Cryptography

Cryptography is technique of securing information and communications through

use of codes so that only those person for whom the information is intended can
understand it and process it. Thus preventing unauthorized access to
information. The prefix “crypt” means “hidden” and suffix “graphy” means
“writing”. In Cryptography the techniques which are use to protect information
are obtained from mathematical concepts and a set of rule based calculations
known as algorithms to convert messages in ways that make it hard to decode it.
These algorithms are used for cryptographic key generation, digital signing,
verification to protect data privacy, web browsing on internet and to protect
confidential transactions such as credit card and debit card transactions.
Techniques used For Cryptography: In today’s age of computers cryptography
is often associated with the process where an ordinary plain text is converted to
cipher text which is the text made such that intended receiver of the text can only
decode it and hence this process is known as encryption. The process of
conversion of cipher text to plain text this is known as decryption.
Features Of Cryptography are as follows:
1. Confidentiality: Information can only be accessed by the person for
whom it is intended and no other person except him can access it.
2. Integrity: Information cannot be modified in storage or transition
between sender and intended receiver without any addition to
information being detected.
3. Non-repudiation: The creator/sender of information cannot deny his
intention to send information at later stage.
4. Authentication: The identities of sender and receiver are confirmed.
As well as destination/origin of information is confirmed.
Types Of Cryptography: In general there are three types Of cryptography:
1. Symmetric Key Cryptography: It is an encryption system where the
sender and receiver of message use a single common key to encrypt
and decrypt messages. Symmetric Key Systems are faster and simpler
but the problem is that sender and receiver have to somehow exchange
key in a secure manner. The most popular symmetric key cryptography
system are Data Encryption System(DES) and Advanced Encryption
System(AES).
2. Hash Functions: There is no usage of any key in this algorithm. A hash
value with fixed length is calculated as per the plain text which makes it
impossible for contents of plain text to be recovered. Many operating
systems use hash functions to encrypt passwords.
3. Asymmetric Key Cryptography: Under this system a pair of keys is
used to encrypt and decrypt information. A receiver’s public key is used
for encryption and a receiver’s private key is used for decryption.
Public key and Private Key are different. Even if the public key is known
by everyone the intended receiver can only decode it because he alone
 know his private key. The most popular asymmetric key cryptography
algorithm is RSA algorithm.
Applications Of Cryptography:
1. Computer passwords: Cryptography is widely utilized in computer
security, particularly when creating and maintaining passwords. When
a user logs in, their password is hashed and compared to the hash that
was previously stored. Passwords are hashed and encrypted before
being stored. In this technique, the passwords are encrypted so that
even if a hacker gains access to the password database, they cannot
read the passwords.
2. Digital Currencies: To safeguard transactions and prevent fraud,
digital currencies like Bitcoin also use cryptography. Complex
algorithms and cryptographic keys are used to safeguard transactions,
making it nearly hard to tamper with or forge the transactions.
3. Secure web browsing: Online browsing security is provided by the
use of cryptography, which shields users from eavesdropping and man-
in-the-middle assaults. Public key cryptography is used by the Secure
Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocols to
encrypt data sent between the web server and the client, establishing a
secure channel for communication.
4. Electronic signatures: Electronic signatures serve as the digital
equivalent of a handwritten signature and are used to sign documents.
Digital signatures are created using cryptography and can be validated
using public key cryptography. In many nations, electronic signatures
are enforceable by law, and their use is expanding quickly.
5. Authentication: Cryptography is used for authentication in many
different situations, such as when accessing a bank account, logging
into a computer, or using a secure network. Cryptographic methods are
employed by authentication protocols to confirm the user’s identity
and confirm that they have the required access rights to the resource.
6. Cryptocurrencies: Cryptography is heavily used by cryptocurrencies
like Bitcoin and Ethereum to safeguard transactions, thwart fraud, and
maintain the network’s integrity. Complex algorithms and
cryptographic keys are used to safeguard transactions, making it nearly
hard to tamper with or forge the transactions.
7. End-to-End Encryption: End-to-end encryption is used to protect two-
way communications like video conversations, instant messages, and
email. Even if the message is encrypted, it assures that only the
intended receivers can read the message. End-to-end encryption is
widely used in communication apps like WhatsApp and Signal, and it
provides a high level of security and privacy for users.
Advantages

1. Access Control: Cryptography can be used for access control to ensure

that only parties with the proper permissions have access to a
resource. Only those with the correct decryption key can access the
resource thanks to encryption.
2. Secure Communication: For secure online communication,
cryptography is crucial. It offers secure mechanisms for transmitting
private information like passwords, bank account numbers, and other
sensitive data over the internet.
3. Protection against attacks: Cryptography aids in the defence against
various types of assaults, including replay and man-in-the-middle
attacks. It offers strategies for spotting and stopping these assaults.
4. Compliance with legal requirements: Cryptography can assist firms
in meeting a variety of legal requirements, including data protection
and privacy legislation.

Authentication Vs. Authorization | Difference between

Authentication and Authorization
Authentication and authorization are the two words used in the security world. They
might sound similar but are completely different from each other. Authentication is
used to authenticate someone's identity, whereas authorization is a way to provide
permission to someone to access a particular resource. These are the two basic security
terms and hence need to be understood thoroughly. In this topic, we will discuss what
authentication and authorization are and how they are differentiated from each other.

What is Authentication?
o Authentication is the process of identifying someone's identity by assuring that
the person is the same as what he is claiming for.
 o It is used by both server and client. The server uses authentication when
someone wants to access the information, and the server needs to know who is
accessing the information. The client uses it when he wants to know that it is
the same server that it claims to be.
o The authentication by the server is done mostly by using the username and
password. Other ways of authentication by the server can also be done
using cards, retina scans, voice recognition, and fingerprints.
o Authentication does not ensure what tasks under a process one person can do,
what files he can view, read, or update. It mostly identifies who the person or
system is actually.

Authentication Factors
As per the security levels and the type of application, there are different types of
Authentication factors:

o Single-Factor Authentication
Single-factor authentication is the simplest way of authentication. It just needs
a username and password to allows a user to access a system.
o Two-factor Authentication
As per the name, it is two-level security; hence it needs two-step verification to
authenticate a user. It does not require only a username and password but also
needs the unique information that only the particular user knows, such as first
school name, a favorite destination. Apart from this, it can also verify the user
by sending the OTP or a unique link on the user's registered number or email
address.
o Multi-factor Authentication
This is the most secure and advanced level of authorization. It requires two or
more than two levels of security from different and independent categories.
This type of authentication is usually used in financial organizations, banks, and
law enforcement agencies. This ensures to eliminate any data exposer from the
third party or hackers.

Famous Authentication techniques

1. Password-based authentication
It is the simplest way of authentication. It requires the password for the particular
username. If the password matches with the username and both details match the
system's database, the user will be successfully authenticated.

2. Passwordless authentication

In this technique, the user doesn't need any password; instead, he gets an OTP (One-
time password) or link on his registered mobile number or phone number. It can also
be said OTP-based authentication.

3. 2FA/MFA

2FA/MFA or 2-factor authentication/Multi-factor authentication is the higher level of

authentication. It requires additional PIN or security questions so that it can
authenticate the user.

4. Single Sign-on

Single Sign-on or SSO is a way to enable access to multiple applications with a single
set of credentials. It allows the user to sign-in once, and it will automatically be signed
in to all other web apps from the same centralized directory.

5. Social Authentication

Social authentication does not require additional security; instead, it verifies the user
with the existing credentials for the available social network.

What is Authorization?
o Authorization is the process of granting someone to do something. It means it
a way to check if the user has permission to use a resource or not.
o It defines that what data and information one user can access. It is also said as
AuthZ.
o The authorization usually works with authentication so that the system could
know who is accessing the information.
o Authorization is not always necessary to access information available over the
internet. Some data available over the internet can be accessed without any
authorization, such as you can read about any technology from here.

Authorization Techniques
 o Role-based access control
RBAC or Role-based access control technique is given to users as per their role
or profile in the organization. It can be implemented for system-system or
user-to-system.
o JSON web token
JSON web token or JWT is an open standard used to securely transmit the
data between the parties in the form of the JSON object. The users are verified
and authorized using the private/public key pair.
o SAML
SAML stands for Security Assertion Markup Language. It is an open
standard that provides authorization credentials to service providers. These
credentials are exchanged through digitally signed XML documents.
o OpenID authorization
It helps the clients to verify the identity of end-users on the basis of
authentication.
o OAuth
OAuth is an authorization protocol, which enables the API to authenticate and
access the requested resources.

Difference chart between Authentication and Authorization

Authentication Authorization

Authentication is the process of Authorization is the process of giving

identifying a user to provide access to a permission to access the resources.
system.

In this, the user or client and server are In this, it is verified that if the user is
verified. allowed through the defined policies and
rules.

It is usually performed before the It is usually done once the user is

authorization. successfully authenticated.

It requires the login details of the user, It requires the user's privilege or security
such as user name & password, etc. level.

Data is provided through the Token Ids. Data is provided through the access
tokens.

Example: Entering Login details is Example: After employees successfully

necessary for the employees to authenticate themselves, they can access
authenticate themselves to access the and work on certain functions only as per
organizational emails or software. their roles and profiles.

Authentication credentials can be Authorization permissions cannot be

partially changed by the user as per the changed by the user. The permissions are
requirement. given to a user by the owner/manager of
the system, and he can only change it.
 Malware
Any• malicious software intended to harm or exploit any programmable device,
service, or network is referred to as malware. Cybercriminals typically use it to
extract data they can use against victims to their advantage in order to profit
financially. Financial information, medical records, personal emails, and
passwords are just a few examples of the types of information that could be
compromised.
In simple words, malware is short for malicious software and refers to any
software that is designed to cause harm to computer systems, networks, or users.
Malware can take many forms. It’s important for individuals and organizations to
be aware of the different types of malware and take steps to protect their systems,
such as using antivirus software, keeping software and systems up-to-date, and
being cautious when opening email attachments or downloading software from
the internet.
Malware is a program designed to gain access to computer systems, generally for
the benefit of some third party, without the user’s permission. Malware includes
computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, ransomware, spyware, and other
malicious programs.
Why Do Cybercriminals Use Malware?
1. Cybercriminals use malware, which includes all forms of malicious
software including viruses, for a variety of purposes.
2. Using deception to induce a victim to provide personal information for
identity theft
3. Theft of customer credit card information or other financial information
4. Taking over several computers and using them to launch denial-of-
service attacks against other networks
5. Using infected computers to mine for cryptocurrencies like bitcoin.

Types of Malware
1. Viruses – A Virus is a malicious executable code attached to another
executable file. The virus spreads when an infected file is passed from
system to system. Viruses can be harmless or they can modify or delete
data. Opening a file can trigger a virus. Once a program virus is active, it
will infect other programs on the computer.
2. Worms – Worms replicate themselves on the system, attaching
themselves to different files and looking for pathways between
computers, such as computer network that shares common file storage
areas. Worms usually slow down networks. A virus needs a host
 program to run but worms can run by themselves. After a worm affects
a host, it is able to spread very quickly over the network.
3. Trojan horse – A Trojan horse is malware that carries out malicious
operations under the appearance of a desired operation such as playing
an online game. A Trojan horse varies from a virus because the Trojan
binds itself to non-executable files, such as image files, and audio files.
4. Ransomware – Ransomware grasps a computer system or the data it
contains until the victim makes a payment. Ransomware encrypts data
in the computer with a key that is unknown to the user. The user has to
pay a ransom (price) to the criminals to retrieve data. Once the amount
is paid the victim can resume using his/her system
5. Adware – It displays unwanted ads and pop-ups on the computer. It
comes along with software downloads and packages. It generates
revenue for the software distributer by displaying ads.
6. Spyware – Its purpose is to steal private information from a computer
system for a third party. Spyware collects information and sends it to the
hacker.
7. Logic Bombs – A logic bomb is a malicious program that uses a trigger
to activate the malicious code. The logic bomb remains non-functioning
until that trigger event happens. Once triggered, a logic bomb
implements a malicious code that causes harm to a computer.
Cybersecurity specialists recently discovered logic bombs that attack
and destroy the hardware components in a workstation or server
including the cooling fans, hard drives, and power supplies. The logic
bomb overdrives these devices until they overheat or fail.
8. Rootkits – A rootkit modifies the OS to make a backdoor. Attackers
then use the backdoor to access the computer distantly. Most rootkits
take advantage of software vulnerabilities to modify system files.
9. Backdoors – A backdoor bypasses the usual authentication used to
access a system. The purpose of the backdoor is to grant cyber criminals
future access to the system even if the organization fixes the original
vulnerability used to attack the system.
10. Keyloggers – Keylogger records everything the user types on his/her
computer system to obtain passwords and other sensitive information
and send them to the source of the keylogging program.
How To Know If Our Devices Are Infected With
Malware?
The following are the most typical indications that malware has compromised
your computer:
1. Performing poorly on the computer by execution.
2. When your web browser directs you to a website you didn’t intend to
visit, this is known as a browser redirect.
3. Warnings about infections are frequently accompanied by offers to buy
a product to treat them.
 4. Having trouble starting or shutting down your computer.
5. Persistent pop-up ads.
How To Protect From Malware?
The good news is that there are just as many ways to protect yourself from
malware as there are different types of malware. Look at these top suggestions:
1. Protect your devices.
2. Update your operating system and software. Install updates as soon as
they become available because cybercriminals search for vulnerabilities
in out-of-date or outdated software.
3. Never click on a popup’s link. Simply click the “X” in the message’s upper
corner to close it and leave the page that generated it.
4. Don’t install too many apps on your devices. Install only the apps you
believe you will regularly use and need.
5. Be cautious when using the internet.
6. Do not click on unidentified links. If a link seems suspicious, avoid
clicking it whether it comes from an email, social networking site, or text
message.
7. Choose the websites you visit wisely. Use a safe search plug-in and try to
stick to well-known and reputable websites to avoid any that might be
malicious without your knowledge.
8. Emails requesting personal information should be avoided. Do not click
a link in an email that appears to be from your bank and asks you to do
so in order to access your account or reset your password. Log in
immediately at your online banking website.
How To Remove Malware?
As was already mentioned, a large number of security software programs are
made to both find and stop malware as well as to eliminate it from infected
systems.
An antimalware tool that handles malware detection and removal is
Malwarebytes. Malware can be eliminated from Windows, macOS, Android, and
iOS operating systems. A user’s registry files, currently running programs, hard
drives, and individual files can all be scanned by Malwarebytes. Malware can then
be quarantined and removed if it is found. Users cannot, however, set automatic
scanning schedules like they can with some other tools.

Advantages of Detecting and Removing Malware

1. Improved Security: By detecting and removing malware, individuals,
and organizations can improve the security of their systems and reduce
the risk of future infections.
2. Prevent Data Loss: Malware can cause data loss, and by removing it,
individuals and organizations can protect their important files and
information.
 3. Protect Reputation: Malware can cause harm to a company’s
reputation, and by detecting and removing it, individuals and
organizations can protect their image and brand.
4. Increased Productivity: Malware can slow down systems and make
them less efficient, and by removing it, individuals and organizations can
increase the productivity of their systems and employees.
Disadvantages of Detecting and Removing Malware
1. Time-Consuming: The process of detecting and removing malware can
be time-consuming and require specialized tools and expertise.
2. Cost: Antivirus software and other tools required to detect and remove
malware can be expensive for individuals and organizations.
3. False Positives: Malware detection and removal tools can sometimes
result in false positives, causing unnecessary alarm and inconvenience.
4. Difficulty: Malware is constantly evolving, and the process of detecting
and removing it can be challenging and require specialized knowledge
and expertise.
5. Risk of Data Loss: Some malware removal tools can cause unintended
harm, resulting in data loss or system instability.

Virtualization in Cloud Computing and Types

•
Virtualization is a technique how to separate a service from the underlying
physical delivery of that service. It is the process of creating a virtual version of
something like computer hardware. It was initially developed during the
mainframe era. It involves using specialized software to create a virtual or
software-created version of a computing resource rather than the actual version
of the same resource. With the help of Virtualization, multiple operating systems
and applications can run on the same machine and its same hardware at the same
time, increasing the utilization and flexibility of hardware.
In other words, one of the main cost-effective, hardware-reducing, and energy-
saving techniques used by cloud providers is Virtualization. Virtualization allows
sharing of a single physical instance of a resource or an application among multiple
customers and organizations at one time. It does this by assigning a logical name
to physical storage and providing a pointer to that physical resource on demand.
The term virtualization is often synonymous with hardware virtualization, which
plays a fundamental role in efficiently delivering Infrastructure-as-a-Service
(IaaS) solutions for cloud computing. Moreover, virtualization technologies
provide a virtual environment for not only executing applications but also for
storage, memory, and networking.
 Virtualization

• Host Machine: The machine on which the virtual machine is going to be

built is known as Host Machine.
• Guest Machine: The virtual machine is referred to as a Guest Machine.
Work of Virtualization in Cloud Computing
Virtualization has a prominent impact on Cloud Computing. In the case of cloud
computing, users store data in the cloud, but with the help of Virtualization, users
have the extra benefit of sharing the infrastructure. Cloud Vendors take care of the
required physical resources, but these cloud providers charge a huge amount for
these services which impacts every user or organization. Virtualization helps
Users or Organisations in maintaining those services which are required by a
company through external (third-party) people, which helps in reducing costs to
the company. This is the way through which Virtualization works in Cloud
Computing.

Benefits of Virtualization
• More flexible and efficient allocation of resources.
• Enhance development productivity.
• It lowers the cost of IT infrastructure.
• Remote access and rapid scalability.
• High availability and disaster recovery.
• Pay peruse of the IT infrastructure on demand.
• Enables running multiple operating systems.
Drawback of Virtualization
• High Initial Investment: Clouds have a very high initial investment,
but it is also true that it will help in reducing the cost of companies.
• Learning New Infrastructure: As the companies shifted from Servers
to Cloud, it requires highly skilled staff who have skills to work with the
cloud easily, and for this, you have to hire new staff or provide training
to current staff.
 • Risk of Data: Hosting data on third-party resources can lead to putting
the data at risk, it has the chance of getting attacked by any hacker or
cracker very easily.
For more benefits and drawbacks, you can refer to the Pros and Cons of
Virtualization.
Characteristics of Virtualization
• Increased Security: The ability to control the execution of a guest
program in a completely transparent manner opens new possibilities for
delivering a secure, controlled execution environment. All the
operations of the guest programs are generally performed against the
virtual machine, which then translates and applies them to the host
programs.
• Managed Execution: In particular, sharing, aggregation, emulation,
and isolation are the most relevant features.
• Sharing: Virtualization allows the creation of a separate computing
environment within the same host.
• Aggregation: It is possible to share physical resources among several
guests, but virtualization also allows aggregation, which is the opposite
process.
For more characteristics, you can refer to Characteristics of Virtualization.
Types of Virtualization
1. Application Virtualization
2. Network Virtualization
3. Desktop Virtualization
4. Storage Virtualization
5. Server Virtualization
6. Data virtualization

1. Application Virtualization: Application virtualization helps a user to have

remote access to an application from a server. The server stores all personal
information and other characteristics of the application but can still run on a local
workstation through the internet. An example of this would be a user who needs
to run two different versions of the same software. Technologies that use
application virtualization are hosted applications and packaged applications.
2. Network Virtualization: The ability to run multiple virtual networks with each
having a separate control and data plan. It co-exists together on top of one physical
network. It can be managed by individual parties that are potentially confidential
to each other. Network virtualization provides a facility to create and provision
virtual networks, logical switches, routers, firewalls, load balancers, Virtual
Private Networks (VPN), and workload security within days or even weeks.

3. Desktop Virtualization: Desktop virtualization allows the users’ OS to be

remotely stored on a server in the data center. It allows the user to access their
desktop virtually, from any location by a different machine. Users who want
specific operating systems other than Windows Server will need to have a virtual
desktop. The main benefits of desktop virtualization are user mobility, portability,
and easy management of software installation, updates, and patches.
4. Storage Virtualization: Storage virtualization is an array of servers that are
managed by a virtual storage system. The servers aren’t aware of exactly where
their data is stored and instead function more like worker bees in a hive. It makes
managing storage from multiple sources be managed and utilized as a single
repository. storage virtualization software maintains smooth operations,
consistent performance, and a continuous suite of advanced functions despite
changes, breaks down, and differences in the underlying equipment.
5. Server Virtualization: This is a kind of virtualization in which the masking of
server resources takes place. Here, the central server (physical server) is divided
into multiple different virtual servers by changing the identity number, and
processors. So, each system can operate its operating systems in an isolated
manner. Where each sub-server knows the identity of the central server. It causes
an increase in performance and reduces the operating cost by the deployment of
main server resources into a sub-server resource. It’s beneficial in virtual
migration, reducing energy consumption, reducing infrastructural costs, etc.

7. Data Virtualization: This is the kind of virtualization in which the data is

collected from various sources and managed at a single place without
knowing more about the technical information like how data is collected,
stored & formatted then arranged that data logically so that its virtual view
can be accessed by its interested people and stakeholders, and users
through the various cloud services remotely. Many big giant companies are
providing their services like Oracle, IBM, At scale, Cdata, etc.

Distributed Operating System

A distributed operating system (DOS) is an essential type of operating system.
Distributed systems use many central processors to serve multiple real-time
applications and users. As a result, data processing jobs are distributed between the
processors.

It connects multiple computers via a single communication channel. Furthermore, each

of these systems has its own processor and memory. Additionally,
these CPUs communicate via high-speed buses or telephone lines. Individual systems
that communicate via a single channel are regarded as a single entity. They're also
known as loosely coupled systems.

This operating system consists of numerous computers, nodes, and sites joined
together via LAN/WAN lines. It enables the distribution of full systems on a couple of
center processors, and it supports many real-time products and different users.
Distributed operating systems can share their computing resources and I/O files while
providing users with virtual machine abstraction.

Types of Distributed Operating System

There are various types of Distributed Operating systems. Some of them are as follows:

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1. Client-Server Systems
2. Peer-to-Peer Systems
3. Middleware
4. Three-tier
5. N-tier

Client-Server System
This type of system requires the client to request a resource, after which the server
gives the requested resource. When a client connects to a server, the server may serve
multiple clients at the same time.

Client-Server Systems are also referred to as "Tightly Coupled Operating Systems". This
system is primarily intended for multiprocessors and homogenous multicomputer.
Client-Server Systems function as a centralized server since they approve all requests
issued by client systems.

Server systems can be divided into two parts:

1. Computer Server System

This system allows the interface, and the client then sends its own requests to be
executed as an action. After completing the activity, it sends a back response and
transfers the result to the client.

2. File Server System

It provides a file system interface for clients, allowing them to execute actions like file
creation, updating, deletion, and more.

Peer-to-Peer System
The nodes play an important role in this system. The task is evenly distributed among
the nodes. Additionally, these nodes can share data and resources as needed. Once
again, they require a network to connect.

The Peer-to-Peer System is known as a "Loosely Couple System". This concept is used
in computer network applications since they contain a large number of processors that
do not share memory or clocks. Each processor has its own local memory, and they
interact with one another via a variety of communication methods like telephone lines
or high-speed buses.

Middleware
Middleware enables the interoperability of all applications running on different
operating systems. Those programs are capable of transferring all data to one other
by using these services.

Three-tier
The information about the client is saved in the intermediate tier rather than in the
client, which simplifies development. This type of architecture is most commonly used
in online applications.

N-tier
When a server or application has to transmit requests to other enterprise services on
the network, n-tier systems are used.

Features of Distributed Operating System

There are various features of the distributed operating system. Some of them are as
follows:

Openness
It means that the system's services are freely displayed through interfaces.
Furthermore, these interfaces only give the service syntax. For example, the type of
function, its return type, parameters, and so on. Interface Definition Languages are
used to create these interfaces (IDL).

Scalability

It refers to the fact that the system's efficiency should not vary as new nodes are added
to the system. Furthermore, the performance of a system with 100 nodes should be
the same as that of a system with 1000 nodes.

Resource Sharing

Its most essential feature is that it allows users to share resources. They can also share
resources in a secure and controlled manner. Printers, files, data, storage, web pages,
etc., are examples of shared resources.

Flexibility

A DOS's flexibility is enhanced by modular qualities and delivers a more advanced

range of high-level services. The kernel/ microkernel's quality and completeness
simplify the implementation of such services.

Transparency

It is the most important feature of the distributed operating system. The primary
purpose of a distributed operating system is to hide the fact that resources are shared.
Transparency also implies that the user should be unaware that the resources he is
accessing are shared. Furthermore, the system should be a separate independent unit
for the user.

Heterogeneity

The components of distributed systems may differ and vary in operating systems,
networks, programming languages, computer hardware, and implementations by
different developers.

Fault Tolerance

Fault tolerance is that process in which user may continue their work if the software or
hardware fails.

Examples of Distributed Operating System

There are various examples of the distributed operating system. Some of them are as
follows:

Solaris

It is designed for the SUN multiprocessor workstations

OSF/1

It's compatible with Unix and was designed by the Open Foundation Software
Company.

Micros

The MICROS operating system ensures a balanced data load while allocating jobs to
all nodes in the system.

DYNIX

It is developed for the Symmetry multiprocessor computers.

Locus

It may be accessed local and remote files at the same time without any location
hindrance.

Mach

It allows the multithreading and multitasking features.

Applications of Distributed Operating System

There are various applications of the distributed operating system. Some of them are
as follows:

Network Applications

DOS is used by many network applications, including the Web, peer-to-peer networks,
multiplayer web-based games, and virtual communities.

Telecommunication Networks

DOS is useful in phones and cellular networks. A DOS can be found in networks like
the Internet, wireless sensor networks, and routing algorithms.
Parallel Computation

DOS is the basis of systematic computing, which includes cluster computing and grid
computing, and a variety of volunteer computing projects.

Real-Time Process Control

The real-time process control system operates with a deadline, and such examples
include aircraft control systems.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Distributed

Operating System
There are various advantages and disadvantages of the distributed operating system.
Some of them are as follows:

Advantages
There are various advantages of the distributed operating system. Some of them are
as follow:

1. It may share all resources (CPU, disk, network interface, nodes, computers, and
so on) from one site to another, increasing data availability across the entire
system.
2. It reduces the probability of data corruption because all data is replicated across
all sites; if one site fails, the user can access data from another operational site.
3. The entire system operates independently of one another, and as a result, if one
site crashes, the entire system does not halt.
4. It increases the speed of data exchange from one site to another site.
5. It is an open system since it may be accessed from both local and remote
locations.
6. It helps in the reduction of data processing time.
7. Most distributed systems are made up of several nodes that interact to make
them fault-tolerant. If a single machine fails, the system remains operational.

Disadvantages
There are various disadvantages of the distributed operating system. Some of them
are as follows:
1. The system must decide which jobs must be executed when they must be
executed, and where they must be executed. A scheduler has limitations, which
can lead to underutilized hardware and unpredictable runtimes.
2. It is hard to implement adequate security in DOS since the nodes and
connections must be secured.
3. The database connected to a DOS is relatively complicated and hard to manage
in contrast to a single-user system.
4. The underlying software is extremely complex and is not understood very well
compared to other systems.
5. The more widely distributed a system is, the more communication latency can
be expected. As a result, teams and developers must choose between
availability, consistency, and latency.
6. These systems aren't widely available because they're thought to be too
expensive.
7. Gathering, processing, presenting, and monitoring hardware use metrics for big
clusters can be a real issue.