GTU-GSET 5/2/2024

Advance Steel Design

Subject Code: 3722007
8th Lecture
Dr. Kaushik Gondaliya
Assistant Professor,
Graduate School of Technology and Engineering,
Gujarat Technological Engineering,
Chandkheda, Ahmedabad - 382424.

Course Contents
• Properties of Steel: (5%)
• Mechanical Properties, Hysteresis, Ductility.
• Compactness and noncompactness, slenderness, residual stresses.
• Plastic Behavior of Structural Steel: (15%)
• Introduction
• Plastic theory
• Plastic hinge concept
• Plastic collapse load, conditions of plastic analysis
• Theorem of Plastic collapse
• Methods of Plastic analysis

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Course Contents
• Design of Industrial Buildings: (20%)
• Introduction, selection of bay width, structural framing, purlins, girts and eave
strut, plane trusses
• Design of gantry girders
• Design of Cold-Formed Sections: (25%)
• Advantages, stiffened and unstiffened elements,
• local buckling and post buckling strength, shear lag and flange curling,
• unusually wide flange section, short span sections, members subjected to axial
tension, compression and bending.
• Design of beams and columns,
• Introduction to pre-engineered buildings using cold formed sections.

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Course Contents
• Design of Steel Stacks: (20%)
• Introduction
• Proportioning of stack, Codal provisions
• Loads on Stacks, Load combinations, Stresses in Self-supporting stacks
• Design procedure for self-supporting stacks, Guyed steel stacks
• Design of Composite Structures: (15%)
• Composite Floor and Roof System Design, Composite beam
• Open web steel joist / joist girder, Serviceability requirements

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Grading
• Two Quizzes (30% each) (Before and after mid-term)
• Mid-term Exam (30%)
• Final Exam (30%)
• Homework and Assignments (10%)

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Contents
• Design of Cold-Formed Sections: (25%)
• Advantages, stiffened and unstiffened elements,
• Local buckling and post buckling strength, shear lag and flange curling,
• Unusually wide flange section, short span sections, members subjected to axial
tension, compression and bending.
• Design of beams and columns,
• Introduction to pre-engineered buildings using cold formed sections.

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Introduction
• Thin sheet steel products are used in building industry and range from
purlins to roof sheeting and floor decking , Generally these are
available for use as basic building elements for assembly at site or as
prefabricated frames or panels.
• These thin steel sections are cold-formed, i.e. their manufacturing
process involves forming steel sections in a cold state (i.e. without
application of heat) from steel sheets of uniform thickness.
• These are called as Cold Formed Steel Sections.

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Introduction
• These sections are also called Light Gauge Steel Sections or Cold
Rolled Steel
• These are generally used for light and moderate loads and for
structural members of short lengths.
• Cold formed steel (CFS) members are made from structural quality
sheet steel that are formed into shape either through press-braking
blanks, sheared from sheets or coils, or more commonly, by roll
forming the steel through a series of dies. (No heat is required )
• It is thinner, lighter, easier to produce, cheaper then hot-rolled section.
• Thickness of steel sheet is varied from 0.4 mm to 25 mm.

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Forming method
• The common cold rolled products are coils and sheets.
• Cold rolled sheets could be made as thin as 0.3 mm. Cold-forming is a
process by which the sheets (hot rolled / cold rolled) are folded in to
desired section profile by a series of forming rolls in a continuous train
of roller sets.
• Such thin shapes are impossible to be produced by hot rolling. These
cold formed sheet steels are basically low carbon steels (<0.1 %
carbon).

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Forming method
• There are generally three methods used in the manufacture of cold-
formed
1. Cold roll forming
2. Press brake operation
3. Bending brake operation

1) Cold Roll Forming :-

• The method of cold roll forming has been widely used for the
production of building components such as individual structural
members and some roof, floor, and wall panels and corrugated sheets.
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Forming method
2) Press Brake :-
• The press brake operation may be used under the following conditions:
1. The section is of simple configuration.
2. The required quantity is less than about 300
linear ft /min (91.5 m/min).
3. The section to be produced is relatively wide
[usually more than 18 in. (457mm)] such as
roof sheets and decking units.
• The equipment used in the press brake operation consists essentially of a
moving top beam and a stationary bottom bed on which the dies applicable
to the particular required product are mounted.

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Forming method
3) Bending brake operation :-
• Most shops that process heavy-gage materials use press brakes. Light-
gage metal typically forms through bending machines.
• In bending brake machine a workpiece placed between upper and
lower dies forms through the force and pressure exerted by lowering
the ram. It is a specialized type of press consisting of a long, narrow
ram and bed. Manufacturers offer press brakes in a variety of sizes and
capabilities
• In Bending dies comprise the bulk of press-brake tooling, other tooling
performs punching, countersinking, and embossing operations.
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Some of the manufacturer are in India

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Shapes
• The shapes of cold-formed sections used in industrial applications are
necessarily shaped to meet the specific requirement of the loading
conditions and the utility.
• Most common sections in building applications are C & Z sections
with wide variation in their original forms to enhance the efficiency of
these sections with use of lips and stiffeners.

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Comparison
Hot rolled Cold formed
section section
Thicker than cold- Thinner than hot-rolled
formed sections sections

Local instabilities are Behavior is necessarily

not exhibited characterized by local
instabilities

No post buckling Local buckling is

strength helped by post
buckling strength

Manufacturing process • Manufacturing

involves heat treatment process does not
involve heat .

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Hot rolled Cold formed

section section
Cross sectional shapes
Close tolerances are are formed to close
not possible. & tolerances and these can
Also sections change be consistently repeated
per batch. for as long as required.

Limited types of
Cold rolling can be
shapes can be
employed to produce
produced.
almost any desired shape
Also weight limits
to any desired length.
its to Length.

High strength to weight ratio High strength to weight

as compared to reinforced ratio is achieved in
concrete but not as high as cold-rolled products.
cold-formed sections.

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Application
1. Roof and Wall members Partitions
2. Purlins and Side railing 10.Space Trusses
3. Light Steel Framing 11. Infill Walling and Over-Cladding
4. Housing 12. Prefabricated Modular Buildings
5. Lintels 13. Frameless Steel Buildings
6. Floor Joists 14. Storage Racking
7. Systems for Commercial Buildings 15. Composite Decking
8. Roof Trusses
9. Stud-Walling - Separating Walls and

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Advantages
• Advantages of using cold-formed sections are :
1. Long span compatibility and capacity to form shape to suit specific
application.
2. Dimensional accuracy.
3. Long term durability in internal environments.
4. Freedom from long term creep and shrinkage.
5. Ease of construction, as members are delivered to site cut to length and
with pre-punched holes, requiring no further fabrication.
6. Ability to be fabricated into sub-frames as wall panels etc.
7. Robustness (sturdy), but sufficiently light for site handling.

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Advantages
• The most striking benefits of all forms of light steel framing are
 speed of construction
 ease of handling
 savings in site supervision
 elimination of wastage in site
 elimination of shrinkage and movement of cracks
 greater environmental acceptability
 less weather dependency
 high acoustic performance
 high degree of thermal insulation

Definition & its codal Provision

1) Stiffened & Unstiffened Compression Elements :-
• An unstiffened element is one, which is supported along one
longitudinal edge only with the other parallel edge being free to
displace.
• An element which is supported by webs along both its longitudinal
edges is called a stiffened element.

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• An intermittently stiffened element is made of a very wide thin

element which has been divided into two or more narrow sub elements
by the introduction of intermediate stiffeners, formed during rolling.
• An Element that is stiffened between webs, or between a web and a
stiffened edge by means of intermediate stiffeners which are parallel to
the direction of stress.
• A sub-element is the portion between adjacent stiffeners or between
web and intermediate stiffener or between edge and intermediate
stiffener.

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Behavior of cold formed steel

A) BEHAVIOUR OF THIN PLATES IN COMPRESSION
1) Elastic Buckling
• The behavior of cold-formed sections is governed by the local buckling phenomenon. Due to high
width to thickness ratios, the sections undergo local deformation before yielding.
• There exists post-buckling strength on account of which the sections continues to take load without
failure.
• This Local buckling is an extremely important aspect of cold formed steel sections as very thin
elements used will invariably buckle before yielding.
• Thinner the plate, the lower will be the load at which the buckles will form. Full compression
resistance of a perfectly flat plate supported on two longitudinal edges can be developed for a w/t
ratio of about 40.

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• At greater widths, buckles form elastically causing a loss in overall

compressive strength of plate. This is due to the inability of the more
flexible central portion to resist as much compression as the outer
portions.
• Critical compressive stress at which elastic buckling of the plate
occurs is given by

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2) Post-Critical Behavior :-
• The elastic local buckling phenomenon occurs preferentially in flat width
ratio range of 30 to 60, as the elements are not purely flat and a state of non-
uniform stress exists throughout the loading regime. But for the flat width
ratios exceeding 60, the inplane tension stresses develop which resist further
buckling, and zone of compression yielding from the longitudinal supports
to covering a greater width of elements.
• These post-critical effects cause an effective load-carrying capacity of wide
plate relative to a value as given by above mention Equation Due to high
width to thickness ratios, the sections undergo local deformation before
yielding.
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• There exists post-buckling strength on account of which the sections

continues to take load without failure.
3) Effective Width Concept
• The effects of local buckling can be evaluated by using the concept of
effective width.
• Lightly stressed regions at centre are ignored, as these are least
effective in resisting the applied stresses. Regions near the supports are
far more effective and are taken to be fully effective.
• The section behavior is modeled on the basis of the effective width
(beff) sketched

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• This effective width, (beff) multiplied by the edge stress (ƒ) is the same
as the mean stress across the section multiplied by the total width (b)
of the compression member.
• The effective width of an element under compression is dependent on
the magnitude of the applied stress (Fc), the width/thickness ratio of
the element and the edge support conditions

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B) Behavior of web
• The behavior of webs of cold-formed sections’ is quite important from the
design and effectiveness point of view.
• Webs generally are subjected to and are affected by
1) web shear
2) web bending
3) web crushing & crippling
1) Web shear:-
• Slender webs normally buckle due to transfer of shear from web section
incapable of transfer and fail due to shear buckling usually initiated by
eccentric load not along plane of web.

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• Normally the limiting height to width ratio of web will suffice for light
loads along with limiting the average shear stress to 0.6 Fy as which
the shear yielding occurs.
2) Web bending :-
• The webs are subjected to maximum stresses at their junction with the
compression flanges. Thus, it must be noted that in very deep webs the
web sections can also be affected by the local buckling phenomenon,
hence reducing the net effective section of the web as well like
compression flanges.
• This quite differs from the normal section under compression, as the
stress is varying along the depth of the web section.
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3) Web crushing & crippling :-

• Web crippling at points of concentrated loads and supports can be a
critical problem in cold-formed steel structural members and sheeting
for the following reasons,
1. In cold-formed design, it is often not practical to provide load
bearing and end bearing stiffeners. This is always the case in
continuous sheeting and decking spanning several support points.
2. The depth to thickness ratios of the webs are usually much larger.
3. In many cases the webs are inclined rather than vertical.

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4. The load is generally applied to the flange, which causes the load to
be eccentric to the web and causes the initial bending in the web
even before crippling takes place.
• The larger the corner radius the larger the effect of web crippling.

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3) Behavior in flexure :-
a) Lateral torsional buckling
• Lateral buckling will not occur if the beam under loading bends only
about the minor axis.
• If the beam is provided with lateral restraints, capable of resisting a
lateral force of 3% of the maximum force in the compression flange,
the beam may be regarded as restrained and no lateral buckling will
occur.
• In case of cold-formed steel sections, they have low torsional stiffness
as they are thin.

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• Many of the sections produced by cold-forming are generally of singly

symmetric nature. Hence, the shear centre does not coincide the
centroidal axis at which they are loaded.
• If the section would have been loaded along the shear centre axis there
would have been only flexural bending.
• The thin flanges tend to buckle in bending compression and result in
overall lateral buckling with twisting. This phenomenon is specifically
know as flexural torsional buckling.

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Homework
1. Explain in detail the Lateral Buckling Phenomenon of Cold-Formed
Beams.
2. Explain in detail the typical stress-strain properties of Cold Formed
Steel Sheet.
3. Discussed in details about the pre-engineered steel building concept.

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7th Assignment
1. Determine the allowable axial load for the column consisting of cold
formed hollow rectangular section having outer dimension 180 mm
x 100 mm and thickness 2 mm. Consider yield strength 240 MPa.
The effective length of column is 3.8 m.
2. Determine the allowable bending moment for the section consisting
of two lipped cold formed channel sections 200 x 80 x 15 x 1.2
formed of a beam, which is laterally supported at interval of 1.5 m
by taking Cb = 1.0. Take fy = 240 N/mm2 and E = 2 x 105 N/mm2

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7th Assignment
3. Write Short Note on Stiffened and Unstiffened Cold Formed Steel
Elements. Also, Write the advantage of cold form section.
4. Explain in detail the typical stress-strain properties of Cold Formed
Steel Sheet.
5. Explain in detail the Lateral Buckling Phenomenon of Cold-Formed
Beams.
6. Write short note on failure criteria for cold formed beams.

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7th Assignment
7. Find the allowable load for the rectangular tubular column section
shown in figure. The effective length of column is 3.6 m. Take fy =
235 N/mm2

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Thank you!!!

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