS

Luster unmetallic.
A. Streak uncolored.
a. No odorous or colored fumes before the
blowpipe, on charcoal.
1. Wholly soluble in one or more of the
three acids.
* Infusible. *
† Fusible with more or less difficulty.
2. Soluble, except the silicawhich separates
as a jelly.
* Infusible.
† Fusible with more or less difficulty.
3. Not acted on by acids, or partially sol.
uble without forming ajelly.
* Infusible .
† Fusible with more or less difficulty.
b. Colored or odorous fumes before the blow
pipe, alone or on charcoal.
B. Streak colored.
a. No fumes before the blowpipe.
*By infusible is meant, notcapable ofbeing melted alone or onchar-
coal by the flame of the common blowpipe.
 TABLE I. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. 389

* Fusible .
† Infusible.
b. Fumes before the blowpipe.
II. Luster metallic.
A. Streak unmetallic.
* No fumes before the blowpipe on charcoal.
† Fumes before the blowpipe.
B. Streak metallic.
* Malleable .
†Not malleable ; no fumes when heated.
+ Not malleable; fumes whenheated.
The abbreviations used in these tables are as follows :
Ad. Adamantine. Limest. Limestone.
Amyg. Amygdaloidal. Mag. Magnetic.
Antim. Antimony. Mam. Mammillary.
Arsen. Arsenical . Mas. Massive.
B, bh. Blue, bluish. Met. Metallic.
Bl. Blowpipe. Mur. Muriatic acid.
Bn, bnh . Brown, brownish. Nit. Nitric acid.
Bk, bkh. Black, blackish. Op. Opaque.
Bor. Borax,* Phos. Salt of phosphorus.*
Bot. Botryoidal. P'ly. Pearly.
Cleav. Cleavable. Pms. Prisms.
Char. Charcoal . Prim. Primary rocks.t
Col. Columnar. R, rdh. Red, reddish.
Cryst. Crystals, crystalline. Rad. Radiated.
Decrep. Decrepitate. Ren. Reniform .
Deliq. Deliquescent. Res. Resinous.
Dif. Difficult, difficultly. Soda, Carbonate ofsoda,
Div. Divergent. Sol . Soluble.
Efferv. Effervescence. St. Streak.
Exfol. Exfoliate. Stalact. Stalactitic.
Fib. Fibrous. Stel. Stellate.
Flex. Flexible. Strl . Translucent on edges only
Fol. Foliated. Strp. Semitransparent.
Fus. Fusible. Sulph. Sulphureous
Gelat. Gelatinize. Submet. Submetallic.
Glob. Globule. Sul. Sulphuric acid.
Gn, gnh. Green, greenish. Trl. Translucent.
Gran. Granular. Trp. Transparent.
Gy, gyh . Gray, grayish. Vit. Vitreous
Infus. Infusible. Vol. Volatile.
Insol. Insoluble. Volc. Volcanic rocks.
Intum. Intumesce. W, wh. White, whitish.
Lam. Lamine. Yw,ywh.Yellow, yellowish.
*Blowpipe ftux.
† This term as here used means simply, granite and the allied crys-
talline rocks, syenite, gneiss, mica slate,talcose slate, hornblende rock,
without reference to age. 33*
390 TABLE I. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS .

TheRoman numerals refer to the systems of crystalliza-

tion, (page 32.)
I. Monometric. IV. Monoclinate.
II. Dimetric. V. Triclinate.
III. Trimetric. VI. Hexagonal or Rhombohedral.
The page on which each species is described is mentioned,
that the student may conveniently turn to the fuller descrip-
tions for a farther examination of a mineral .
The kinds of rock in which the species occur is oftenadded
after the description.
I.
- SOLUBLE MINERALS .
A. No EFFERVESCENCE WITH MURIATIO ACID.

a. Not deflagrating on burning coals.

Sal ammoniac, 100. I; crusts; G 1.5-1.6; wh, ywh ; taste acute and pungent; not
deliquescent ; Sul, effervesce; mixed in powder with
quicklime ammoniacal odor; volatile.
Alum, 127. I; wh; very soluble, sweetish astringent: Bl, fusI intumesces.
Commonsalt, 104. I; G 2-2-2-3; w, rdh, gyh; saline; crystals cubic: Bl, de
crepitates.
Epsom salt, 124. III; G 1-7-18; w; bitter saline: Bl, deliq.
White vitriol, 252. III; G 2-2-1; wh; astringent-met : Bl, w coating oncharcoal.
Borax, 107. IV; G 1-7-1-8; wh; slow efflor; sweetish alkaline : Bl, swells
up and becomes w and opaque.
Glauber salt, 102. IV; G1-4-1-5; wh, gyh ; cooling and bitter: Bl, wateryfusion.
Copperas, 227. IV; G 2; gn, ywh, wh ; astringent-met: Bl, red; Bor¡gn glass.
Blue vitriol, 280. V; G 2-2-2-3 ; sky-blue; nauseous met: Bl, copper reaction.
White arsenic, 305. Capillary cryst; bot, mas; Gr3-7; w; taste astringent, sweet
ish : Bl, volatile, alliaceous fumes.
b. Deflagrate on burning coals.
Niter, 101. III; G 1-9-2; w, not deliquescent or efflorescent.
Nit. of soda, 103. VI; G2-3; wh; deliq; burns with adeep yellow light.
Nitrate of lime,123. Cryst efflorescences; G 1.62 ; w, gy; very deliquescent:Bl
watery fusion, scarcely detonates.
B. EFFERVESCING WITH MURIATIC ACID,
Natron, 103. IV; G 1-4-1-5; w, gyh; efflorescent.

II .- INSOLUBLE MINERALS .
I. LUSTER UNMETALLIC.
A. STREAK UNCOLORED.

a. No fumes before the blowpipe on charcoal.

1. Wholly soluble in one or more ofthe acids, (cold orhot),usually with effervescenca
* Infusible.
Hardness.
Hydromagnesite, 125. 1-0-2-0 Whitish crusts; G 2-8; adheres to the tongue.
Serpentine.
Brucite, 126. 1-5-2-0 VI; fol, lamine flexible; G23-2-4 ; w, gnh; p'ly
trli no effervescence. Serpentine.
 TABLE I. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. 391
Hardness.
Websterite, 129. 1-5-20 Ren, mas; G16-17 ; dull ; w, op; adheres to the
tongue: sul, sol, no effervescence.
Nemalite, 125.2 Silky fib; G 2-3-2-5 ; gyh, bh-w; fibres separable,
brittle on exposure. Serpentine.
Calc spar, 115. 3,0-2-0 VI ; cleav ! fib, mas; G 2-3-2-5; vit, p'ly, w, gy,
bah, bk; trp-op.; sometimes soft and earthy :
Bl, intense light.
Arragonite 118, 3:5 III; mas, fib ; G2-8-3; vit ; w, gyh, bnh ; trp-
op; effervesce; Bl. intense light, crumbles.
Diallogite, 242. 3-5 VI; cleav; mas ; G 3-5-3-6; vit, p'ly ; rdh; trl
op; nit, effervesces : Bl, bor, violet glass.
Magnesite, 124. 3-0-4-0 VI ; cleav ! fib, mas ; G 29-3; vit, silky ; w, ywh,
bn; trp, op ; little effervescence.
,
Blende 250. 3-5-4-0 I; dodec cleav ; mas; G 4-4-1; resin-yw, rdh,
w; trp, strl; nit sol, emitting sul.hydrogen: Bl,
bor infus.
Dolomite, 118. 35-40 VI; cleav1 mas; G 2-8-2-9 ; vit, p'ly; w, gy, bn ;
some effervescence.
Mesitine spar, 229.4-6 VI; cleav1 mas; G 3-3-3-65 ; vit ; ywh, ba on
exposure ; mur slow solution.
44
Oligon spar, 229. VI; cleav; mas ; G 37-3-8 ; vit ; bn on exposure:
Bl, bor amethystine glob.
Yttrocerite, 206. 4-5-50 III; cleav; mas; violet b, gyh, rdh-bn; vit, p'ly;
strl, op; hot mur, sol ; Bl. whitens. Prim.
† Fusible with more or less difficulty.
Witherite, 109. 3-0-3-5 III; mas, fib ; G 42-4.4 w, ywh, gyh; trl-op;
nit efferv : Bl fust op. glob.
White lead ore
, 264. 3-0-3-5 III; mas; G6-1-6.5 ; w, gyh, bah; ad, res ; trp,
trl; brittle ; mur eff: Bl, fus I on char, lead.
Strontianite, 111 3.5 III; cleav; fib, mas; G 3.6-3.7; res, vit ; gnh,
ywh, gyh ; effervescence : Bl, fus dift colors
flame reddish .
Pyromorphite, 266.35-40 VI; hexag pins ; bot, fib; G 6.5-7-1 ; bright gn,
yw, bn; res ; strl, strp; brittle ; hot nit so' : Bl
fus ! With lead orcs.
Spathic iron, 228. 3-4.0 VI , cl, mas ; G3-7-3-9; ply; ywh, bnh, gyh; dark-
ens on exposure ; trl, op ; pulverized, some eff' :
Bl, fus dif!; blackens; iron reaction.
4
Wavellite
, 130. III; tib, glob; G 23-24 ; p'ly, vit ; w, ywh, bnh,
gyh; trl ; hot nit, sol, vapors corrode glass : Bl
fus, intum, colorless glass.
14
Cacoxene, 230. Div, rad, fib, silky; G 3-3-3-4 ; ywh-bn, ywh; bn on
exposure : Bl, infus.
Fluor spar, 121.4.0 I; cl! mas: G31-32; vit ; w, yw, b, violet, gn, r,
often lively; trp, trl ; sul, affords fumes that cor.
rodeglass : Bl, fus, decrep; phosphoresces when
heated.
Apatite
, 120. 4-5-50 VI; hexag; mas ; G3-33 ; vit, res; gn, bh, w
rh, bn; trp, op; brittle ; nit sol slowly in powder,
392 TABLE 1. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS.

Hardness .
without efferv: Bl, fus dif I bor fus ! Prim. Gram
limestone, volc.
Triplite, 241.50 Lam, mas; G 3-4-3-8; bkh-bn; res, ad; nit sol,ne
ef: Bl, fus ! bk scoria; bor violetglass.
Troostite, 240.5-5 VI; mas; G4-4-1 ; gnh, yw, gy, rdh-br; vit, res ;
trp, trl; mur, sol, odorous fumes: Bl, fus dif!
borvioletglass.
Boracite, 126. 7-0 I; hemihed cubes; G 29-3; w, gyh; vit, ad; strp,
trl; pyro-electric; mur, sol: Bl, fus. Gypsum.
2. Soluble, excepting the silica, whichseparates as ajelly.
* Infusible.

Halloylite, 161. 10-2-0 Mas, earthy or waxy; G18-2-1; w, bh; adheres

to the tongue; sul, gelat ! Bl, infus.
Allophane, 162. 3.0 Mas, ren; G1-8-19; vit, res; bh, gnh, ywh, trì;
very brittle; gelat! Bl, intum.
† Fusible.
,
Mesole 167.3-5 III; fib rad; G23-2-4; p'ly; gyh-w, ywh; trì:Bl,
fus ! Amyg.
Laumonite, 166. IV; mas; G2-2-2-4; vit, p'ly; w, gyh; trl; w and
friable on exposure; gelat ! Bl, fus w, frothy.
Amyg.prim.
Phillipsite, 168. 40-4-5 III; rad, crystoften crossed; G 2-2-2; w, rdh; vit;
trp, op; mur gelat: Bl, fus. Amyg.
Tabular spar, 141. 40-50 V; cl, subfib ; G 27-29; p'ly, vit; w, gyh ; trl:
mur gelat: Bl, fus dif, pearl semiop. Prim. amуд.
Thomsonite, 167. 4-5-5-0 III; cl, fib, rad; G2-3-2-4; w,bnh;trp-trl; brittle;
gelat: Bl, fus 1 intum, w, op. Amyg. prim.
Dysclasite, 142. 4.5-5.0 fib, div; G 2-2-24; p'ly, vit; w, bh; trl, strp; very
tough under the hammer; mur gelat; Bl, ſus,
op. Amyg.
45

Pectolite, -142. fib, div; G 2-69; vit, p'ly; w, gyh; after heating
gelat in mur : Bl, fus trp glass. Amyg.
"
Electriccalamine, 253. III; cl; mas, bot, fib; G 3-2-3-5; w, b, gn, yw, bn;
trp-trl; hot nit gelat : Bl,fusdif !! intum;phos
phoresces. Stratified rocks.
Natrolite, 166. 4-5-5-5 III; acic, cryst; div fib : G 21-23; vit; w, ywh;
trp, trl; gelat ! Bl, fus ! op glass. Amyg. volc.
Analcime, 168.5.0-5.5 1; trapezohed; mas ; G2-23; vit; w, rhd, gyh ;
trp-op; brittle; mur gelat : Bl fus ! intum,
glassy glob. Amyg. volc.
"
Scolecite, 167. III; div, fib, rad; G 2-2-2-3; vit, p'ly; w; trp, trl;
nit and mur; gelat! Bl fus I op, curls up in outer
flame. Amyg. volc.
Datholite, 142. IV; glassy crystals; fib, bot, mas; G2-23; w
,
gnh, rdh; trp, trl ; nit gelat 1Bl, fus1 Amyg. prim.
Sodalite
, 197.5.5-6.0 1; dòdec cryst; mas ; G22-245 ; vit; gyh, bn, b;
trp-strl; nit gelat :Bl, fus, colorless glass.
Nepheline, 180. 5-5-6-0 VI; hexag ; coarse massive, subfib; G 24-26; vit
greasy; w, ywh, gnh, bnh, rdh; trp-op; gelat.
Bl, fus dit,blebby glass. Volc. prim.
 TABLE I. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. 393

3. Not acted on by acids, or partially soluble withoutforming ajelly.

+ Infusible.
Hardness.
Talc, 143. 10-1-5 VI; fol! mas; G 27-2-9; light gn, gnh.w, gyh ,
p'ly, unctuous; lamine flexible, inclastic. Prim
Pyrophyllite,
44
Fol! gran; apple-gu, w, bnh-gn, ywh ; p'ly ; strp,
strl: Bl, swells up ! Prim.
Mica
, 191. 4
Fol !! lam. thin elastic, tough; G 28-3; colors
various, often bright; p'ly ; trp, strl : Bl, fus dif!
Prim, etc.
Chrysocolla, 283. 2-0-3-0 mas, bot; G 2-2-3 ; bluish-gn; smooth vit, or ear.
thy; strl, op; nit sol, except silien.
Gibbsite, 131. 30-3-5 Stalact, crusts; G 2-3-24; gyh-w, gnh-w; dull.
Greenhyd. nickel, 245. 3.0-3-5 minute globular, crust; G 3.05;-emerald-gn; St
paler; vit; trp, trl ; Bl, loses its color.
Blende, 250. 3-5-40 I; dodec cleav, mas ; G 4-4-1; resin-yw, bn, bh,w
rdh; trp-op : Bl, bor inf.
Plumbo-resinite, 268.4.0-4.5 reniform ; G 6-3-6-4 ; ywh, bnh, rdh; resinous, or
like gum arabic ; til ; Bl, decrep; enam on char.
C'intonite, 148. 40-50 IV; fol ! lam brittle; G3-31; rdh-bn; met-p'ly ;
strl : Bl, bor trp pearl.
Alum stone
, 129.5-0 III; acic, stel, mas ; G 26-28; vit, p'ly, earthy; w,
rh, gyh; sul, mostly sol : Bl, decrep; soda infus.
Monazite, 206, 5-0 IV; imbedded, cryst, cleav ! in one direction ; G
48-5-1; bn, bnh-r; vit, res; strp, op; brittle;
mur, decomposed. Prim.
Leucite, 175. 55-60 1; trapezohedrons ; G24-25; w, gyh; vit ; strp,
trl: Bl, bor, fus dif. Volc.
Anatase, 292. 4
II; in cryst; G3.8-3-9 ; fine bn, b; met-ad, res ;
strp, trl : Bl, loses col; bor fus dif. Prim.
Turquois, 130.6-0 Reniform; G 28-3; b, bh-gn; waxy, dull; trl,
op : Bl, flame green ; bor, fus.
Opal, 139. 5-5-6-5 Massive, uncleav; w, yw, r, bn, gn, gy, pale; in
some a play of colors; vit, p'ly; trp, strl : Bl
decrep, op.
Kyanite. 173.50-70 V; in prisms or bladed cryst; G 35-37; b, w,
bnh; p'ly, vit; trp, strl: Bl, borfus dif,trp. Prim.
147. 6-0-7-0 Mas, subgran; G 2-9-3-1; leek-gn, bh, wh; vit; trl,
Nephrite.
strl : Bl, whitens; bor clear glass. Prim.
"

Bucholzite 172. Col, fib; G 3-2-3-6 ; w, gyh, bnh; p'ly; trl, strl .
brittle. Prim.
II; mas, fib; G6.5-7-1; bn, bk, w, gy, r, yw ; ad,
"

Tinore, 295.
res, cryst often brilliant; strp, op : Bl, bor on
char with soda affords tin. Prim.
156, 6-5-7-0 III; imbeded grains or masses of a glassy appear-
Chrysolite,
ance; G3-3-3-6 ; gn, bottle glass gn : Bl, darkens
borgn glass; (rarely fusible.] _Basalt, etc.
Sillimanite, 172. 6-5-7-5 V; col, tib; G 3-0-3-4 ; bn, gyh; p'ly, vit; trl, strl.
brittle : Bl, bor infus. Prim.
Andalusite, 174. III; stout prisms; mas; G 2-9--3-2; vit, p'ly; gyh
394 TABLE 1. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS.

Hardness.
rdh; tough; structure sometimes tesselated*
Bl, bor fusdif, trp glass. Prim.
Quartz, 132.7.0 VI; mas; G 2-6-2-8; colors various; vit; trp,
op: Bl, soda fus ! trp glass, efferv.
Staurotide, 174. 7-0-7-5 III; stout prisms; G 3-5-38; bn, rdh-bn, bk; vit,
res; strp, op. Prim.
Zircon
, 200.7.5 II; cryat, seldom mas; G4-4-4-8; bn, r, yw, gy, gn,
w, some bright; subad; trp, trì: Bl, bor, clear
glass. Prim;gran limest.
Topaz, 194. 75-80 III; prisms with basal cleavagel mas, col; G3.4-
3-6; pale yw, gn,b,w; vit; trl, strl : Bl, bor slowly
trp glass. Prim.
Spinel, 160.8-0 I; octahedrons, etc;G3.5-4-6 ; r, bh, gnh, yh, bn,
bk; vit; trp, strl, (some impure crystals soft):
Bl, bor fus dif. Prim ; gran limest, etc.
Chrysoberyl, 199.8-5 III; cryst; G 3.5-3.8; bright gn, ywh, gyh; vit;
trp, trì : Bl, bor fus dif! Prim.
Sapphire, 158.9-0 V1; mas; ingrains; G 3-9-4-2; b, r, yw, bn, gyh-b,
gy, w; vit; trp, trl : Bl, bor fus dif. Prim; gran
limest.
Diamond, 80. 10-0 1; G 34-37; w, b, r, yw, gn, bn, gy, bk; adaman-
tine; trp; strl.
† Fusible with more or less difficulty.
Talc, 143. 10-1-5 III; foll mas; G 27-29 ; light gn, gnh-w, gyh ;
p'ly, unctuous; laminoflexible, not elastic : Bl
infus, or fus dif!! Prim ;gran limest.
Chlorite
, 145. 1-5 Fol; mas gran; G2.6-2-9; olive green; p'ly; sul
decomp: Bl. fusdif! sometimes toablack glassy
bead. Prim.
,
Gypsum 112. 1-5-20 IV; fol ! gran, stel; G 2-2-2-4 ; w, gyh, bnh, rh, bk;
trp, trl; lam flexible, inelastic : Bl, fus dif; whl-
tens,exf, andbecomes friable ; Strat. prim. volc.
Mica, 191. 2-0-2-5 Fol !! lam thin elastic, tough; G28-3; colors
various, often bright; p'ly; trl, strl: Bl, fus dif!
Prim, etc.
4
Cryolite, 132
. Mas,fol ; G 2-9-3; w; vit, p'ly; fusible in acandle.
Prim.
Surpentine 145. 2-0-3-5 III; mas; sometimes thin fol, fol brittle; fib; G
2-4-2-6; dark or light gn, gnh-w, bh-w; trl-op;
feel oftengreasy : Bl, fus dif!!
Chlorophyllite, 162. 20-40 VI; fol prisms; ſol brittle; G 27-28; dull green,
gyh, bnh ; p'ly, vit : Bl, fus dif!! Prim with iolite
.
Anglesite, 264. 2-5-3-0 III; mas ; lam; Gr 62-63; w, ywh, gyh; gnh ,
ad,vit, res; trp, trì : Bl, fus!! decrep; on char,
leadglobule.
Anhydrite, 114. 25-3-5 III; rectang cleavl mas; G 28-3; w, rh, bh, gyh;
p'ly, vit : Bl, fus dif; whitens; not exf.

*This tesselated variety is often quite soft, owing to impurities.

 TABLE I. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. 395

Hardness.
Cestine, 110. 3-0-3-5 III; mas, fib, lam ; G38-4; w, bh, rh; vit, res;
trp, strl : Bl, fus, decrep; phosphoresces.
Heavy spar, 108. 4
III; mas, fib, lam , G 43-48; w, gyh, ywh, bn;
vit, p'ly, res; trp, strl : Bl, fus, decrep. Strat ;
prim.
Heulandite, 164. 35-40 IV; fol ! fol brittle; G 2-2; w, rdh, gy, bnh : p'ly,
vit; trp, strl; acids sol, except silica: Bl, fus,
intum, phosphorescent. Amyg, prim.
Stilbite, 165 3-5-4-0 III; fol ! rad, div; G 2-1-2-2; w, ywh, rh, bn; p'ly;
trl, strp; nit, silica deposited: Bl, fus ! intum,
colorless glass. Amyg, prim, &c.
Schiller spar, 148. Mas, fol; fol brittle; G 2.5-2-7.; dark gn, or sub-
met: Bl, fus dif!! gives off water.
Chabazite,* 169.4-0-4-5 VI; in rbdns, nearly cubes, and complex small
crystals ; G2-22; w, rdh, ywh; vit; strp, trl;
mur, silica deposited: Bl, ſus ! blebby enamel.
10
Amyg, volc, prim.
Harmotome, 168. III; crystals often crossed; G 23-25; w, rdh;
vit; strp, op ; mur, silica deposited: Bl, fus, clear
wglass; phosphoresces. Amyg, prim, etc.
46
Tungstate oflime,300. II; mas; G6-6-1 ; vit, res ; ywh, w; strp-op ;
nit, becomes yw, but is not dissolved: Bl, fus
dif!! decrepitates. Prim.
Apophyllite, 165. 45-50 II; glassy cryst; transverse cleav; G 23-24; w;
gnh, ywh, rdh; p'ly, vit; trp, op; nit, sol, but
hardly gelat: Bl, fus, exfoliates. Amyg.
Monazite, 206.5-0 IV; Imbedded cryst, one cleavage1 G48-5-1; bn,
bnh-r; vit, res ; strp, op; brittle; mur, decom-
posed: Bl, fus dif!! Prim.
Pyrochlore, 208.50 IV; Imbedded oct cryst; G.3-8-43; yw, ywh;
res, vit; St slightly colored; trl: Bl, fus dif!!
Sphene, 292.5-0 IV; usually in acute, thin crystals ; G 3.2-3.5; bn,
yw, gy, bk; res, ad; strl, op: Bl, fus dif! bor
yw glass. Prim,gran limestone, etc.
Scapolite, 180.5.0-6.0 II; mas; subcol; G 2-6-2-8 ; w, gyh, rh; vit, p'ly;
"
trp-op : Bl, fus. Prim, gran limestone.
Hornblende,t 152
. IV; fib, rad; mas; (some var fib like flax G29-
34; gn to bk and w; vit, p'ly; trp, op : Bl, fus,
ordif! fus. Prim, trap, trachyte, etc.
4
Pyroxene,f 150. IV; fib; mas; cleav; G 3-1-3-5 ; gn to bk and w,
vit, p'ly; trp-op: Bl, fus; glassy globule. Prim,
basalt, volc, etc.
Lazulite. 131.5-5-60 IV; mas; G3-3-1; pure b, gnh-b; vit; strp-op:
Bl, fus, borclear glob.

*The var. Gmelinite gelatinizes in acids.

†Some fibrous varieties (asbestus) of hornblende and pyroxene are quite soft,
and resemble those of serpentine and others are like flax, or have nearly the
texture of felt.
396 TABLE I. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS.

Hardness..
Lapis Lazuli, 196.5.5-6.0 1; dodec; mas; G2.5-29 ; rich b; vit; trl -op:
Bl, fus, trl or op glass.
Feldspar, 176.6-0 IV; cleav, mas ; G23-2-6; wh, gyh, rh, bh, gnh;
p'ly, vit; trp, strl ; mur, no action: Bl, fusdif;
bortrpglass.
Albite
, 177.6-0 V;cleav,mas; G2-6-2-7 ; w, gyh, gnh, rh, bh; ply,
vit; trp, strl; mur, no action: Bl, fus dif; flame
yellow; may generally be distinguished from
feldsparby its purer white color.
Labradorite, 178.6-0 V; cleav, mas ; G 2-6-2-8; chatoyant, gy, gnh, bn,
rdh-bn; p'ly, vit; strl; hot mur decomp : Bl
fus easily, colorless glass. Prim.
Chondrodite, 157.5-5-6-5 IV; granmas; G3-1-3-2; ywh, bnh-yw, rh, gnh;
vit, res; trp, strl; brittle: Bl, fus dif!! bor fus !
ywh-gn. Granlimestone.
Obsidian, 341. 5-5-6-5 Mas, like glass; G 2-2-28; bk, gy, gn; vit, p'ly:
Bl, fus,
Manganesespar, 239. 5-5-7-0 V; mas; G3-4-3-7; flesh-r, dark bn on exposure;
vit; trp, strl: Bl
, fus bkh glass; bor violet. Prim.
Petalite
, 182. 60-6-5 Cleav mas, gran; G 24-2-5; w, bh, rh, gnh; vit,
p'ly; trl; phosphoresces . Bl, fus; bor trp glass.
Prim.
Idocrase, 184.6-5 II; mas ; G 3-3-3-4 ; bn, gn, w; vit, res, cryst often
brilliant; trp, strl : Bl, fus ! trl glob. Prim ; volc;
gran limest.
Prehnite, 170.6-0-6-5 III; bot, mas ; G 28-3; light gn, w; vit, p'ly; trl,
strl; tough; mur sol, exc't silica: Bl, fus. Amyg,
prim.
Epidote, 182. 60-70 IV; mas, gran, col; G3-2-3-5; ywh-gn, gy, bn, bh,
rh; vit, p'ly; trp, op : Bl, fus. Prim, etc.
Spodumene, 181. 6-5-7-0 Cleav mas, gran ; G3-1-3-2; gyh-w, gnh ; p'ly: Bl
fus, intum, exf, colorless glass. Prim.
".
Axinite, 190. V; cryst acute-edged;Gr 3-2-3-3 ; deep bn; vit.
brilliant; trp, strl : Bl, fns ! intumdark gnglass;
Prim,etc.
Garnet
, 184.6.5-7.5 1; cryst, mas, gran; G3.5-43; r, bn, w, gn, bk,
oftenbright; vit, res; trp, trl: Bl, fus, no efferv,
bk glob. Prim, etc.
Boracite, 126. 7-0 I;hemihed cubes ; G 2-9-3; w, gyh; vit, ad; strp,
trl; pyro-electric: Bl, fus, intum. Gypsum.
Iolite, 190.7.0 III; mas, glassy; G 2-6-2-8; b, gyh-b, bnh; trp,
trl: Bl, fus dif! bor trp, glass. Prim.
Tourmaline, 187. 70-80 VI; col, mas ; G3-3-1; bk, bn, gn, r, b, w, often
bright; vit, res ; trp, op ; pyro-electric : Bl, fus,
intum. Prim, etc.
Euclase, 199. 7.5 IV; in crystals, cleav; G2.9-3-1; pale-gn, b, w;
vit, brilliant; trp, strl: Bl, fus dif1 intum. Prim.
Beryl
, 197. 75-80 VI; hexag pms, mas ; G2-6-2-8 ; gn, bright or
dull,bh, ywh; trp, strl : Bl, fus dif; bor trp glass.
Prim.
 TABLE 1. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. 397

b. Colored or odorous fumes before the blowpipe on charcoal.

Hardness.

Horn silver, 323. 10-15 1; mas, like wax; G5-5-5-6; gy, bh, gnh; trl, strl;
sectile; fus, incandle, yielding odorous fumes.
Silver ores.
Mimetene, 267. 2-7-3-5 VI; mas ; G 64-6-5; pale yw, bnh, bnh-r; strp,
trl; hot nit sol: Bl
. fus !! on char alliaceous
fumes. Lead ores.
Scorodite, 230. 3-5-4-0 III; mas; G31-33; leek-gn, gnh w, bh, bnh; ad,
vit; strp, strl : Bl fus I alliaceous fumes.
'
Blende, 250. 64 I; dodec cleav ! mas; G 4-4-1; resin-yw, rdh,
wh; trp, strl ; nit sol, emitting sulph hydrogen
Bl. on char at a high heat fumes of zinc.
Bismuthblende, 258. 3-5-4-5 1; mas, col; G 5-9-6-1; bn, gyh, ywh; res, ad
Bl, fus, wfumes. Prim.
Calamine, 253.5-0 VI; mas, ren, bot; G 4-2-4-5; gyh-w, gnh, bnh.
vit,p'ly; strp, trl ; nit efferv : Bl, infus; on char
wfumes. Usually with lead orе.

B. STREAK COLORED.

a. No fumes before the blowpipe.

*Fusible.

Minium, 263. soft Mas, pulv; G 4-6; bright red: Bl, fus; on char
glob lead. Lead ores.
Vivianite 229. 15-20 IV; fol ! lam. flex; mas ; G 2-6-27 ; bkh-gn
dark b; St, bh-w, b; nit or sul sol: Bl, fus !
decrep, dark bn scoria, magnetic.
Uranite, 210. 20-2-5 II; foll mas; G3-3-6; bright gn, yw ; St, paler;
p'ly, ad; trp, strp; nit sol, no efferv: Bl, fus,
bk glob. Prim.
Cup. anglesite, 264.25-3.0 IV ; cleav! G53-5-5; fine azure blue; St, paler;
ad, vit; trl, strl : Bl, reaction of copper and
lead. Lead ores.
Chromateoflead, 267, 25-3-0 IV; mas, col; G6 ; brightr; St orange; ad; trl;
sectile; nit sol, no efferv : Bl, blackens, decrep,
shining slag. Lead ores.
Greenmalachite, 281. 35-40 IV; mam, bot, crust; G 4-4-1; gn; St, paler;
vit, silky, earthy; trl, op; nit sol, efferv: Bl, fus !
bk; bor gn. Copper ores.
Redcopper ore, 279. I; mas, fib; G 5-9-6; deep red; St, bnh-r; ad
submet; strp, strl ; nit sol, efferv: Bl fust on
char metallic copper. Copper ores.
Pyromorphite, 266. VI; mas; G 68-7-1; gn, bn, gy; St yw; res;
strp, strl ; hot nit sol, no efferv: Bl fus ! Lead
ores.

Azurite 283. IV; mas, earthy; G 3-5-3-9; azure b, dark b;

Stpaler; vit, ad; trp, strl; nit efferv: Bl, fus !
copper action. Copper ores.
34
398 TABLE I. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS.

Hardness.

Pyrochlore, 208.5-0 I; octahed cryst; G 4-2-1-3; rdh-bn, yw, ywh;

St paler; res, vit; strl, op: Bl ywh-bn, fus dif!
boryw glob in outer flame. Prim.
Triplite, 241. 50-55 Mas, cleav; G 3-4-3-8; bkh-bn; St ywh-gy; res,
ad; strp, op; nit sol, no efferv : Bl fus ! bk sco-.
ria; bor, violet.
64
Monazite, 206. IV; cryst; G 4-8-5-1; bn, rdh-bn, gyh; Strdh-w,
bnh-w; vit, res; strp, op: Bl fus dif!! yw, op.
Prim.

Chondrodite, 157.6-0-6-5 IV; gran mas; G 3-1-33; light yw, bn, rdh; St
paler; res, vit; trp, strl; very brittle : Bl ſus
dif!! loses color. Gran limest. Prim.
Allanite, 207. 4
V; acic cryst; mas; G 3-2-4-1; bnh-bk, gnh;
submet, res; St gnh-gy; op, strl: Bl fus, froths,
bk scoria. Prim.

†Infusible.
Wad, 241. 1-0 Mas, often earthy; G 37; bn, bk, soils : Bl, man.
ganesereaction.
Blackcopper, 279. 04
Mas, or earthy; bk, bnh-bk; St bk; soils: Bl, cop-
per reaction. Copper ores.
4

Earthycobalt, 248. Earthy, mas; bk: Bl, bor, blue from cobalt.
Cacoxene, 230. 3-0-4-0 Fib, rad ; G3.3-3.4; ywh-bn, yw ; St ywh; silky:
Bl, bor dark red bead. Iron ores.
46
Blende, 250. I; dodec cleav; mas ; fib; G 4-41; resin yw,
bn, bk, red; St pale ; strp, op; nit sol, emitting
sulph hydrogen: Bl, bor infus; on char, athigh
heat, fumes of zinc.
Warwickite, 293. 3-0-4-0 Prismatic cryst; G3-3-3; bnh, tarnished bh, or
wh; St. bnh; met-p'ly; res. Gran limest.
Red zinc ore, 251. 4.0 III; foll mas; G 5-4-5-6; bright r; St. orange;
subad; strl, op; nit sol, no efferv: Bl, bor yw
glass; soda a zinc slag.
Dioptase, 284.5-0 VI; cryst; G 3-2-3-3; emerald-gn; St. gn; vit,
res; trp, trl ; mur, sol, no efferv: Bl, decrep,
ywh-gn flame; copper ores.
Brownhematite, 220. 5.0-5-5 Mas, mam, stalact, bot; earthy; G 3-9-4-1; dun
bn, bk, ywh; res, submet; strp, op : Bl
, bk, mag
netic, iron reaction.
Chromiciron, 222. 5-5 I; mas,uncleav; G43-4-5; ironbk, St bn; nearly
dull, submet; op: Bl, borfine gnglob. Serpentine.
Pitchblende, 209. 5.5 Mas, bot; G 6-47; bnh-bk, velvet bk; St bk; sub-
metallic or dull; nit slow sol : Bl, bor a gray
scoria. Prim.
Psilomelane, 240.5.0-6.0 Mas, bot; G4-44; bk, dark steel gy; St bkh;
submet; op ; mursol, odorous fumes : Bl, man-
ganese reaction.
Rutile, 291. 6-0-6-5 II ; rarely mas ; G 4-2-43; rdh-bn, ywh, gy; St
paler; ad, met-ad; trl, op: Bl, bor ywh-r glass ;
crystals often acicular. Prim, ete.
 TABLE I. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. 399
Hardness .
Tinore, 295.60-70 II; mas, fib ; G6-5-7-1 ; bn, bk, yw, r; St paler; ad;
strp, op: Bl, on char, with soda, tin glob. Prim.

b. Fumes before the blowpipe.

Redantimony, 303. 10-1-5 IV; capiltufts and div; G 44-46; cherry-r; St
bnh-r; ad, met; strl; nit w coating: Bl, fus 11
or char, volat. Prim.
Cobaltb
- loom, 248. 1-5-2-0 IV; fol ! fib, stel, earthy; 2-9-3; crimson and
peach-blossom r, gyh, gnh ; St paler ; dry pow-
der lavenderb; lam flex: Bl, fus 1 on char allia-
ceous, bor fine blue glob. Prim, cobalt ores.
64
Orpiment, 305. III; foll lam flex; mas; G 3-4-3-5; lemon yw;
St paler; p'ly, res ; strp, strl ; sectile : Bl, sul-
phurandarsenical fumes. (Realgar, p. 305, dif-
fers in its red color and orange streak.)
Coppermica, 284. 2-0 VI; foll mas ; G 2.55; emerald gn, grass gn; St
paler; p'ly, vit; trp, trl; sectile : Bl, alliaceous
fumes, rdh-bn scoria.
Sulphur 98.15-2-5 III ; mas ; G2-07; yw ; rdh, gnh; res ; trp, strl;
burns, b flame.
Red silver, 323. 2-0-2-5 VI; mas ; G5-4-5-9, light r, to bk; Str; ad, met;
strp, op: Bl, fus !! sulph and arsen fumes ; silver
ores.
64
Cinnabar, 270. VI; cleav; mas; G8-81 ; bright r, bnh-r, bn; st
r, bnh; ad, sub-met; strp, op ; nit, sol, r fumes :
Bl, wholly vol. Strat, prim.
Atacamite 285. 2-5-3-0 III; cleav; mas; G 44-45; bright gn, olive-gn ;
St gnh; ad, vit; strl: Bl, fus ! muriatic fumes ;
copper reaction; copper ores.

II. LUSTER METALLIC.

A. STREAK UNMETALLIC.

•No fumesbefore the blowpipe on charcoal.

Wad
, 241. 1-0 Mas, often earthy; G3-7; bn, bh; soils; submet:
Bl, manganese reaction.
06

Earthycobalt, 248. Mas, earthy, bot; G 2-2-2-3; bh-bk, bnh-bk; St bh

bk; sectile : Bl, arsen fumes; bor blue glass.
Pyrolusite, 240.20-2-5 III; col, rad; mas; G48-5; iron-bk, St bk;
mur, odor of chlorine: Bl, infus; bor amethyst,
glob.
46
Cinnabar, 270. VI; cleav; mas : G8-81; r, bnh-r, gyh, darkbn;
Str; strp, op; nit sol, r fumes : Bl, volatile.
Strat, prim.
Blende, 250, 35-40 1; dodec cll mas ; G 4-4-1; bn, bk ; St yw, bnh;
op; submet, bright: Bl, fus. Prim, strat, etc.
Manganite, 2424-0-4-5 III; mas ; G4-3-4-4; dark steel-gy, iron-bk; St
rdh-bn, bkh : Bl, infus ; bor, amethystine glob.
400 TABLE I. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS.

Hardness.
Brownhematite, 220 5.0-5.5 nam, bot, stalact, mas;G3-9-4 ; bn, bkh; Stywh
bn; strp, op ; no action on magnet : Bl, infus,
bk and magnetic.
Wolfram, 225. 5-0-5-5 III; mas; col, lam; G71-74 ; gyh-bk, bnh-bk ;
St dark rdh-bn; submet: Bl fus ! decrep, bor
gn bead. Prim.
Chromic iron, 222. I; mas; G43-4-5; iron bk, rather dull, brittle;
Stbn; often slightly magnetic: Bl, infus ; bor
fine gn, fus dif. Serpentine.
Pitchblende, 209.5.5 Mas, bot; G 6-47 ; bnh-bk, velvet-bk; St, bk ; sub-
met; nit slow sol : Bl, bor gray scoria. Prim.
Psilomelane, 240.5.0-6.0 Mas, bot ; G 4-4.4; bh, gyh to dark steel gy; St
bnh-bk, shining; brittle : B, infus, bor violet.
Manganese ores.
"
Columbite, 224. III; mas; G 59-6-1; bnh-bk, bk, often with a
steel blue tarnish; St dark rdh-bn, bnh-bk; sub-
met: Bl. infus, bor fus dif. Prim.
Yenite, 226. 5-5-6-0 III; mas, col; G38-4-1; iron bk, bnh; St gnh,
bnh; submet; brittle : Bl, fus; bor bk mag
glob. Prim.
Specular iron, 218. 5-5-6-5 VI; mas; G 45-53; iron-bk and cryst brilliant;
Str, rdh-bn : Bl infus, bor iron reaction, glob
finally mag. Prim, strat, volc.
"
Magnetic iron, 216. I; mas; G5-5-1 ; iron-bk ; St bk ; strongly mag-
netic : Bl, infus, bor iron reaction. Prim, strat.
Franklinite, 221. I; mas; G 4.8-5.1; iron-bk ; St dark rdh bn;
slightly magnetic: Bl, infus; at high heat zinc
fumes. Prim.
Arkansite, 209.7-7-5 III; G 385; iron bk; St dark ashgreen.

† Fumes before the blowpipe.

Dark red silver, 323. 2-5 VI; mas; G 5-7-5-9; iron-bk, lead-gy; St red;
met-ad: Bl, fus!! b flame, sulph andantimony
fumes. Silver ores .
Variegat'dcopper, 277. 3-0 1; mas; G5-5-1; pinchbeck-bn, copper-r, bh tar-
nish: St pale gyh-bk; brittle: Bl, fus; on char
sulph odor, glob mag. Prim, strat, with copper
orcs.

Copperpyrites, 275. 35-40 II ; mas ; G4-42; brass yw; Stgnh-bk; brittle .

nit sol, gn : Bl, fus ; on char, sulph odor. Prim,
strat, with copper ores.
Magnetic pyrites, 214. 3-5-4-5 VI; mas ; G 45-47; bronze-yw, copper-r; St
gyh-bk; magnetic; brittle; dilute nit sol: BL
fus, sulph odor.
Leucopyrite, 216.50-5-5 II ; mas; G7-2-74; silver-w, steel-gy; St gyh.
bk; brittle : Bl, fus; onchar, arsen fumes.
4
Coppernickel, 244. VI; mas; G 73-77; copper-r; St pale bnh-bk;
brittle : Bl, fus1 on char, arsen fumes. Prim
usual with cobalt ores.
 TABLE I. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. 401

Hardness.

Nickelglance, 244.50-5-5 1; mas; G6-6-2; silver w, steel-gy ; St gyh-bk :

Bl, fus ! decrep; sulph and arsen fumes inglass
tube.
46
Cobaltine, 247. 1; mas; G 62-64 ; silver-w, rdh; St gyh-bk;
brittle : Bl, fus ; on char, arsen fumes, bh, glob,
mag; bor blue. Prim.
44
Smaltine, 247. I; mas; G 6-4-7-2; tin-w, steel-gy; St gyh-bk ;
brittle: Bl, fus ! arsen odor, gyh bk mag pearl;
bor blue. Prim.
Whiteir'n pyrites,214. III; mas; crests; G 4-6-4-9; pale bronze yw ;
St gyh, bnh-bk; brittle : Bl, fus ; on char, sulph
fumes.
Mispickel, 21555-60 III; mas ; G6-1; silver-w ; St dark gyh-bk ; brit-
tle: Bl, on char, arsen fumes, and leaves a mag-
netic globule.
Ironpyrites, 212.6.0-6.5 1; mas; G 4-8-5-1; light bronze-yw; St bnh-bk :
Bl, fus; on char, sulph odor. Prim, strat, volc,
etc.

B. STREAK METALLIC.

*Malleable.

Nativemercury, 270. fluid G 13-14; tin-w: Bl, volatilizes. Strat, prim.

Nativelead, 200. 10-1-5 1 ; in membranes and glob ; G11-12; lead gray;
soils: Bl, fus !! volatilizes and colors charcoal
yellow.
Nativecopper, 273. 2-5-30 1; mas, in strings; G 8-5-8-6 ; copper-r; nit sol !
r fumes ; Bl, fus, colors flame green.
66
Native silver, 319. I; mas, capil; G 10-11; silver-w ; nit sol : Bl,
fus.
"
Nativegold, 311. 1; mas, capil; G 12-20, pale to deep yw, accord-
ing to the proportion of silver present; nit not
sol: Bl, fus.
Native platinum, 307. 4-0-4-5 Ingrains and lumps; Gr 16-19 ; pale steel gy; hot
nit-mur sol : Bl, infus.
Native iron, 211.4.0-5.0 I; mas ; G7-3-7-8; iron-gy,magnetic.
Native palladium, 310. 5.0-5-5 In grains, structure rad; G 10-12; steel-gy,
silver-w : Bl, infus.

† Not malleable : no fumes when heated.

Graphite, 91. 1.0-2.0 Mas, fol ! gran; G2-21 ; iron-bk, dark steel-gy;
sectile; soils; nit, no action : Bl, infus. Prim,
strat.

Imenite, 222, 50-60 VI; mas; G 4-4-4-8 ; dark iron-bk; slightly mag.
netic; strong mur sol : Bl infus. Prim, volc.
‡Not malleable: fumes whenheated.
Molybdenite, 298. 10-1-5 VI ; mas, fol ! lamflex; G 4-5-4-8; pure lead-gy;
sectile; nit, partly sol: Bl, infus, on char sulph
odor. Prim.
34
*
402 TABLE I. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS.

Hardness.
Fol. Tellurium, 263.10-1-5 11; foll gran; G7-7-1; bkh lead-gy; lam flex
sectile ; nit sol ! Bl on char, w fumes, flameb.
Prim.
Grayantimony, 301. 2-0 III; cleav; col, div : G 4-5-4-7; lead-gy, steel-gy;
tarnishes; lam subflex: Bl, fus !! on char sulph
odor and wholly volat. Prim.
Vitreous silver, 321. 2-0-2-5 1; mas, retic; G 71-7-4; bkh lead-gy; nit sol:
Bl, fus !! intum, glob ofsilver. Silver ores.
"
Native tellurium, 300. VI; mas; G 57-6-1; tin-w, rather brittle : Bl ,
fus!! on char gnh flame, w inodorous fumes,
wholly volat. Prim.
"
Brittle silver, 322. III; mas; G 6-2-6-3; iron-bk; sectile; hot nit sol :
Bl, fus !! sulph and antim fumes; on char, glob
of silver. Silver ores.
4
Native bismuth, 258. I; mas, cleav ! G97-9-8 ; silver-w, rdh ; nit sol,
andsolution w if diluted: Bl, fus !! volat, inod;
ywon char. Prim.
Vitreous copper, 275. 2-5-3-0 III; mas; G 55-5-8; bkh, lead-gy ; nit sol, and
polished iron put in the solution covered with
copper: Bl, fus I onchar sulph fumes. Prim, strat.
Galena, 260.25-3.0 1; cleavl mas; G 7-5-7-7; pure lead-gy; rather
sectile: Bl, fus! decrep; on char sulph fumes
and glob of lead. Prim, strat.
Amalgam, 270. 20-35 I; mas; G10-5-14; silver-w; nit sol: Bl, fumes
ofmercury, and silver glob.
Native antimony, 301. 3.0-3.5 VI; cleav; lam, mas ; G 6.6-6.8; tin-w: Bl, fus !!
volat; on char w fumes. Prim.
Nativearsenic, 304.3.5 VI; mas ; G 5-6-5-8 ; tin-w, lead-gy, darker from
tarnish; brittle: Bl, wholly volat, garlic odor.
Prim.
Graycopper, 278. 30-40 1; tetrahed; mas; G 47-51; steel-gy to iron-bk:
Bl, fus !! arsen and antim fumes ; copper reac-
tion. Prim, copper ores.
Whitenickel, 244.50-5-5 1; mas; G71-7-2; tin-w : Bl, arsen fumes; also
nickel reaction. Prim,

In determining the name of a mineral by the preceding

table, trials should be made ofthe hardness and of the other
characters upon which the arrangement is based, as shown
in the general view on page 188. The particular subdi-
vision containing the species is thus arrived at, and also, by
means of the hardness, the place of the species in the sub-
division. Afterwards, by acomparison ofthe other charac-
ters, (specific gravity, color, etc.,) with the brief descriptions
given in the table, the name of the mineral will be ascer-
tained. If any doubt still remains, the fuller descriptions in
the body of the work may be referred to, forthe convenience
of which reference, the page is added for each species.
 TABLE I. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS . 403

The following hints may be of service to the beginner in

the science, by enabling him to overcome a difficulty in the
outset, arising from the various forms and appearance of the
minerals quartz and limestone. Quartz occurs of nearly
every color, and of various degrees of glassy luster to a dull
stone without the slightest glistening. The common grayish
cobble stones of the fields are usually quartz, and others
are dull red and brown; from these there are gradual
transitions to the pellucid quartz crystal that looks like glass
itself. Sandstones and freestones are often wholly quartz,
and the seashore sands are mostly ofthe same material. It is
therefore probable that this mineral will be often encountered
inmineralogical rambles. Let the first trial of specimens
obtained be made with a file or the point of a knife, or some
other means oftrying the hardness ; if the file makes no im-
pression, there is reason to suspect the mineral to be quartz ;
and if on breaking it, no regular structure or cleavage plane
is observed, but it breaks in all directions with a similar
surface and a more or less vitreous luster, the probability is
much strengthened that this conclusion is correct. The
blowpipe may next be used ; and if there is no fusionpro-
duced by it, when carefully used on a thin splinter, there can
be little doubt that the specimen is in fact quartz.
Carbonate of lime (calc spar, including limestone,) is
another very common species. If the mineral collected is
rather easily impressible with a file, itmaybe of this species :
if it effervesces freely when placed in a test-tube containing
dilute muriatic acid, and is finally dissolved, the probability
of its being carbonate of lime is increased : if the blowpipe
produces no trace of fusion, but a brilliant light from the
fragment before it, but little doubt remains on this point.
Crystalline fragments break with three equal oblique
cleavages.
Familiarized with these two Protean minerals bythe trials
here alluded to, the student has already surmounted the prin-
cipal difficulties in the way of future progress. Frequently
the young beginner, who has devoted some time to collecting
all the different colored stones in his neighborhood, on pre-
senting them for names to some practised mineralogist, is a
little disappointed to learn that, with two or three exceptions,
his large variety includes nothing but limestone and quartz.
He is perhaps gratified, however, at being told that he may
call this specimen yellow jasper, that red jasper, another
404 TABLE 11. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS.

flint, and another hornstone, others chert, granular quartz,

ferruginous quartz, chalcedony, prase, smoky quartz, greasy
quartz, milky quartz, agate, plasma, hyaline quartz, quartz
crystal, basanite, radiated quartz, tabular quartz, etc. etc.;
and it is often the case, in this state of his knowledge, that
he is best pleased with some treatise on the science in which
all these various stones are treated of with as much promi-
nence as if actually distinct species ; being loth to receive
the unwelcome truth, that his whole extensive cabinet con-
tains only one mineral. But the mineralogical student has
already made good progress when this truth is freely admit-
ted, and quartz and limestone, in all their varieties, have
become known to him.
To facilitate still farther the study ofminerals, the follow
ing tables are added.

TABLE II . FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

MINERALS .

The general arrangement in this table is the same as in

the preceding : but the order of the species, instead of being
that oftheir hardness, is that oftheir specific gravity.

I.
- SOLUBLE MINERALS.

No EFFERVESCENCE WITH MURIATIC ACID.

a. Not deflagrating on burningcoals.

Sp. gr. Sp. gr.
Glauber salt 2.0
1.4-1.5 Copperas,
Sal ammoniac, 1.5-1.6 White vitriol, 2-0-2-1
Epsom salt, V 1.7-1.8 Blue vitriol, 2-2-2-3
66 66
Borax, Common salt,
66
Alum, White arsenic, 3-7

b. Deflagrate on burning coals.

Nit. oflime, 1.62 Nit. of soda, 2.0-3.0
Niter, 1.9-2.0
 TABLE II . FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. 405

B. EFFERVESCING WITH MURIATIC ACID.

Natron, 1.4-1.5

II.- INSOLUBLE MINERALS.

1. LUSTER UNMETALLIC.
A. STREAK UNCOLORED.

a. No fumes before the blowpipe on charcoal.

1. Wholly soluble in one or more ofthe acids, (cold or hot), usually with effervescence.
* Infusible.
Sp. gr. Sp. gr.
Websterite, 1.6-1.7 Magnesite, 2.9-3.0
Brucite, 2-3-2-4 Mesitine spar. 3-3-3-7
Nemalite, 2-3-2-5 Diallogite, 3.5-3.6
66
Calc spar, Oligon spar, 3-7-3-8
Hydromagnesite, 2.8 Yttrocerite,
2.8-3.0 Blende, 4.0-4.1
Arragonite,
Dolomite, 2.8-2.9

†Fusible with more or less difficulty.

Wavellite, 2-3-2-4 Strontianite, 3.6-3.7
Boracite, 2-9-3.0 Spathic iron, 3.7-3.9
3.0-3.3 Troostite, 4.0-4.1
Apatite,
Fluor spar, 3-1---3.2 Witherite, 4.2-4.4
Cacoxene, 3-3-3-4 White lead ore, 6.1-6.5
3-4-3-8 Pyromorphite, 6.5-7-1
Triplite,
2. Soluble in acids, excepting the silica, which separates as ajelly.
* Infusible.

1.8-1.9 | Halloylite, 1.8-2-1

Allophane,
† Fusible.
2.0-2-2 | Mesole, 2-3-2-4
Philippsite, 66
Analcime, 2-0-2-3 Thomsonite,
66 2-2-2-5
Datholite, Sodalite,
Natrolite, 2-1-2-3 Pectolite, 2.69
Scolecite, 2-2-2-3 Tabular spar, 2.7-2.9
Laumonite, 2-2-2-4 Electric calamine, 3.2-3.5
66
Dysclasite,
3. Not acted on by acids, or partially soluble without formingajelly.
*Infusible.

2-3-2-4 | Yenite, 2-4-5.2

Chrysocolla,
406 TABLE II. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS.

Sp. gr. Sp. gr.

66
Opal, Topaz, 8.4-3.6
Quartz, 2-6-2-8 Diamond, 3-4-3-7
66
Alum-stone, Kyanite, 3-5-3-7
Talc, 2-7-2-9 Staurotide, 3.5-3.8
66
Pyrophyllite, Chrysoberyl, 3-5-3-8
Mica, 2.8-3.0 Anatase, 3.8-39
66
Turquois, Sapphire, 3-9--4-2
Nephrite, 2.9-3.1 Blende, 4.0-4.1
Andalusite, 2.9-3-2 Spinel, 3.5-4.6
Green hyd. nickel, 3.05 Zircon, 4.4-4.8
Clintonite, 3.0-3.1 Monazite, 4.8--5-1
Sillimanite, 3.0--3-4 Plumbo-resinite, 6-3-6-4
Bucholzite, 3-2-3-6 Tin ore, 6.5-7-1
Chrysolite, 3.3-3.6

† Fusible with more or less difficulty.

Chabazite, 2.0-2-2 Prehnite, 2.8-3.0
Stilbite, 2-1-2-2 Boracite, 2.9--3.0
66
Heulandite, 2.2 Chrysolite,
Gypsum, 2-2-2-4 Euclase, 2.9-3-1
Apophyllite, 2-3-2-4 Hornblende, 2-9-3-4
Feldspar, 2-3--2-6 Lazulite, 3.0-3.1
Serpentine, 2.4-2.6 Tourmaline, 66

Obsidian, 2-2-2-8 Spodumene, 3-1-3-2

Harmotome, 2-3--2-5 Chondrodite, 66

Petalite, 2-4-2-5 Axinite, 3-2-3-3

Schiller spar, 2.5-2.7 Pyroxene, 3-1-3-5
Lapis Lazuli, 2.5-2-9 Sphene, 3-2-3-5
Albite , 2-6-2-7 Epidote, 66

Labradorite, 2.6-2.8 Idocrase, 3-3-3-4

66
Scapolite, Manganese spar, 3-4-3-7
66
Iolite, Garnet, 3.5-4.3
66
Beryl, Celestine, 3.8-4.0
Chlorite, 2-6-2-9 Pyrochlore, 3.8-4.3
Chlorophyllite , 2.7-2.8 Heavy spar, 4.3-4.8
Talc, 2.7-2.9 Monazite, 4.8-5.1
Mica, 2.8-3.0 Tungstate of lime, 6.0--6.1
66
Anhydrite, Anglesite, 6.2-6.3

b. Colored or odorous fumes before the blowpipe.

Scorodite, 3-1-3-3 | Horn silver, 5.5-5.6
Blende, 4.0-4.1 Bismuth blende, 5.9-6.1
Calamine, 4.2-4.5 Mimetene, 6.4-6.5
 TABLE II . FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. 407

B. STREAK COLORED.

a. No fumes before the blowpipe.

*Fusible.

Sp. gr. Sp. gr.

4.2-4.3
Vivianite, 2-6-2-7 Pyrochlore,
3.0-3.6 Minium, 4.6
Uranite,
Chondrodite, 3-1-3-3 Monazite, 4.8-5.1
Allanite, 3-2-4-1 Cupreous anglesite, 5.3-5.5
3-4-3-8 Red copper ore, 5.9-6.0
Triplite,
Azurite, 3-5-3-9 Chromate oflead, 6.0
Green malachite, 4.0-4.1 Pyromorphite, 6-8-7-1

† Infusible.

2.07 Blende, 4.0-4.1

Sulphur, 4.0-4.4
Copper mica, 2-55 Psilomelane,
2-2-2-3 Rutile, 4.2-4.3
Earthy cobalt, 4.3-4.5
Cobalt bloom, 2.9-3.0 Chromic iron,
3-0-3-3 Atacamite, 4.4-4.5
Warwickite,
4.4-4.6
Dioptase, 3-2-3-3 Red antimony,
Cacoxene, 3-3-3-4 Red zinc ore, 5.4-5.6
3-4-35 Red silver ore, 5.4-5.9
Orpiment, 6.47
Realgar, 3-3-3-7 Pitchblende,
3.7 Tin ore, 6-5-7-1
Wad,
Cinnabar, 8.0-8.1
Black copper,
Brown hematite, 3.9-4.1

LUSTER METALLIC.

A. STREAK UNCOLORED.

*No fumes before the blowpipe on charcoal

2-2-2-3 Specular iron, 4-5--5-3
Earthy cobalt, 4.8-5.0
Wad, 3.7 Pyrolusite,
3-8-4-1 Franklinite, 4.8-5.1
Yenite,
Arkansite, 3-85 Magnetic iron ore, 5.0-5.1
3.9-4.0 Columbite, 5.9--6-1
Brown hematite,
4.0--4-1 Pitchblende, 6.47
Blende,
4.0-4.4 Wolfram, 7-1--7-4
Psilomelane,
4-3--4-4 Cinnabar, 8.0-8.1
Manganite,
Chromic iron, 4.3-4.5
408 TABLE III. FOR DETERMINATIONOF MINERALS.

† Fumes beforethe blowpipe.

Copper pyrites, 4.0-4-2 | Nickel glance, 6.0-6.2
Magnetic pyrites, 4.5-4.7 Mispickel, 6.1
66
White iron pyrites, Cobaltine, 6-2-6-4
Iron pyrites, 4.8-5.1 Smaltine, 6-4-7-2
Variegated copper, 5.0-5.1 Leucopyrite, 7-2-7-4
Dark red silver, 5-7-5-9 Copper nickel, 7-3-7-7

B. STREAK METALLIC.

*Malleable.
Sp. gr. Sp. gr.
Native iron, 7-3--7-8 Native lead, 11-12
Native copper, 8.5-8.6 Native mercury, 13-14
Native silver, 10-11 Native platinum, 16-19
Native palladium, 10-12 Native gold, 12-20

†Not malleable : no fumes when heated.

Graphite, 2-21 | Ilmenite, 4.4-4.8

‡Not malleable: fumes when heated on charcoal.

Gray antimony, 4-5-4-7 | Native antimony, 6.6-6.8
Molybdenite, 4.5-4.8 Fol. tellurium, 7.0-7-1
Gray copper, 4-7-5-1 White nickel, 7-1-7-2
Vitreous copper, 5-5-5-8 Vitreous silver, 7-1-7-4
Native arsenic, 5.6-5.8 Galena, 7-5-7-7
Native tellurium, 5-7-6-1 Native bismuth, 9.7-9.9
Brittle silver, 6-2-6-3 Amalgam, 10.5-11

TABLE III .—MINERALS ARRANGED ACCORDING

TO THEIR CRYSTALLIZATION.

J.
-CRYSTALS MONOMETRIC.

A. Luster unmetallic.
* Infusible.
Hardness. Sp.gr. Cleavage
.
Blende, 250 2.0-3.0 4.0-4.2 Dodecahedral.
Chromic iron, 222 5.5 4.3-4.5 Octahed. imperf.
Leucite, 175 5.5-6.0 2.4-2.5 Ncne.
Dysluite, 161 7.5-8.0 4.5-4.6 Oct. imp.
Spinel, 160 8.0 3-5-3-6 Oct. imp.
Diamond, 80 10.0 Oct. perfect.
 TABLE III . FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. 409

† Fusible.
Hardness.
Sp. gr. Cleavage..
Alum, 127 1.5-2.0 1.7-1.8 Oct.
Common salt, 104 2.0 2-2-2-3 Cubic.
Red copper ore, 279 3.5-4.0 5.8-6.1 Oct. imperf.
Fluor spar, 121 4.0 3.0-3.3 Oct. perf.
Pyrochlore, 208 5.0-5.5 3.8-4.5 None .
66
Analcime, 168 2.0-2.3 Imperfect.
Lapis Lazuli, 196 5.5-6.0 2.5-2.9 Dodec. imperf.
Sodalite, 197 5.5-6.0 2.2-2.4 Dodec. imp.
Garnet, 184 6.5-7.5 3.5-4.3 Dod. oft. distinct.
Boracite, 126 7.0 2.9-3.0 Oct. indistinct.

2.
-Luster metallic.
*No fumesbefore the blowpipe on charcoal.
Native copper, 273 2.5-3.0 8.4- 8.8 None.
66
Native silver, 319 10.3-10.5 None.
66
Native gold, 311 12.0-20.0 None.
Blende, 250 3.5-4.0 4.0- 4.2 Dodec. perf !
Native platinum, 307 4.0-4.5 16.0 19.0 Cubic, indist.
Native iron, 211 4.5 5.1- 5.2 Oct. perfect.
Chromic iron, 222 5.0-5.5 4.3- 4.5 Oct. imp.
Franklinite, 221 5.5-6.5 4.8- 5.1
66
Oct. imp.
Magnetic iron, 216 5-0- 5.1 Oct. imp.
† Fumes before the blowpipe on charcoal.
Vitreous silver, 321 2.0-2.5 7.1-7.4 Dodec. imperf.
66
Native bismuth, 258 9-7-9-8 Oct. perf!
Native amalgam, 270 2.0-3.5 10.5-14 Dodec. imp.
Var. copper ore, 277 2.5-3.0 5.0-5.1 Oct. imp.
66
Galena, 260 7-5-7-7 Cubic perf!
Gray copper ore, 278 3.0-4.0 4.7-5.2 Indistinct.
Nickel glance, 244 5.0-5.5 6.0-6.2 Cubic perf!
66
Cobaltine, 247 6-1-6-3 Cubic perf.
"
Smaltine, 247 6-3-6.4 Oct. imp.
White nickel, 244 5.5 7-1-7-2
Pyrites, 212 6.0-6.5 4.8-5.1 Cubic imp.
II.
-CRYSTALS DIMETRIC.

1. Iuster unmetallic.
*Infusible.

Anatase, 292 5.5-6.0 3.8-3.9 Oct. and basal.

35
 410 TABLE III . FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALI.

Hardness. Sp. gr. Cleavage.

Tin ore, 295 6.0-7.0 6.5-7・1 Indistinct.
Zircon, 200 7.5 4.4-4.8 Imperfect.
† Fusible.

Uranite, 210 2.0-2.5 3.0-3.6 Basal, perf !!

Apophyllite, 165 4.5-5.0 2.2-2.4 Basal, perf!
Scapolite, 180 5.0-6.0 2.5-2.8 Lat. distinct.
Idocrase, 184 6.0-6.5 3.3-3.5 Lat. indistinct !
66
Rutile, 291 4-1-4-3 Lat. imp.
2. Luster metallic.
Foliated tellurium, 263 1.0-1.5 7.0-7.2 Foliated !
Copper pyrites, 275 3.5-4.0 4.1-4.2 Indistinct.
Hausmannite, 242 5.0-5.5 4.7-4.8 Basal, distinct !
Braunite, 242 6.0-6.5 4.8-4.9 Oct. distinct.

III. CRYSTALS TRIMETRIC.

1. Luster unmetallic.
* Infusible.

Talc, 143 1.0-1.5 2.7-2.9 Basal, fol !!

Arragonite, 118 3.5-4.0 2.9-3.0 Lat. imp.
Red Zinc ore, 251 4.0-4.5 5.4-5.6 Basal, fol !!
Chrysolite, 156 6.5-7.0 3-3-3-5 Lat. imp.
Staurotide, 174 7.0-7.5 3.6-3.8 Indistinct.
Andalusite, 1747.5 3-1-3-4 Indistinct.
Topaz, 194 8.0 3-4-3-6 Basal, perfect!
Chrysoberyl, 199 8.5 3.5-3.8 Imperfect.
† Fusible : gelatinize in acids .
Mesole, 167 3-5
2.3-2.4 One perfect.
Thomsonite, 167 4.5
2.2-2.4 Two rect. perf.
Phillipsite, 168 4.0-4.5 2.0-2.2 Imperfect.
Electriccalamine, 253 4.5-5.0 3.3-3.5 Lat. perfect.
Natrolite, 166 4.5-5.5 2-1-2-3 Lat. perf.
Scolecite, 167 5.0-5.5 2.2-2.3 Imperfect.
Fusible: not gelatizing: giving no odorous or colored fumes before the
blowpipe. :

Talc, (some var.,) 143 1.0-1.5 2.7-2.9 Foliated !!

Niter, 101 2.0 1.9-2.0 Imperfect.
Epsom salt, 124 2.0-2.5 1.7-1.8 One perfect.
66
Cryolite, 132 2.9-3.0 Oneprf; twoimp.
 TABLE III . FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. 411

Hardness. Sp. gr. Cleavage.

66
Mica, (Rhombic,) 193 2.8-3-1 Foliated !!
Anglesite, 264 2.5-3.0 6.2-6.3 Imperfect.
Heavy spar, 108 2.5-3.5 4.3-4.8 Imperfect.
66
Celestine, 110 3.9-4.0 Lat. distinct.
Anhydrite, 114 3.0-3.5 2.8-3.0 Three rect. dist.
66
White lead ore, 204 6.1-6.5 Lat. perf.
66
Witherite, 109 4.2-4.4 Imperfect.
Serpentine, 145 3.0-4.0 2.5-2.6 Sometimes fol.
Strontianite, 111 3.5-4.0 3.6-3.8 Lat. distinct.
Wavellite, 130 2-2-2-4 Two distinct.
66

66
Stilbite, 165 2-1-2-2 One perfect !
Harmotome, 168 4.0-4.5 2.4-2.5 Imperfect.
Wolfram, 225 5.0-5.5 7.1-7.4 One perfect.
Lazulite, 131 5.0-6.0 3.0--3.1 Indistinct.
Yenite, 226 5.5-6.0 3.8-4.1 Indistinct.
Prehnite, 170 6.0-7.0 2.8-3.0 Basal, distinct.
Iolite, 190 7.0-7.5 2.5-2.7 Indistinct.

§Giving fumes before the blowpipe on charcoal

Orpiment, 305 1.5-2.0 3.4-3.6 Foliated !

Sulphur, 98 1.5-2.5 2.0-2.1 Indistinct.
White vitriol, 252 2.0-2.5 2.0-2.1 One perfect.
White antimony, 303 2.5-3.0 5.5-5.6 Lat. perfect !!
Atacamite, 285 3.0-3.5 4.0-4.4 Basal, perfect.
Scorodite, 230 3.5-4.0 3.1-3.3 Imperfect.
2. Luster metallic.
*Nofumes before the blowpipe oncharcoal.

Pyrolusite, 240 2.0-2.5 4.8-5.0 Three imperfect.

Manganite, 242 4.0-4.5 4.3-4.4 One imperfect.
Wolfram, 225 5.0-5.5 7.1-7.4 One perfect.
Yenite, 226 5.5-6.0 3.8-4.1 Indistinct.
Columbite, 224 5.0-6.0 5.9-6.1 Indistinct.
66
Ferrotantalite, 225 7.2-8.0 Imperfect.
†Fumes before the blowpipe on charcoal.
Gray antimony, 301 2.0 4.5-4.7 One perfect !
Brittle silver ore, 322 2.0-2.5 6.2-6.3 Imperfect.
Vitreous copper, 275 2.5-3.0 5.5-5.8 Lat. indistinct.
Leucopyrite, 216 5.0-5.5 7.2-7.4 One distinct.
Mispickel, 215 5.0-6.0 6.1 6.2 Lat imperfect.
White ironpyrites, 214 6.0-6.5 4.6-4.9 Lat imperfect.
412 TABLE III. FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS.

IV. CRYSTALS MONOCLINATE.

1. Luster unmetallic.
*Soluble.
Hardness. Sp.gr. Cleavage.
Natron, 103 1.0-1.5 1.4-1.5
Glauber salt, 102 1.5-2.0 1.5-2.0
Copperas, 227 2.0 1.8-1.9 One perfect.
Borax, 107 2.0-2.5 1.7 Lat. perfect.
† Insoluble: no fumes before the blowpipe on charcoal.
Vivianite, 229 1.5-2.0 2.6-2.7 Basal, perfect
Gypsum, 112 2.0 2.3-2.4 Foliated !
Mica, 191 2.0-2.5 2.8-3.0 Foliated !!
Heulandite, 164 3.5-4.0 2.1-2.2 Foliated.
Laumonite, 166 3.5-4.0 2.3 One distinct.
66
Green malachite, 281 4.0-4.1 Basal, perfect.
Azurite, 283 3.5-4.5 3.5-3.9 Lateral.
Clintonite, 148 4.0-5.0 3.0-3.1 Foliated.
Monazite, 206 5.0 4-8-5-1 Basalt, perfect !
Datholite, 142 5.5-6.0 2.9-3.0 Indistinct.
66
Sphene, 292 3-2-3-5 Indistinct.
Hornblende, 152 5.0-6.0 2.9-3.4 Lat. perfect.
66
Pyroxene, 150 3-2-3-5 Lat. distinct.
66
Allanite, 207 3-3-3-8 Indistinct.
Feldspar, 176 6.0. 2.3-2.6 One prf; oneimp
Chondrodite, 157 6.0-6.5 3.1-3.2 Indistinct.
Epidote, 182 6.0-7.0 3.2-3.5 Lat. imperf.
Spodumene, 181 6.5-7.0 3-1-3-2 Lat. perfect.
Euclase, 199 7.5 2.9-3-1 Basal, perfect.
Fumes before the blowpipe.
Cobaltbloom, 248 1.5-2.0 2.9-3.0 Basal, perfect !
66
Realgar, 305 3-3-3-6 Imperfect.
Pharmacolite, 305 2.0-2-5 2-6-2-8 Basal, perfect !!
Miargyrite, 323 66
5-2-5-4 Lat. imperfect.
2. Luster metallic.
Miargyrite, 323 2.0-2.5 5.2-5.4 Lat. imperfect.
Wolfram, 225 5.0-5.5 7.1-7.4 One perfect.
Warwickite, 293 5.5-6.0 3.0-3.3 One perfect.
Allanite, 207 66
3.3-3.8 Imperfect.
-CRYSTALS TRICLINATE.
V.
* Soluble.
Blue vitriol, 280 2.5 2-2-2-3 Imperfect.
 TABLE III . FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS. 413

† Insoluble : fusible.
Hardness. Sp. gr. Cleavage.
Tabular spar, 141 4.0-5.0 2.7--2.9 One perfect.
Albite, 177 6.0 2-6-2-7 One perf.; two
66
imperfect.
Labradorite, 178 2-6-2-8 One perf.; one
imperfect.
Manganese spar, 239 6.0-7.0 3.4-3.7 One perfect.
Axinite, 190 6.5-7.0 3.2-3.3 Imperfect.
‡Infusible.
Kyanite, 173 5.0-7.0 3.5-3.7 Lat. distinct.
Sillimanite , 172 7.0-7.5 3.2-3.3 Diagonal perf. !!

6. CRYSTALS HEXAGONAL OR RHOMBOHEDRAL.

1. Luster unmetallic.
* Soluble.

Nitrate of soda, 103 1.5-2.0 2.0-2.1 Rhomb. perf.

66
Coquimbite, 227 Hexag. imperf.
† Insoluble: infusible.
Brucite, 126 1.5 2-35 Foliated !
Mica, (hexagonal) 193 2.0-2.5 2.8-3-1 Foliated !!
Calc spar, 115 2.5-3.5 2.5-2.8 Rhomb. perf!
Diallogite , 242 3.5 3.5-3.6 Rhombohedral .
Magnesite, 124 3.0-4.0 2.8-3.0
66
Rhomb. perf.
Ankerite, 120 2.9-3-2 Rhomb. perf.
Dolomite, 118 3.5-4.0 3.5-4.0
66
Rhomb. perf.
Spathic iron, 228 3.7-3.9 Rhomb. perf.
Alum stone, 129 5.0 2-6-2-8 Basal, near perf.
66
Dioptase, 284 3-2-3-3 Rhombohedral.
Quartz, 132 7.0 2.6-2.7 Imperfect.
Sapphire, 158 9.0 3.9 Basal, perf.
Insoluble: fusible, without fumes.
Chlorite, 145 1.5-2.0 2.6-2.9 Foliated !
Chlorophyllite, 162 1.5-3.5 2.7-2.8 Basal, fol.
Chabazite, 169 4.0-4.5 2.0-2.2 Rhombohed. ind.
Apatite, 120 5.0 3.0-3.3 Indistinct.
Troostite, 240 5.5 4.0-4.1 Lat. perf.
Nepheline, 179 5.5-6.0 2.4-2.7 Imperfect.
Tourmaline, 187 7.0-8.0 3.0-3.1 Indistinct.
Beryl, 197 7.5-8.0 2.6-2.8 Basal, indistinct.
35*
414 TABLE III . FOR DETERMINATION OF MINERALS .

§Insoluble: fumes before the blowpipe on charcoal.

Hardness. Sp. gr. Cleavage.
Red silver ore, 323 2.0-3.0 5.4-5.9 Imperfect.
Cinnabar, 270 2.0-2.5 7.8-8.1 Hexag. perfect.
Calamine, 253 5.0 4.3-4.5 Rhomb. perf.
2. Luster metallic.
*No fumes before the blowpipe oncharcoal.
Graphite, 91 1.0-2.0 2.0-2.1 Foliated !
Ilmenite, 222 5.0-6.0 4.4-5.0 Indistinct.
Specular iron, 218 5.5-6.5 5.0-5.3 Indistinct.
†Fumes before the blowpipe on charcoal.
Molybdenite, 298 1.0-1.5 4.5-4.8 Foliated !!
Native tellurium, 300 2.0-2.5 5.7-6.1 Imperfect.
Dark red silver, 323 2.5 5.7-5.9 Imperfect.
66
Cinnabar, 270 7-8-8-1 Hexag. perfect.
Native antimony, 301 3.0-3.5 6.6-6.8 Basal, perfect !
rhombohed. dist.
Native arsenic, 304 3.5 5.6-6.0 Imperfect.
Magnetic pyrites, 214 3.5-4.5 4.6-4.7 Basal hexag.prf.
Copper nickel, 244 5.0-5.5 7.3-7-7
 INDEX .

A.. Amethyst, 134.

A ADIOLITE, 170. Oriental, 158.
Aamite, 157, (Acmite.) Amianthus, 154.
Aud, Arsenous, 305. Ammonia, Salts of, 100.
Boracic, 107. Carbonate of, 101.
Carbonic, 93. Muriate of, 100.
Hydrochloric, 77. Phosphate of, 101 .
Muriatic, 77. Sulphate of, 101.
Sulphuric, 99. Ammoniac, Sal, 100.
Sulphurous, 99. Amoibite, 244.
Tungstic, 299. Amphibole, 154.
Acmite, 157. Amygdaloid, 339.
Actinolite, 153. Analcime, 168.
Adamant, 80, (Diamond.) Anatase, 292.
Adamantine spar, 158. Ancramite, 257.
Adularia, 176. Andalusite, 174.
Æschynite, 202. Andesin, 177, (Albite.
Agalmatolite, 342. Anglarite, 230.
Agaric mineral, 116, (Calc Tuta.) Anglesite, 264.
Agate, 135. Cupreous, 264.
Alabandine, 242. Anhydrite, 114.
Alabaster, 113. Anhydrous sulphate of lime, 114
Alalite, 151. Ankerite, 120.
Albite, 177. Anorthite, 178.
Alexandrite, 199. Anthophyllite, 156.
Allagite, 239. Hydrous, 171.
Allanite, 207. Anthosiderite, 226.
Allophane, 162. Anthracite, 85.
Alluaudite, 230. Anthraconite, 117.
Almandine, 185. Antigorite, 149.
Alum, 127. Antimonate oflime, 303.
Manufacture of, 128, 129. Antimonial copper, 278.
ALUMINA, 127, 158. nickel, 244.
Alumina, Fluate of, 132. silver, 322, 323.
Hydrate of, 131, 132. ANTIMONY, 301 .
Mellate of, 132 . Antimonophyllite, 303.
Phosphate of, 130. Antimony, Native, 401.
Sulphates of 127, 128, 129. Arsenical, 302.
Alum stone, 129. Feather ore of, 302.
Alum slate, 128. Gray, 301.
Aluminite, 129. Red, 303.
Aluminium, Fluorid of, 132. Sulphuret of, 301.
Amalgam, Native, 270. White, 303.
Amber, 93. Antimonyand lead, sulphurets of,
302.
Amblygonite, 132.
 416 INDEX.

Antimony ores, general remarks | Azure, 250.

on, 303. Azurite, 283.
Antrimolite, 171 . B.
Apatelite, 228. Babingtonite, 157.
Apatite, 120. Balas ruby, 160.
Aphanesite, 284. Baltimorite, 146.
Aphrodite 148.
Aphrodite, Bamlite, 329.
Aplome,186. BARYTA, 108.
Apophyllite, 165. Baryta, Carbonate of, 109.
Aquamarine, 198. Sulphate of, 108.
Arendalite, 182, (Epidote.) Sulphato-carbonate of, 110.
Arfvedsonite, 157. Baryt-Harmotome, 168, (Harmo
Argent, French for silver. tome.)
Argentine, 116. Barytocalcite , 110.
Argillaceous shale, 341. Basalt, 339.
Argillite, 341 . Basanite, 137.
Arkansite, 209. Beaumontite, 285.
Arquerite, 270. Bell metal, 290.
Arragonite, 118. Bell metal ore, 294.
Arsenate of iron, 230. Beraunite, 230.
ofnickel, 245. Berengelite, 97.
ofcobalt 248. Beryl, 197.
ofcopper, 284. Berthierite, 302.
oflime, 305. Berzeline, 329.
ARSENIC, 304. Beudantite, 329.
Arsenic, Native, 304. Biddery ware, 257.
Sulphurets of, 305. Biotine, 178, (Anorthite.)
White, 305. BISMUTH, 257.
Arsenic
306.
ores, general remarks on, Bismuth, alloys of, 259.
Native,258.
Arsenical cobalt, 247. Acicular, 258:
iron pyrites, 215. Carbonate of, 258.
lead, 263. Cupreous,258.
manganese, 242. Silicate of, 258.
nickel, 244. Sulphuret of, 258.
silver, 322. Telluric,258.
Arsenous acid, 305 Bismuth blende, 258.
Asbestus, 151, 154. nickel, 245.
Asparagus stone, 120. ocher, 258.
Aspasiolite, 163. Bismutite, 258.
Asphaltum,95. Bitter spar, 119, (Brown Spar.)
Asteria, 158. Bitumen, 95.
Atacamite, 285. Elastic, 94.
Atmospheric air, 76. Butuminous coal,85.
Augite, 150, 151. Black copper, 279.
Aurichalcite, 254. cobalt,248.
Auriferous pyrites, 213. lead, 91.
Aurotellurite, 319. Black jack, 251 .
Automolite, 161. Blei, German for lead.
Aventurine quartz, 134. Blende, 250.
feldspar, 176. Bloodstone, 137.
Axinite, 190. Blue asbestus, 227.
 INDEX 417

Blue copper ore, 283. C.

iron earth,230 Cacholong, 139.
malachite, 283, (azurite.) Cacoxene, 230.
spar, 131 , (Lazulite.) Cadmia, 257.
vitriol, 280. CADMIUM , 257.
Bodenite, 208: Cairngorum stone, 134.
Bog iron ore, 220. Calaite, 130, (Turquois.)
manganese, 241. Calamine, 253.
Bole, 162. Electric, 253 .
Boltonite, 157. Calcareous spar, 115.
Bones, composition of,120. tufa, 116.
Boracic acid, 107. Calcedony, 135.
Boracite, 126. Calcite, 115.
Borate of lime, 123. Caledonite, 266.
of soda, 107 . Callais, 131.
ofmagnesia, 126. Canaanite, 180, (Scapolite.)
Borax, 107. Cancrinite, 180.
Borosilicate of lime, 142. Caoutchouc, mineral, 94.
Botryolite, 142. Capillary pyrites, 245.
Boulangerite,, 302. CARBON and compounds of car
Boulangerite
Bournonite, 278. bon,80.
Branchite, 97. Carbonic acid, 93.
Brass, 256, 290. Carbuncle, 187.
Braunite, 242. Carbureted hydrogen, 77
Breccia, 344. Carburet of iron, 91 .
Breccia marble, 350. Carnelian, 135.
Breislakite, 157. Carpholite, 171.
Breunnerite, 229. Carphosiderite, 230.
Brevicite, 167. Castor, 329.
Brewsterite, 164. Catlinite, 342.
Britanniametal, 304. Cat's eye, 136.
Brittle silver ore, 322. Celestine, 110.
Brocatello di Siena, 349 . Cerasite, 268.
Brochantite, 281. Cereolite, 329.
Bromic silver, 324. Cerine, 207.
Bromlite, 110. Cerite, 207.
Bronze, 289, 290. CERIUM, ores of, 206.
Bronzite, 151. Cerium, Carbonate of, 206.
Brookite, 292. Phosphate of, 207
Brown iron ore, 220. Silicate of, 207.
hematite, 220. Cerium ocher, 206.
ocher, 220. Ceruse, 264, (White Lead.)
spar, 119, 229. Chabazite, 169.
Brucite, 126. Chalcedony, 135.
see chondrodite, 157. Chalcolite, 210.
Bucholzite, 172. Chalk, 116.
Bucklandite, 183. Red, 218.
Buhrstone, 343, 346. Chalybeate waters, 80.
Building stone, 336, 337, 339, Chamoisite, 226.
345. Chenocoprolite, 324.
Buratite, 285. Chessy copper, 283, (Azurite.)
Bustamite, 240. Chiastolite, 174.
 418 INDEX.

Childrenite, 132. Cobalt, Arsenical, 247.

Chiolite, 132. Arsenite of, 249.
Chlorite, 145. Black oxyd of, 248.
Chlorite slate, 338. Earthy,248.
Chlorite rock, 338. Red, 249.
Choritoid, 172. Sulphate of, 249.
Chloropal, 226. Sulphuret of, 248.
Chlorophane, 122. Tin-white, 247.
Chlorophyllite, 162. White, 247.
Chlorospinel, 160. Cobalt bloom, 248.
Chondrodite, 157. mica, 248, (cobalt bloom.)
Christianite, 329. ocher, 249.
Chromate of lead, 267. pyrites, 248.
of lead and copper, 268. Cobalt Ores, gen, remarks on, 249.
Chromesalts, manufacture of,223. Cobaltic leadore, 263.
Chrome yellow, 223, 267. Cobaltine, 247.
Chromic iron, 222. Coccolite, 151.
ocher,243. Colcothar, 214, 227.
CHROMIUM, 243. Colophonite, 186.
Chrysoberyl , 199. Columbite, 224.
Chrysocolla, 283. Comptonite, 167.
Chrysolite, 156. Condurrite, 285.
Iron, 226. Conglomerate, 344.
Chrysoprase, 135. Copal, Fossil, 97.
Cimolite, 162. COPPER, 273, 285.
Cinnabar, 270. Copper, Alloys of, 289.
Cinnamon stone, 185. Antimonial, 278.
Cipolin marbles, 349. Arsenates of, 284.
Clausthalite, 263, Arsenical , 278.
Clay, 352. Carbonates of, 281, 283.
for bricks, 355. Chlorid of, 285.
for pottery, 356. Crenate of, 285.
Clay slate, 341 . Muriate of, 285, (Chlorid)
Ciay Iron Stone, 218, 220, 228. Native, 273.
Cleavelandite, 178. Oxyds of, 279.
Clinkstone, 340. Phosphates of, 285.
Clintonite, 148. Pyritous, 275.
Cloanthite, 244. Selenid of, 279.
Coal, mineral, 85. Silicate of, 283, 284.
Anthracite, 85. Sulphate of, 280.
Bituminous, 85. Sulphato-chlorid of, 285.
Brown, 86. Sulphurets of, 275.
Caking,85. Copper froth, 284.
Cannel, 86. mica, 284.
Cherry, 85. nickel , 244.
Glance,85. pyrites, 275, 277.
Splint, 86. uranite, 210.
Stone,85. Copper ore, Black, 279.
Wood, 86. Blue, 275.
Coal measures, 86. Gray, 278.
COBALT , 247.
Octahedral, 279 (Red Copper.)
Cobalt, Arsenate of, 248. Red
Red,.279.
 INDEX . 419

Copper ore, Variegated, 277. Diphanite, 171

Velvet, 285. Dipyre, 181 .
Vitreous, 275. Disthene, 173.
Copperores,gen. remarks on, 285. Dog tooth spar, 115.
Assay of, 285. Dolerite, 339.
Reduction of, 286.. Dolomite, 118.
Copperas, 227. Dreelite, 110.
Manufacture of, 213. Dufrenoysite, 263.
Coquimbite, 227. Dysclasite, 142.
Coracite, 210. Dysluite, 161.
Cordierite, 190. Dysodile, 97.
Cork, Mountain, 154. E.
Corneous lead, 268. Earthy cobalt, 248..
Corundum, 158. manganese, 241 .
Cotunnite, 268. Edelforsite, 143.
Couzeranite, 179. Edingtonite, 171.
Crichtonite 222, Edwardsite, 206, (Monazite.)
Crocidolite, 227. Egeran, 184.
Crocoisite, 267. Eisen, German for Iron,
Cronstedtite, 226. Elæolite, 180.
Cross stone, 174, (Staurotide.) Elastic bitumen, 94.
Cryolite, 132. Electric calamine,253.
Cryptolite, 207. Emerald, 197.
Cuban, 277. Oriental, 158.
Cube ore, 230. Emery, 158.
Cube spar, 114, (Anhydrite.) Enceladite, 294.
Cuivre, French for Copper. Epidote, 182.
Cummingtonite, 156. Epistilbite, 171 .
Cupreousanglesite,264. Epsom salt, 124.
173.
Cyanite, (Kyanite,) Manufacture of, 119, 124, 125.
Cymophane, 200. Eremite, 206, (Monazite.)
Cyprine,184. Erinite, 284.
D. Erz, German for ore.
Damourite, 172. Esmarkite, 191 .
Danaite, 215. - Essonite, 185.
Danburite, 329. Etain, Fr. for tin.
Datholite, 142. Eucairite, 323.
Davyne, 179, (Nepheline.) Euchroite, 284.
Derbyshire spar, 122. Euclase, 199.
Dermatine, 149. Eudialyte, 202.
Deweylite, 145, (Serpentine.) Eugenesite, 310.
Diallage, 151. Euphotide, 339.
Diallage rock, 339. Eupyrchroite, 120.
Diallogite, 242. Euxenite, 208.
Diamond, 80. F.
Diaspore, 132. Fahlerz, 278, (gray copper.)
Dichroite, 190. Fahlunite, 163.
Digenite, 275. Fassaite, 151.
Diopside, 150. Faujasite, 171 .
Dioptase, 284. Feather alum, 128.
Diorite, 339 . Feather ore, 302.
Dioxylite, 266, Feldspar, 176.
 420 INDEX.

Feldspar, Glassy, 176, 177. Glottalite, 171 .

Labrador, 178. GLUCINA , 197.
Fer, French for iron. Gneiss, 337.
Fergusonite, 208. GOLD, 311 .
Ferrotantalite, 225. Gold, amount deposited at U
Fettbol, 162. mint, 315.
Fibro-ferrite, 227. :

cupellation of; 317.

Fibrolite, 172, (Bucholzite,) Gong, Chinese, 290.
Fichtelite, 97. Göthite, 221.
Figure stone, 343. Gouttes d' eau, 195.
Flagging stone, 337, 346. Grammatite, 153.
Flint, 136. Granite, 335.
Float stone, 137. Granulite, 335.
Flos Ferri, 118. Graphic gold, 319.
Flucerine, 206. granite, 335.
Fluellite, 132. tellurium, 319.
Fluor spar, 121 . Graphite, 91 .
Foliated tellurium, 263. Gray antimony, 301.
Fontainbleau limestone, 245. copper ore, 278.
Forsterite , 157. Graystone, 339.
Fossil copal, 97 Green diallage, 151
wood, 138, 350. earth, 226.
Franklinite, 221. iron stone, 230.
Freestone, 345. malachite, 281.
Fuchsite, 193. sand,226.
Fuller's earth, 354. vitriol, 227 .
Fusible metal, 259. Greenockite; 257.
G. Greenovite, 293.
Gadolinite, 208. Greenstone, 339.
Gahnite, 161, (Automolite.) Grengesite, 220.
Galena, 260. Gritrock, 344.
Galmey, 253, (Calamine.) Gröppite, 162.
Garnet, 184. Grossularite, 185.
Tetrahedral, 187, (Helvin. Guanite, 101.
White, 175, (Leucite.) Gurhofite, 119.
Gay Lussite, 108. Guyaquillite, 97.
Gehlenite, 181 . Gypsum, 112.
Genesee oil, 96. Anhydrous, 114.
German silver, 246. Gyrasol, 139.
Geocronite, 302. H.
Gibbsite, 131. Hæmatite, 218, 220.
Gibraltar rock, 350. Haidingerite, 302, 305.
Gieseckite, 180. Hair salt, 124.
Gigantolite, 163. Halloylite, 160.
Gilbertite,329. Harmotome, 168.
Girasol, 139. Harringtonite , 167.
Gismondine, 168. Hartite, 97.
Glance cobalt, 247, (Cobaltine.) Hatchetine, 97.
Glauberite, 108. Hauerite, 242.
Glauber salt, 102. Hausmannite, 242
Glaucolite, 179. Hauyne, 196.
Glimmer, Germ. for mica. Haydenite, 170
 INDEX . 421

Hayesine, 123. Idrialin , 97 .

Heavy spar, 108. Ilmenite, 222.
Hedenbergite, 151, 226 lvaite, 226.
Hedyphane, 267. Indicolite, 188 .
Heliotrope, 137. Iodic silver, 324.
Helvin, 200. mercury, 272.
Hematite, brown, 220. Iolite, 190.
Red, 218 . Hydrous, 163.
Hercinite, 161. Iridium, 309.
Herrerite, 300. Iridosmine . 309..
Herschelite, 170. IRON, 211 .
Heteroclin, 241 . History of, 231.
Heterosite, 242. Manufacture of, 232, 236
Heulandite, 164. Iron, Arsenates of, 230
Hisingerite, 226. Arsenical, 215,
Hone slate, 337,338, 342. Carbonate of, 228.
Honey stone, 132. Carburet of, 91 .
Hopeite, 254. Chromate of, 222.
Horn quicksilver, 271. Columbate of, 224.
silver, 323 . Hematitic, 218, 220.
Hornblende, 152. Hydrous oxyd of, 220.
Hornblende slate, 337. Meteoric, 211 .
Hornstone, 136. Native, 211 .
Houille, Fr. for coal. Oligiste, 218.
Hudsonite, 151 . Oxalate of, 230.
Humboldtilite, 181. Oxyds of, 216, 218, 220.
Humite, Chondrodite ? 157. Phosphate of, 229.
Huraulite, 242. Silicates of, 226.
Hyacinth, 201 , 189, Sparry or spathic, 228.
Hyalite, 140. Specular, 218.
Hyalosiderite, 156, (Chrysolite.) Sulphate of, 227.
Hydraulic limestone,350. Sulphurets of, 212, 214.
Hydroboracite, 123. Titanic, 222.
Hydrochloric acid, 77. Tungstate of, 225.
Hydrogen, Iron chrysolite, 226.
Carbureted,77. Iron earth, Green, 230.
Phosphureted, 77. Blue, 230.
Sulphureted, 77. Ironfurnace, 233.
Hydromagnesite, 125. Iron mica, 229, (Vivianite.)
Hydrophane, 139. Iron ores, general notice of, 231.
Hydrotalcite, 329. Assay of, 232.
Hydrous anthophyllite, 171. Reduction of, 232.
Hypersthene, 151. Iron ore, Argillaceous, 218, 220
Hystatite, 222. 228.
I. Axotomous, 222, (Ilmenite.)
Iberite, 163. Bog, 220.
Ice, 78. Brown, 220.
Ice spar, 176, 178. Chromic, 222.
Iceland spar, 116. Green, 230.
Ichthyophthalmite, 165, (Apophyl- Jaspery, 218.
lite.) Lenticular, 218.
Idocrase, 184. Magnetic, 216.
36
422 INDEX.

Iron ore, Micaceous, 218. Konlite, 97

Ochreous, 218, 220. Kraurite, 230.
Octahedral, 216. Krisuvigite, 281.
Pitchy, 241, (Triplite.) Kupſer, Germ. for copper.
Red, 218. Kyanite, 173.
Rhombohedral, 218, (Specu- L.
lar.) Labradorite, 178.
Spathic, 228. Labrador feldspar, 178.
Specular, 218. hornblende, 151.
Titanic, 222. Lapis Lazuli, 196.
Iron pyrites, 212. Latrobite, 179.
Arsenical, 215. Laumonite, 166.
Auriferous, 213. Lava, 340.
Hepatic, 214. Lazulite, 131.
Magnetic, 214. LEAD , 259 .
White, 214. Lead, Arsenate of, 267.
Iron sinter, 230. Arsenids of, 263.
Iron stone, Clay, 218, 228. Carbonate of, 264.
Blue, 230. Chlorid of, 268.
Iron zeolite, 227. Chromate of, 267.
Iserine, 222. Molybdate of, 268.
Isopyre, 226. Muriate of, 268.
Itacolumite, 343. Native, 260.
Ixolyte, 97. Oxyd of, 263.
J. Phosphate of, 266.
Jade,147. Selenate of, 268.
Jamesonite, 302. Selenids of, 263 .
Jargon, 201 . Sulphate of, 264.
Jasper, 137. Sulphato-carbonates of, 266.
Jaspery iron ore, 218. Sulphuret of, 260.
Jeffersonite, 151. Tellurids of, 263 .
Jet, 86. Tungstate of, 268.
Johannite, 210. Vanadate of, 268.
Junkerite, 229. Lead glance, 260, (Galena.)
Κ. Leadhillite,266.
Kakoxene, 230. Lead ore, Argentiferous, 260.
Kaliphite, 330. Cobaltic,263.
Kalk, Germ. for lime. Red, 263.
Kammererite, 149. White, 264.
Kaolin, 177, 356. Yellow, 268, (Molybdate.)
Karpholite, 171 . Lead ores, general remarks on,
Karphosiderite, 230. 268.
Keilhauite, 293 . Ledererite, 169.
Kerolite, 146. Lederite, 293.
Kiesel, Germ. for silica. Leonhardite, 166.
Kilbrickenite, 302. Lepidokrokite, 221.
Kirwanite, 226. Lepidolite, 192.
Knebelite, 226. Lepidomelane, 193.
Kobalt, see Cobalt. Leptynite, 335.
Kobellite, 301 Leucite, 175.
Kollyrite, 162. Leucophane, 200.
Konigite, 281. Leucopyrite, 216.
 INDEX. 423

Levyne, 169. Magnesia, Sulphate of, 124.

Libethenite, 285. Magnesia alum, 128.
Liebigite, 330. Magnesian limestone, 118.
Lievrite, 226. Magnesite, 124.
Lignite, 86. Magnet, Native, 217.
Ligurite, 330. Magnetic iron ore, 216.
LIME, 112, 141. pyrites,214.
Lime, Arsenate of, 305. Malachite, Blue, 283, (Azurite.)
Borate of, 123. Green, 281 .
Borosilicate of, 142. Malacolite, 150.
Carbonate of, 115, 118. Malacone, 202.
Fluate of, 121. Maltha, 95.
Fluorid of, 121 . Malthacite, 162.
Magnesian carbonate of, 118. Mancinite, 254.
Nitrate of, 123. Manganblende, 242.
Oxalate of, 123. MANGANESE, 239.
Phosphate of, 120. Manganese, Arseniuret of, 242.
Silicates of, 141, 142. Bog or earthy, 241 .
Sulphate of, 112, 114. Carbonate of, 242.
Tungstate of, 300. Oxyds of, 240,242.
Vanadate of, 300. Phosphate of, 241 .
Limestone, 116, 347. Silicate of, 239 .
Hydraulic, 117, 350. Sulphuret of, 242.
Magnesian, 118. Manganese ores, general remarks
Fontainebleau, 116. on, 242.
Limestone, burning of, 351. Manganese spar, 239.
Limekilns, 351. Manganite, 242.
Limonite, 220, (Brown Hematite.) Marble, 347, 348, 349,350.
Lincolnite, 164. Marcasite, 212, (Pyrites.)
Liroconite, 284. Marceline, 241.
Lithia mica, 192. Marekanite, 341.
Lithographic stone, 10. Margarite, 193.
Lithomarge, 355. Margarodite, 193.
Liver ore of mercury, 271. Marl, 354.
Lodestone, 217. Marmatite, 250, Blende.)
Loxoclase, 178. Marmolite,146.
Lumachelle, 350. Martinsite, 107.
Lydian stone, 137. Mascagnine, 101.
Μ. Masonite, 172.
Macle, 174. Medjidite, 330.
Maclurite, 157, (Chondrodite.) Meerschaum, 148.
MAGNESIA, 123, 143. Meionite, 181.
Magnesia, Borate of, 126. Melanchlor, 230.
Carbonate of, 124, 125. Melanite, 185.
Fluophosphate of, 127. Melanochroite, 267.
Fluosilicate of, 157, (Chondro- Mellate of alumine, 132.
dite.) Mellilite, 181 .
Hydrate of, 126. Mellite, 132.
Hydro-carbonate of, 125. Menaccanite, 222,
Native, 126, (Brucite.) Menilite, 140.
Nitrate of, 126. MERCURY , 270.
Silicates of, 143. Mercury, Chlorid of, 271 .
424 INDEX.

Mercury, Iodic, 272. Muriacite, 114.

Muriate of, 271 , (Chlorid.) Muriatic acid, 77.
Native, 270. Murchisonite, 176, (Feldspar.)
Selenid of, 272. Muscovy glass, 192.
Sulphuret of, 270. N.
Mercury ores,general remarks on, Nacrite, 193.
272. Naphtha, 95.
Mesitine spar, 229. Natrolite, 166.
Mesole, 167. Natron, 103.
Mesotype, 167. Necronite, 177.
METALS, 202. Needle ore,258 (AcicularBismuth.)
Meteoric iron, 211. Needlestone, 167, (Scolecite.)
Miargyrite, 323. Nemalite, 125.
Mica, 191. Nepheline, 179,
Hydrous, 193. Nephrite, 147.
Mica slate, 337. NICKEL , 243 .
Micaceous iron ore, 218. Nickel , Antimonial,244.
Microlite, 208. Alloys of, 246.
Middletonite, 97. Arsenate of, 245.
Miemite, 119. Arsenical,244.
Millstone grit, 344. Bismuth,245.
Miloschine, 243. Copper, 244.
Mimetene, 267. Oxyd of,245.
Mineral caoutchouc; 94. White, 244.
oil, 95. Nickel glance, 244.
pitch, 95. green,245.
tallow, 97. ocher, 245.
tar, 95. pyrites, 245.
waters, 80. stibine, 244.
Minium, 263. Nickel ores, general remarks on,
Mispickel, 215. 245.
Mocha stone, 135. Nigrine, 291 .
Molybdate of lead, 268. Nitrate of lime, 123.
Molybdenum, Sulphuret of, 298. magnesia, 126.
Molybdenite, 298. potash, 101.
MOLYBDENUM, 298. soda, 103.
Molybdic ocher, 299 . Niter, 101 .
Monazite, 206. Nitrogen, 76.
Monradite, 149. Nontronite, 226.
Monticellite, 330. Nosean, 196.
Moonstone, 176. Novaculite, 342.
Moroxite, 120. Nussierite, 330.
Mosaic gold, 259. Nuttallite, 181.
Mosandrite, 0.
Mountain green, 281, (Green Mal- Obsidian, 341.
achite.) Ocher, Red, 218.
cork, 154. Brown or yellow,220.
leather, 154. Cerium, 206.
Mowenite, 167. Plumbic, 263.
Muller's glass, 140. Uranic, 209 .
Mullicite, 230. Chromic, 243.
Mundic, 214. Octahedrite, 292, (Anatase.)
 INDEX . 425

Erstedite, 202. Picrosmine, 149.

Oil, Genesee or Seneca, 96. Pigotite, 330.
Mineral, 95. Pimelite, 245.
Okenite 142 . Pinchbeck, 290.
Oligiste iron ore, 218. Pinguite, 226.
Oligoclase, 179. Pinite, 162,
Oligon spar, 229. Pipe clay, 356.
Olivenite, 284. Pipestone, 342.
Olivine, 156. Pisolite, 116.
Onyx, 136. Pistacite, 183.
Oolite, 116. Pitchblende, 209.
Opal, 139. Pitchstone, 341 .
Ophite, 145, (Serpentine.) Pitchy iron ore, 241, (Triplite.)
Ores, general remarks on, 202. Pittizite,227.
Orpiment, 305. Placodine, 244.
Orthite,207. Plagionite, 302.
Orthoklase, 176, (Feldspar.) Plasma, 136.
Ottrelite, 193. Plaster ofParis, 114.
Ouvarovite, 185. Platin-iridium, 309.
Oxalate of iron,230. PLATINUM, 307.
Ozarkite, 330. Pleonaste, 160.
Ozocerite, 97. Plumbago, 91.
Packfong, 246. Plumbic ocher, 263.
PALLADIUM, 310. Plumbo-calcite, 117.
Pargasite, 154. Plumbo-resinite, 268.
Parisite, 206. Pollux, 330.
Peastone, 116, (Pisolite.) Polybasite, 323.
Pearl spar, 119. Polycrase,209.
Pearlstone, 341. Polyhalite, 127.
Pectolite, 142. Polyhydrite, 226.
Peloconite, 242. Polylite, 151 .
Pennine , 149. Polymignite, 209.
Periclase, 149. Poonahlite, 167.
Peridot, 156, (Chrysolite.) Porcelain, manufacture of, 356.
Perovskite , 293. Porcelain clay, 356.
Petalite, 182. Porcelain jasper, 137.
Petroleum, 95. Porcelain spar, 330.
Phacolite, 170. Porphyry, 340.
Pharmacolite, 305. Porphyritic granite, 335.
Phenacite, 200. Potash, Nitrate of, 101.
Phillipsite, 168. Potash, Salts of, 101.
Pholerite, 162. Potassium, Chlorid of, 102.
Phonolite, 340. Potstone, 143, 339.
Phosphorite, 120. Potter's clay, 356.
Phosphureted hydrogen, 77. Pottery, manufacture of, 356.
Photozite, 239. Pozzuolana, 347, 351.
Phyllite, 193. Prase, 134.
Physalite, 194. Praseolite, 330.
Piauzite, 97. Prehnite, 170.
Pickeringite, 129. Proustite, 323, (Red silver.)
Picrolite, 146. Pseudomalachite, 285.
Picrophyll, 331. Pseudomorphs, Steatitic, 149.
36*
426 INDEX.

Pudding stone, 344. | Red copper ore, 279.

Pumice, 341 . hematite, 218.
Purple or variegated copper, 277. iron ore, 218.
Pycnite, 194. lead,263.
Pyrenaite, 185. silver ore, 323.
Pyrites, Arsenical iron, 215. zinc ore, 251 .
Auriferous, 213. Reddle, 218, (Red chalk.)
Capillary, 245. Rensselaerite, 144, 149.
Cockscomb, 214. Retinalite, 149.
Copper, 275. Retinasphalt, 95.
Hepatic, 214. Retinite, 95.
Iron, 212. Rhætizite, 173.
Magnetic, 214. Rhodium gold, 311.
Nickel, 245. Rhodizite, 127.
Radiated, 214. Rhodonite, 239.
Spear, 214. Rhomb spar, 119,229.
Tin, 294. Ripidolite, 145.
Variegated copper, 277. Rock or mountain cork, 154.
White iron, 214. crystal, 133.
Pyrochlore, 208. milk, 116.
Pyrodmalite, 227, (Pyrosmalite.) salt,104.
Pyrolusite, 240. воар,162.
Pyromorphite, 266. ROCKS, general remarks on,
Pyrope, 187. 332.
Pyrophillite, 149. Expansion of, 334.
Pyrophysalite, 194. Romeine, 303.
Pyrorthite, 207. Roofing slate, 341.
Pyrosclerite, 149. Rose quartz, 134.
Pyrosmalite, 227. Roselite, 249.
Pyroxene, 150. Rosite, 162.
Pyrrhite, 293. Rubellite, 188.
Rubicelle, 160.
Quartz, 132. Ruby, Spinel, 160.
Amethystine, 134. Almandine, 160.
Aventurine, 134. Balas, 160.
Ferruginous, 135. Oriental, 158.
Granular, 137, 343. Ruby silver ore, 323.
Greasy, 134. Rutile, 291 .
Milky, 134. Ryacolite, 178.
Rose, 134. S.
Smoky, 134. Saccharite, 175.
Tabular, 137. Sahlite, 150.
Quartz rock, 343. Sal ammoniac, 100.
Quicklime, 117, 350. Saline springs, 106.
Quicksilver, 270. Salt, Common, 104.
Chlorid of, 271. Epsom, 124.
Horn, 271 . Glauber, 102.
Quincite, 148. Saltpeter, 101.
Realgar, 305. Samarskite, 210.
Red antimony, 303. Sand, 352.
chalk, 218. for glass,353.
cobalt, 249. for casting, 354.
 INDEX. 427

Sandstone, 344. Silver Bismuthic, 319.

Flexible, 343. Bromic, 324.
Saponite, 145. Carbonate of, 323.
Sappar, 173. Chlorid of, 323.
Sapphire, 158. Horn, 323.
Sarcolite, 168, (Analcime., Iodic, 324.
Sard, 135 . Muriate of, 323, (Chlorid .)
Sardonyx, 135, Native, 319 .
Sassolin, 107.. Red or ruby, 323.
Satin spar, 113, 116. Selenids of, 323 .
Saussurite, 330. Sulphurets of, 321, 322.
Scapolite, 180. Telluric, 323.
Scheelite, 300 , (Tungsten.) Silver ore, Black, 322.
Scheererite, 97. Brittle, 322.
Schiller asbestus, 146. Red or ruby, 323.
spar, 148. Vitreous, 321.
Schist, 341 . Silver ores, general remarks on,
Schorl, 188. 324.
Schorlomite, 209. Reduction of, 326.
Schrötterite, 162. Sinter, Siliceous, 140.
Schwefel, Germ. for sulphur. iron, 230.
Scolecite, 167. Skapolith, 180, (Scapolite.)
Scoria, 341 . Skolecite, 167.
Scorodite, 230. Skorodite, 230.
Scythe stones, 337,338. Slate, 337, 338, 341.
Sea froth, 148. Smalt, 250.
Sea water, 79. Smaltine, 247.
Dead, 79 . Smelite, 162.
Selenate of lead, 268. Soda, Salts of, 102.
Selenite, 113. Carbonate of, 103.
Selenpalladite, 310. Nitrate of, 103 .
Selenid of copper, 279. Sulphate of 102, 108.
oflead, 263. Sodalite, 197.
of mercury, 272. Soapstone, 143, 338.
ofsilver, 323 . Sodium, Chlorid of, 104.
Selensilver, 323. Somervillite, 181.
Semiopal, 139. Spadaite, 149.
Seneca oil, 96. Spar,Calcareous, 115.
Serbian, 243 . Derbyshire, 122.
Serpentine, 145, 339. Heavy, 108.
Seybertite, 149. Tabular, 141 .
Shale, 341 . Sparry or spathic iron, 223.
Sicilian oil , 96. Spear pyrites, 214.
Sideroschisolite, 226. Specular iron, 218.
Sienite, 335. Speculum metal, 290.
SILICA, 132. Speiss, 245.
Siliceous sinter, 140. Sphene, 292.
Silicified wood, 138. Spherosiderite, 228.
Sillimanite, 172. Spherulite, 341.
SILVER, 319. Spinel, 160.
Silver, Antimonial, 323. Spinel ruby, 160.
Antimonialsulphuret, 322, 332. Spinel, zinciferous, 161.
 428 INDEX.

Spinellane, 196. Thomsonite, 167.

Spodumene , 181. Thorite, 202.
Stalactite, 116. Thrombolite, 285.
Stalagmite , 116. Thulite, 183.
Staurotide , 174. Thumite , 190.
Steatite, 143, 338. Thuringite, 226.
Steatitic pseudomorphs, 149. Tile ore, 279.
Steinmannite, 302. ΤΙΝ, 294.
Stellite, 142, 171.
Sternbergite, 322. Tin, Alloys of, 297, 290.
Stiblite, 303. Native, 294.
Stilbite, 165. Oxyd of, 295
Stilpnomelane, 226. Stream, 295.
Stilpnosiderite, 221, (Göthite.) Sulphuret of, 294.
Stinkstone , 117. Wood, 295.
Stroganowite, 330. Tin ore, 295.
Stromeyerite, 322. Tin ores, general remarks on
296.
STRONTIA , 110.
Strontia, Carbonate of, 111. Tin pyrites, 294.
Tincal, 107.
Sulphate of, 110. Titanic acid, 291, 292.
Strontianite, 111. iron, 222.
Struvite, 101. Titanite, 292.
Sulphur, 97, 98. TITANIUM, 290.
Sulphuric acid, 99.
Sulphurous acid, 99. Titanium ores, 291, 292, 293.
Toadstone, 339 .
Sulphureted hydrogen, 77. Topaz, 194.
Sunstone, 176.
Syenite , 335. False, 134.
Symplesite, 230. Oriental, 158.
Topazolite, 185.
т. Touchstone, 137.
Tabasheer, 140. Tourmaline, 187.
Tabular spar, 141. Trachyte, 340.
quartz, 137. Trap, 339.
Tachylite, 330. Tremolite, 153.
Talc, 143. Triphane, 182.
Talcose slate,338. Triphyline, 230.
rock, 338. Triplite, 241.
Tallow, Mineral, 97. Tripoli, 354 .
Tantalite, 224. Trona, 103.
Tautolite, 330. Troostite, 240.
Telluric Silver, 323. Tschevkinite, 209.
Bisnmuth, 258. Tuesite, 355.
Lead, 263. Tufa, 347.
TELLURIUM, 300.
Tellurium ores, 300, 319. Calcareous, 116.
Tennantite, 279. Tungstate of iron, 225.
Tenorite, 279, lead, 268.
Tephroite ; 240. lime, 300.
TUNGSTEN, 299,
Tesselite, 165, (Apophyllite.) Tungsten, Calcareous, 300.
Tetradymite, 258.
Thenardite, 108. Ferruginous, 225, (Wolfram.)
Thomaite, 229 Tungstic ocher, 299
Turgite, 221 .
 INDEX. 429

Turquois, 130. Washingtonite, 222.

Type metal, 304. Warwickite, 293.
Water, 78.
U. Mineral, 80.
Ultramarine, 196. Sea, 79.
Uranite, 210. Dead sea, 79.
Uran-mica, 210, (Uranite.) Wavellite, 130.
Uranium ores, 209. Websterite, 129.
Uran ocher, 209. Weissite, 182.
Uranium, Phosphate of, 210. Wernerite, 181.
Oxyd of, 209. Whetstone, 342, 343.
Sulphate of, 210. White antimony, 303.
Uranium ore, Pitchy, 209. arsenic, 305.
Urano-tantalite, 210. iron pyrites, 214.
Uran-vitriol, 210. lead ore, 264.
Urao, 103, (Trona.) tellurium, 319 , (Aurotellu-
rite.)
V. vitriol , 252.
Wichtine, 182.
Vanadate of lead, 268. Willemite, 254.
of lime, 300. Wismuth, German for Bismuth.
ofcopper, 285. Withamite, 182, (Epidote.)
Vanadinite, 268. Witherite, 109.
VANADIUM, 300 . Wærthite, 173.
Variegated copper ore, 277. Wöhlerite, 202.
Vauquelinite, 268. Wolchonskoite, 243.
Velvet copper ore, 285. Wolfram , 225.
Verd antique, 146. Wollastonite, 141, (Tabular sper.)
oriental, 340. Wood, silicified, 138.
Vermiculite, 149. Wood opal, 140.
Vermillion, 271 . Wood tin, 295.
Vesuvian, 184.
Villarsite, 149 . Χ.
Vitreous copper ore, 275.
silver ore, 321 . Xanthite, 184.
Vitriol, Blue, 280. Xanthophyllite, 149.
Cobalt, 249. Xenotime, 208.
Green, 227. Xylite, 226.
Red, 330 .
White, 252. Y.
Vivianite, 229. Yenite,226.
Volcanic ashes, 341. Yttria, Phosphate of, 208.
glass, 341 . Columbate of, 208.
scoria, 341. Yttrium ores, 206, 208.
Voltaite, 228. Yttro-cerite, 206.
Voltzite, 252. Yttro-columbite, or yttro-tantalite
,
Vulpinite, 114. 208.
Yttro-ilmenite, 210.
W. Yttro-titanite, 293.
Wacke, 339. Z.
Wad, 241.
Wagnerite, 127. Zaffre,249.
430 APPENDIX .

Zeagonite, 168. Zinc, Sulphuret of, 250.

Zeolites, 163. Zinc blende, 250.
Iron, 227. Zinc bloom , 253.
Zeuxite, 172. Zinc ores, generalremarks on, 254
.
ZINC, 250 . Reduction of, 255.
Zinc, alloys of, 256, 257 . Zinkenite, 302.
Carbonate of, 253 . ZIRCONIA, 200.
Red oxyd of, 251. Zircon, 200 .
Silicate of, 253 . Zirconite, 201.
Sulphate of, 252. Zoisite, 183.

APPENDIX TO SECOND EDITION .

Gold of California. The gold region of Upper California extends

along the valley ofthe Sacramento, and also as reported, the valley of
San Joaquin, immediately south. These two valleys constitute, in fact,
asingle north and south depression ofthe country, lying between the lofty
Sierra Nevada onthe east, and the Coast Range on the west, and having
atotal length of 600 miles. The two rivers meet about midway in this
long trough, and cutting through the Coast hills, open into the large bay
of Francisco. Both streams are bordered by extensive alluvial flats, -
those of the Sacramento varying in breadth from 15 to 60 or 80 miles.
These alluvial flats are at two levels, differing 60 feet in height ;-the
lower, or " bottomland" ofthe river is avastplainofproductivesoil;the
upperhas often a pebbly surface,and inmanyparts is much cut up by ra-
vines, or reduced to a collection of hills.
The tributaries of this large river come mostly from the snowy heights
of the lofty Sierra on the east, and the gold has been found principally
along these streams. Sutter's settlement is situated near the junction
ofthe Sacramento and the American Fork, about 90 miles from the sea.
On this American Fork, gold was first found early in the Spring of
1848. Not only the main stream, but its various branches, and the
many ravines opening towards it, have been found to yield an abundant
return by washing the sand or gravel of their beds. Feather River
empties into the Sacramento, 18 or 20 miles north ofthe American Fork.
This is a large stream, with many affluents of considerable size, as
Yubah, and Bear Rivers; and here also the gold washings have been
highly productive. Other branches of the Sacramento are said to afford
gold with the same ease and abundance.
The rudest mode of " panning" is at present all that is necessary to
obtain the gold. After this process fails of being profitable, the sands
may again be worked by amalgamation, and they must remain a last-
ing source ofthe metal. The gold occurs in flattened grains, or scales,
and occasionally in lumps of large size. The yield is enormous ; but
the monthly amount can not at present be safely stated.
 APPENDIX. 431

The author was through this region in 1841, having traveled by land
from Oregon to Francisco, and in his course, followed down the Sacra-
mento from one of its sources just west of Shasty Peak. Along the
nead waters in the Shasty Mountains, talcose rocks and slates were
metwith,having the characters described on pages 316,338; and af-
terwards along the valley of the Sacramento, to the west as well as east,
the pebbles indicated a continuation south of the same rock formation.
The resemblance to other gold regions was observed and remarked in
nis Report. His route led him near the banks of the Sacramento, and
consequently at adistance from the places where gold has actually been
found. The same rocks were also traversed farther north, between the
Umpqua and Shasty rivers, within 30 miles of the sea.
The gold will undoubtedly be detected in the rocks alluded to. But
in the Urals, (p. 312,) and nearly all gold regions, alluvial washings
have been the great source of the precious metal. The sands and gravel
are only the rocks broken up or pulverized by the action of the elements,
and through abrasion by water, during past ages; and by the rills, rivulets
and streams, these sands have undergone, in part, the process of wash-
ing, and hence the grains of gold occur most abundantly along the bot-
tom of the ravines, or the beds of runs of water. The gold being spe-
cifically about seven times heavier than the gravel, it is left behind while
the earth is carried off. Every winter's rains renew the process of
washing, and prepare the ground for farther mining. The forms of
the grains of gold arise to a great extent from the forms in the rocks,
and partly from that wear which grinds up the lamine into scales, and
makes smooth the lumps.
'
The distinctive characters of gold are mentioned on page 311. It
may be remarked farther, that nitric acid is also an important test.
Gold is not acted upon at all by strong or dilute nitric acid, while all
the baser metals cause an effervescence, (with heat, if not without,) and
liberate acrid fumes. If a quantity ofmetallic grains are thrown into
dilute nitric acid, and heat applied, the action will at once distinguish
the gold from any metallic impurity. Nitro-muriatic acid, (a mixture
ofequal parts of nitric and muriatic,) when heated on gold, produces a
complete solution, attended with the escape offumes.
The metal platinum is also unacted upon by the simple acids, and
dissolves in nitro-muriatic. But the scales of this metal have a higher
specific gravity than gold, and the color is a pale steel shade.
In amalgamation, the sand and gravel, after previous washing, are
agitated together in a large vessel like a bowl. For reducing the
amalgam, it is convenient to have an iron crucible that will hold a
pint, to which there is a cover that may be secured firmly by an iron
barand a thumb screw. From the top ofthis crucible, a bent tube may
lead out, having a halfinch bore, and one or two feet long. The amal-
gam-after pressing it in buckskin, close nankeen, or some similar ma-
terial, to separate the excess of mercury and reduce it to a dry ball, -
is placed in the crucible, the cover fitted on, and heat applied: the mer-
cury at a temperature of 660° F. is thus driven off, and the end of the
tube being inserted into a vessel of water, it is distilled over and con-
densed in the water. An India rubber bag, attached to the end of the
tube, has been recently brought into use for collecting the mercury ;
the bag, during the distillation, is kept cold in water. By this means,
432 APPENDIX.

the danger ofthe water's flowing up the tube into the crucible is avoided.
On opening the retort, the gold is found to have a bright yellow color,
yet is light and spongy. It may then be put into a crucible and melted
with a little borax or potash ; or if impure, a little niter (salt peter) is
added. When fused, it is cast into an ingot, and the work is complete.
At the Carolina mines, about 1000 dwts. are thus produced at a single
fusion.
In the working of gold rocks, the rock, after mining, is stamped in
heavy stamping mills, and thus reduced to powder. After this, it is
washed and amalgamated according to the method stated, but with
some variations for large works.
It has been found profitable, when metallic sulphurets and other ores
are abundant in the rocks, to work the ores by smelting, as they con-
tain much gold that is not collected by amalgamation. It is stated
that according to a trial in Russia, a given quantity of ore, which by
the ordinary treatment yielded only five sixths of an ounce, produced
by the smelting process 72 5-6ths ounces, or no less than 87 times
more than that by the old method.
The total amount of gold received from California at the United
States mints at Philadelphia and New Orleans, up to the close of July
1850, is 20,934,310 dollars. The amount estimated at San Francisco
to have been exported from California to July 1, is 23 millions of dol-
lars. The amount received at the mint for the 6 montlis ending with
July, was at the rate of 26 millions of dollars ayear, and for the latter
half ofthat period, at the rate of32 millions ofdollars a year.
Mines ofMercury. The Cinnabar mines recently discovered occur
in a ridge ofthe Sierra Azul, south of St. Joseph, a few miles from the
coast, about half way from San Francisco to Monterey. The mouth
of the principal mine (the mine of New Almaden) is a fewyards down
from the summit of the highest hill containing the ore, and is about
1200 feet above the neighboring plain. The prevailing rock is a green-
ish talcose rock. The ore is interspersed through a yellow ochreous
matrix, which forms a bed 42 feet in thickness. The richest, ore is
from the upper part ofthe bed.
Specimens of this ore, sent to New Haven by Rev. C. S. Lyman, and
seen by the author, are extremely rich, and indicate that it must be ex-
ceedingly abundant, as well as ofunsurpassed value
 418
B 9781 159153
d in the United States
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R203 00001B/R20398PG43 538LVSX00009 /10}
Earth - Atmos - Sci

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 ISBN 1-4181-5915-8

9781418 159153