 an accelerated rate (by using many frequencies) when its time slot begins Data

is stored at receiver and played back at original slow rate

 It is worth noting, however, that only one node is actually using the channel at
any given time for the duration of a time slot.

Advantages of TDMA

Here is a list of few notable advantages of TDMA −

 Permits flexible rates (i.e. several slots can be assigned to a user, for example, each time
interval translates 32Kbps, a user is assigned two 64 Kbps slots per frame).
 Can withstand gusty or variable bit rate traffic. Number of slots allocated to a user can be
changed frame by frame (for example, two slots in the frame 1, three slots in the frame 2, one
slot in the frame 3, frame 0 of the notches 4, etc.).
 No guard band required for the wideband system.
 No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.

Disadvantages of TDMA

The disadvantages of TDMA are as follow :

 High data rates of broadband systems require complex equalization.
 Due to the burst mode, a large number of additional bits are required for synchronization
and supervision.
 Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to inaccuracies (due to clock
instability).
 Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption.
 Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within short slots.

CDMA

• CDMA is a spread spectrum (SS)–based scheme that allows multiple communicating

nodes to transmit simultaneously. Spread spectrum is a radiofrequency modulation technique in
which the radio energy is spread over a much wider bandwidth than that needed for the data
rate.

Advantages of CDMA

 One of the main advantages of CDMA is that dropouts occur only when the phone is
at least twice as far from the base station. Thus, it is used in the rural areas where
GSM cannot cover.
 Another advantage is its capacity; it has a very high spectral capacity that it can
accommodate more users per MHz of bandwidth.

Disadvantages of CDMA

 Channel pollution, where signals from too many cell sites are present in the
subscriber. s phone but none of them is dominant. When this situation arises, the
quality of the audio degrades.
 When compared to GSM is the lack of international roaming capabilities.
  The ability to upgrade or change to another handset is not easy with this technology
because the network service information for the phone is put in the actual phone
unlike GSM which uses SIM card for this.
 Limited variety of the handset, because at present the major mobile companies use
GSM technology.

1. Demand Assignment protocol

 The main objective of demand assignment protocols is to improve channel

utilization by allocating the capacity of the channel to contending nodes in an
optimum fashion.
 Demand assignment protocols ignore idle nodes and consider only nodes that are
ready to transmit.
 The channel is allocated to the node selected for a specified amount of time, which
may vary from a fixed-time slot to the time it takes to transmit a data packet.
 Demand assignment protocols may be further classified as:
- centralized
- distributed.
 Polling schemes are representative of centralized control
- whereas token- and reservation-based schemes use distributed control.

2. Random Assignment Protocols

 Random assignment strategies attempt to reduce problem occur in fixed assignment

strategy by eliminating pre allocation of bandwidth to communicating nodes.
 Random assignment strategies do not exercise any control to determine which
communicating node can access the medium next. Furthermore, these strategies do
not assign any predictable or scheduled time for any node to transmit.
 All backlogged nodes must contend to access the transmission medium. Collision
occurs when more than one node attempts to transmit simultaneously. To deal with
collisions, the protocol must include a mechanism to detect collisions and a scheme to
schedule colliding packets for subsequent retransmissions.
UNIT 1
MCQ QUESTION

1. What kind of Protocol is used to provide Internet access from mobile?

A. TCP/IP

B. ISD

C. WAP

D. HTTP

2. An average latency is a wireless network is around ……..but can be as high as ….

A . ½ second, 10 seconds

B. 1 second, 12 seconds
 C. 1 minute, 5 minutes

D. 1 hour, 12 hours

3 .What is the full form of SIM?

A. Station Identity Module

B System Identity Module

C. Subscriber Identity Module

D. None of the above

4 .What language is used in Mobile computing?

A. XML

B. WML

C. DHTMLL

D. XHTML

5. The main aim of the file system is to support________

A. Transparent access to data

B.Efficient access to data

C .Consistent access to data

D .All of the above

6. In a distributed system, a client sends the request, and the server provides_____
A. Data

B. Service

C. Information

D. All of the above

7. Which of the following can be considered as the primary function of snooping TCP?
A. To buffer data close to the mobile host to perform fast local retransmission in case of
packet loss.

B. Congestion control

C. Flow control
D. None of the above

8. Mobile Computing allows transmission of data from one wireless-enabled device to

another_
A. Any device

B.Wired device

C. Wireless-enabled device

D. one of the above

9 .Which of the following is a fundamental principle of wireless communication?

A. Electromagnetic waves

B. Microwaves

C. Both A and B

D. None of the above

10. Which of the following is supported data rates of 4G Networks?

A. 1024kbps

B. 100mbs

C. 200mbps

D. None of the above

11. One Tier Architecture __________. Select correct option:

A. The entire processing may take place at individual terminal.
B The entire processing may take place at different terminal.
C. The entire processing may not take place at individual terminal.
D. None of Above
12. One Tier Architecture __________. Select correct option:
A. The entire processing may take place at individual terminal.
B The entire processing may take place at different terminal.
C. The entire processing may not take place at individual terminal.
D. None of Above

13. One Tier Architecture __________. Select correct option:

A. The entire processing may take place at individual terminal.
B The entire processing may take place at different terminal.
C. The entire processing may not take place at individual terminal.
D. None of Above

14. Mobile computing is defined as

a. Internet access and billions of embedded processors that have to communicate.
b. Many mechanisms in the network and inside the device have to make sure that
communication is still possible.
c. None of the above
d. A technology that allows transmission of data, via a computer, without having to be
connected to a fixed physical link.
15. Location dependent services are
a. Follow-on services
b. All of the above
c. Privacy ,Information services
d.Location aware services, Support services
16.What is authentication centre (AuC)in GSM
a.The mobile network which allows the carrier or network operator to confirm the location
b. Process of exchanging information between a SIM
c.To protect user identity and data transmission

d. None of the above

17. What is authentication centre (AuC)in GSM
a.The mobile network which allows the carrier or network operator to confirm the location
b. Process of exchanging information between a SIM
c.To protect user identity and data transmission

d.None of the above

18. One of the following is benefit of Code division multiplex is

a.Throughput high even for many users
b. Dynamic coordination is necessary
c.Protection against tapping
d. Protection against interference and tapping

19. The multiple satellite access technique suitable only for digital transmission is the

A. CDMA
B. TDMA
C. FDMA
D. Both TDMA and FDMA
20. In which one of the following codes with specific characteristics can be applied to the
transmission?

A. CDMA
B. GPRS
C. GSM
D. All of the above

21. Which of the following uses wireless as the mode of communication for transferring or
exchanging data between various mobiles over a short-range?

A. Ad hoc computing
B. Mobile computing
C. Bluetooth technology
D. None of the above

22. Mobile Computing allows transmission of data from one wireless-enabled device to
another_

A. Any device
B. Wired device
C. Wireless-enabled device
D. one of the above

23. Which of the following can be considered as the drawbacks of the Mobile and Wireless
Devices?

A. Smaller keypads
B. Consumes power rapidly
C. Requires a big power source
D. All of the above

24. In general, a mobile computing environment can also be considered as the type of
__________ environment.

A. Grid computing
B. Mobile computing
C. Distributed computing
D. None of the above

25. Which of the following is a fundamental principle of wireless communication?

A. Electromagnetic waves
B. Microwaves
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above

26. The term TDM stands for___.

A. Time Division Multiplexing

 B. Transfer Multiplexing
C. Tedious Division Multiplexing
D. None of the above

27. In which of the following, the single-channel has the ability to carry all transmissions
simultaneously?

A. In the Code Division, Multiple Access (or CDMA)

B. In the Time Division Multiple Access (or TDMA)
C. In the Frequency Division Multiple Access (or FDMA)
D. None of the above

28. In which one of the following times is specifically divided into several time slots that are
in the fixed patterns?

A. CDMA
B. TDMA
C. FDMA
D. All of the above

29.The minimum spectrum allocation required for W-CDMA is

a. 5MHz
b. 2MHz
c. 500KHz
d. 100KHz

30.CDMA2000 1xEV provides high speed data access with channel allocation of

a. 5 MHz
b. 50 MHz
c. 1.25 MHz
d. 4 MHz

5 MARK

1. EXPLAIN ABOUT APPLICATION OF MOBILE COMPUTING?

2. WHAT IS RANDOM ASSIGNMENT SCHEMES.

3. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MOBILE COMPUTING VS WIRELESS

NETWORKING?

4. EXPLAIN THE RESERVATION BASED SCHEMES?

10 MARK
 1. EXPLAIN BRIEFLY MOBILE COMPUTING.

2. EXPLAIN THE MAC PROTOCOLS?

3. WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERSTICS OF MOBILE COMPUTING.

4. EXPLAIN ABOUT STRUCTURE OF MOBILE COMPUTING

UNIT 1 COMPLETED

UNIT II

Why Mobile IP?

 What do cellular networks and wireless LANs provide?

 Wireless connectivity
 Mobility at the data link layer
 What is Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)?
 It provides local IP addresses for mobile hosts
 Is not secure
 Does not maintain network connectivity when moving around
 What they do not provide:
 Transparent connectivity at the network layer
 Mobility with local access
 The difference between mobility and nomadicity.
What is Mobile IP?
 Mobile IP provides network layer mobility
 Provides seamless roaming
 ‘‘Extends’’ the home network over the entire Internet

Overview of Mobile IP
 IP Addressing :
- Dotted Decimal Notation: 32 bits (4x8) used to represent IPv4
addresses - 192.19.241.18
- Network Prefix and Host Portions: p - prefix, h - host, p + h = 32.
If p = 24 then h = 32 - 24 = 8. Using above address the network prefix will be 192.19.241
and host will be 18.
For those of you familiar with subnet masks, “p” represents the number
of 1’s in the subnet mask. If p = 24, subnet mask is 255.255.255.0, if p = 26, subnet mask is
255.255.255.192. 5
 IP Routing:
- Network prefix is used for routing. Routing tables are used to look
up next hop and the interface on the router that is to be used.
- In the routing tables we use the following notation: target/prefix
length, e.g., 192.19.241.0/24, or 192.19.241.192/26.
- If two subnet masks/prefixes fit the address, the one with the largest
prefix is chosen for routing. E.g., a router with the following 3 entries in its table:
7.7.7.99/32 (p=32 host specific) and 7.7.7.0/24 (0<pp<32 network prefix) and 0.0.0.0/0
(p=0 default) will use entry 2 for an IP packet with destination 7.7.7.1 and entry 3 for
destination 192.33.14.12
 Domain Name System (DNS): used to translate a host name to an IP address.
A host sends a query to a server to obtain the IP address of a destination of which it only
has the host name.
 Link Layer Addresses - Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):
- Once a host has the IP address of a destination it then needs to finds its
layer 2 address or the layer 2 address of the next hop on the path. A broadcast message is
sent and the targeted host responds with its layer 2 address.
- A proxy ARP is a response by a node for another node that cannot
respond at the time the request is made (e.g. the node is a mobiel node and not on its host
net at the time, its home agent will respond in its stead).
- A gratuitous ARP, is a reply to no ARP request, used by a node that just
joins the network and wants to make its address known. Can be used by a mobile node
upon its return to its home net.
Motivation for Mobile IP
 IP Routing
- based on IP destination address, network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42)
determines physical subnet
 - change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a
topologically correct address (standard IP) or needs special entries in the routing
tables
 Specific routes to end-systems?
- requires changing all routing table entries to forward packets to the right
destination
- does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent changes in
the location, security problems
 Changing the IP-address?
- adjust the host IP address depending on the current location
- almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take long time
- TCP connections break, security problems

Requirements to Mobile IP
 Transparency
- mobile end-systems keep their IP address
- continuation of communication after interruption of link possible
- point of connection to the fixed network can be changed
 Compatibility
- support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP
- no changes to current end-systems and routers required
- mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems
 Security
- authentication of all registration messages
 Efficiency and scalability
- only little additional messages to the mobile system
required(connection typically via a low bandwidth radio link)
- world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the
whole Internet
Mobile IP Terminology
1. Mobile Node (MN)
- system (node) that can change the point of connection to the network
without changing its IP address
2. Home Agent (HA)
- system in the home network of the MN, typically a router
- registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the
COA
3. Foreign Agent (FA)
- system in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a
router
- forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the
default router for the MN
 4. Care-of Address (COA)
- address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or
MN)
- actual location of the MN from an IP point of view
- can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP
5. Correspondent Node (CN)
- communication partner

Mobile IP Features
 Allows a host to be reachable at the same address, even as it changes
its location
 makes it seem as one network extends over the entire Internet
 continuous connectivity, seamless roaming even while network
applications are running
 fully transparent to the user
Key Mechanism in Mobile IP
 Home Agents and Foreign Agents advertise their presence on
any attached links by periodically multicasting or broadcasting special Mobile IP
messages called Agent Advertisements
  Mobile Nodes listen to these Agent Advertisements and
examine their contents to determine whether they are connected to their home link
or a foreign link
 A Mobile Node connected to a foreign link acquires a care-of
address. A foreign agent care-of address can be read from one of the fields within
the foreign agent’s Agent Advertisement.
 A collocated care-of address must be acquired by some
assignment procedure, such as Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), the
Point-to-Point Protocol’s IP Control Protocol (IPCP), or manual configuration.
 The mobile IP Registers the care-of address acquired previously with
its home agent, using a message-exchange defined by Mobile IP. It asks for service
from a Foreign Agent, if one is present on the link. In order to prevent Denial-of-
Service attacks, the registration messages are required to be authenticated
 The Home Agent or some other router on the home link
advertises reachability to the network-prefix of the Mobile Node’s home address, thus
attracting packets that are destined to the Mobile Node’s home address. The Home
Agent intercepts these packets, and tunnels them to the care-of address that the mobile
node registered previously
 At the care-of address – at either the Foreign Agent or one of
the interfaces of the mobile node itself – the original packet is extracted from the
tunnel and then delivered to the Mobile Node
 In the reverse direction, packets sent by the Mobile Node are
routed directly to their destination, without any need for tunneling. The Foreign Agent
serves as a default router for all packets generated by visiting node.
Route Optimization
1. Triangle Routing: tunneling in its simplest form has all packets go to home
network (HA) and then sent to MN via a tunnel.
- This involves two IP routes that need to be set-up, one original and the
second the tunnel route.
- Causes unnecessary network overhead and adds to the latency.
2. Route optimization: allows the correspondent node to learn the current location
of the MN and tunnel its own packets directly. Problems arise with
 mobility: correspondent node has to update/maintain its cache.
 authentication: HA has to communicate with the correspondent node to
do authentication, i.e., security association is with HA not with MN.
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
 Resulted from a coordinated effort by the U.S. Department of
Defense (DOD)
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)
- Charged with creating a wide area network (WAN)
- Results were TCP/IP and ARPANET
DOD funded two projects
- The adaptation of TCP/IP to work with UNIX
 - The inclusion of the TCP/IP protocol with Berkeley UNIX (BSD
UNIX)
 Reliable, full-duplex, connection oriented, stream delivery
 Interface presented to the application doesn’t require data in
individual packets
 Data is guaranteed to arrive, and in the correct order without
duplications
 Or the connection will be dropped
 Imposes significant overheads
 The TCP/IP model explains how the protocol suite works to
provide communications
 Four layers: Application, Transport, Internetwork, and
Network Interface
 Requests for Comments (RFCs)
- Define, describe, and standardize the implementation and
configuration of the TCP/IP protocol suite.

Application Layer
- Protocols at the TCP/IP Application layer include:
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
 Network File System (NFS)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 Terminal emulation protocol (telnet)
 Remote login application (rlogin)
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
 Domain Name System (DNS)
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Transport Layer
- Performs end-to-end packet delivery, reliability, and flow control
- Protocols:
TCP provides reliable, connection-oriented communications between two
hosts
Requires more network overhead
UDP provides connectionless datagram services between two hosts
Faster but less reliable
Reliability is left to the Application layer
 Ports
TCP and UDP use port numbers for communications between host.
Port numbers are divided into three ranges:
Well Known Ports are those from 1 through 1,023
Registered Ports are those from 1,024 through 49,151
Dynamic/Private Ports are those from 49,152 through 65,535
Adaption of TCP Window
 TCP sliding windows
 Control the flow and efficiency of communication
 Also known as windowing
- A method of controlling packet flow between hosts.
- Allows multiple packets to be sent and affirmed with a single
acknowledgment packet.
 The size of the TCP window determines the number of
acknowledgments sent for a given data transfer
 Networks that perform large data transfers should use large window
sizes
 Other flow control methods include
 Buffering
 Congestion avoidance

Internetwork Layer
- Four main protocols function at this layer
 Internet Protocol (IP)
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
-ARP
 A routed protocol
  Maps IP addresses to MAC addresses
 ARP tables contain the MAC and IP addresses of other devices on
the network
Network Interface Layer
-Plays the same role as the Data Link and Physical layers of the OSI model
-The MAC address, network card drivers, and specific interfaces for the
network card function at this level
-No specific IP functions exist at this layer
-Because the layer’s focus is on communication with the network card and
other networking hardware.

Improving TCP/IP Performance Over Wireless Networks

Snoop-TCP
-A (snoop) layer is added to the routing code at BS which keep track of
packets in both directions
-Packets meant to MH are cached at BS, and if needed, retransmitted in the
wireless link
-BS suppress DUPACKs sent from MH to FH
-BS use shorter local timer for local timeout
-Changes are restricted to BS and optionally to MH as well
-E2E TCP semantics is preserved
Disadvantages
-End-to-end semantics is not followed
-MSR sends an ack to the correspondent but loses the packet to the
mobile host
-Copying overhead at MSR

Conclusion
I-TCP particularly suited for applications which are throughput intensive.
 UNIT II

1. 1. What layer in the TCP/IP stack is equivalent to the Transport layer of the OSI model?
a) Application
b) Host to host
c) Internet
d) Network Access

2. You want to implement a mechanism that automates the IP configuration, including IP

address, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS information. Which protocol will you use to
accomplish this?
a) SMTP
b) SNMP
c) DHCP
d) ARP

3. The DoD model (also called the TCP/IP stack) has four layers. Which layer of the DoD
model is equivalent to the Network layer of the OSI model?
a) Application
b) Host to Host
c) Internet
d) Network Access

4. Which of the following protocols uses both TCP and UDP?

a) FTP
b) SMTP
c) Telnet
d) DNS

5. Length of Port address in TCP/IP is _________

a) 4bit long
b) 16bit long
c) 32bit long
d) 8 bit long

6. TCP/IP layer is equivalent to combined Session, Presentation and _________

a) Network layer
b) Application layer
c) Transport layer
d) Physical layer

7. How many levels of addressing is provided in TCP/IP protocol?

a) One
b) Two
c) Three
d) Four

8. Virtual terminal protocol is an example of _________

a) Network layer
b) Application layer
c) Transport layer
d) Physical layer

9. TCP/IP is related to __________

a) ARPANET
b) OSI
c) DECNET
d) ALOHA
10. A device operating at network layer is called __________
a) Router
b) Equalizer
c) Bridge
d) Repeater

11. A device operating at physical layer is called __________

a) Router
b) Equalizer
c) Bridge
d) Repeater

12. TCP supports many of the Internet’s most popular application protocols and resulting
applications, including the –

a. World Wide Web,

b. e-mail
c. File Transfer Protocol and Secure Shell
d. All of the above

13. In the Internet protocol suite, TCP is the intermediate layer between the —–
a. Internet layer and application layer
b. Mobile laver and application layer
c. Transport layer and application layer
d. Session layer and application layer
14. The major responsibilities of TCP in an active session are to:
a. Provide reliable in-order transport of data
b. Control congestions in the networks
c. Control a packet flow between the transmitter and the receiver
d. All of the above
15. In TCP protocol to mitigate congestion, TCP —————–the transmission rate
dramatically.
a. Stop the transmission
b. Wait to resolve the congestion
c. Slows down
d. None of the above
16. The behavior of TCP shows after the detection of congestion is called
a. Slow start
b. Slows down
c. Wait to restart
d. None of the above
17. In TCP during the slow start doubling the congestion window, every time
acknowledgments come back until reaching the congestion threshold is called
a. The exponential growth of the congestion window
b Doubling the growth of the congestion window
c. Linear growth of the congestion window
d. None
18. As soon as the congestion window reaches the congestion threshold, further increase of
the transmission rate is only linear by adding ……… to the congestion window each time the
acknowledgments come back.
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. None of the above
19. In TCP/IP, ———————— is a congestion control algorithm that makes it possible to
quickly recover lost data packets.
a. fast retransmit and fast recovery
b. Fast retransmit
c. Fast recovery
d. None of the above
20. Due to packet loss due to transmission error the sender can now retransmit the missing
packet(s) before the timer expires. This behavior is called
a. Fast retransmit
b. Fast recovery
c. Congestion control
d. None
21. Problems with Traditional TCP in wireless environments is/are
a. Slow Start mechanism in fixed networks decreases the efficiency of TCP if used with
mobile receivers or senders.
b. Error rates on wireless links are orders of magnitude higher compared to fixed fiber or
copper links. This makes compensation for packet loss by TCP quite difficult.
c. Mobility itself can cause packet loss. There are many situations where a soft handover
from one access point to another is not possible for a mobile end-system.
d. All of the above
22. Indirect TCP segments a TCP connection into a fixed part and a ——-
a. wireless part
b. wired part
c. either wireless part or wired part
d. None of the above
23. In I-TCP a suitable place for segmenting the connection is at the …………………… as it
not only controls the mobility of the mobile host anyway and can also hand over the
connection to the next foreign agent when the mobile host moves on.
a. Router
b. Home agent
c. Foreign agent
d. Access point
24. Disadvantages of I-TCP includes –
a. Loss of end-to-end semantics
b. Higher latency possible
c. Security issues
d. All of the above
25. In the I TCP the Foreign Agent (FA) becomes or acts as a —— and relays data in both
directions
a. Proxy
b. Router
c. Node
d. Access point
26. Which of the following buffers data close to the mobile host to perform fast local
retransmission in case of packet loss.
a. Indirect TCP
b. Snooping TCP
c. Foreign agent
d. None of the following
27. A new enhancement, which leaves the TCP connection intact and is completely
transparent, is ———–
a. Mobile TCP
b. Snooping TCP
c. I TCP
d. None
28. M-TCP is specially adapted to the problems arising from lengthy or frequent ————–
a. Delay packet
b. Packet loss
c. disconnections
d. None
29. In which of the following the sender can now determine precisely which packet is needed
and retransmit it?
a. I TCP
b. M TCP
c. Selective transmission
d. None of the above
30. An endpoint of an inter-process communication flow across a computer network is called
__________
a) socket
b) pipe
c) port
d) machine

5 MARK
 1. Explain about Features Of Mobile IP.
2. Describe Route Optimization.
3. What is Key Mechanism In Mobile IP?

10 MARK
1. Define Architecture Of TCP / IP.
2. Explain Adaptation Of TCP Window?
3. Describe about Overview Of IP
4. Define Improvement In TCP performance?

UNIT II COMPLETED

UNIT III
GSM

GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is an open and digital
cellular technology used for mobile communication. It uses 4 different frequency bands of
850 MHz, 900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz . It uses the combination of FDMA and
TDMA. This article includes all the concepts of GSM architecture and how it works.

GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM :

 Macro : In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is installed.

 Micro : In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the average roof level.
 Pico : Small cells’ diameter of few meters.
 Umbrella : It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between cells) regions.

Features of GSM are :

 Supports international roaming

 Clear voice clarity
 Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
 Spectral / frequency efficiency
 Low powered handheld devices.
 Ease of accessing network
 International ISDN compatibility.
 Low service cost.

New features and services.

GSM is nothing but a larger system which is divided into further 3 subsystems.

1. BSS : BSS stands for Base Station Subsystem. BSS handles traffic and signaling between a
mobile phone and the network switching subsystem. BSS having two
components BTS and BSC.

2. NSS : NSS stands for Network and Switching Subsystem. NSS is the core network of
GSM. That carried out call and mobility management functions for mobile phone present in
network. NSS have different components like VLR, HLR and EIR.

3. OSS : OSS stands for Operating Subsystem. OSS is a functional entity which the network
operator monitor and control the system. OMC is the part of OSS. Purpose of OSS is to
offer the customer cost-effective support for all GSM related maintenance services.

Suppose there are 3 Mobile stations which are connected with the tower and that tower is
connected to BTS through TRX, then further connected to BSC and MSC. Let’s understand
the functionality of different components.

1. MS : MS stands for Mobile System. MS comprises user equipment and software needed
for communication with a mobile network. Mobile Station (MS) = Mobile Equipment(ME)
+ Subscriber Identity Module (SIM). Now, these mobile stations are connected to tower and
that tower connected with BTS through TRX. TRX is a transceiver which comprises
transmitter and receiver. Transceiver has two performance of sending and receiving.

2. BTS : BTS stands for Base Transceiver Station which facilitates wireless communication
between user equipment and a network. Every tower has BTS.

3. BSC : BSC stands for Base Station Controller. BSC has multiple BTS. You can consider
the BSC as a local exchange of your area which has multiple towers and multiple towers have
BTS.

4. MSC : MSC stands for Mobile Switching Center. MSC is associated with communication
switching functions such as call setup, call release and routing. Call tracing, call forwarding
all functions are performed at the MSC level. MSC is having further components like VLR,
HLR, AUC, EIR and PSTN.

 VLR : VLR stands for Visitor Location Register. VLR is a database which contains the
exact location of all mobile subscribers currently present in the service area of MSC.
If you are going from one state to another state then your entry is marked into the
database of VLR.
 HLR : HLR stands for Home Location Register. HLR is a database containing
pertinent data regarding subscribers authorized to use a GSM network.. If you
purchase SIM card from in the HLR. HLR is like a home which contains all data like
your ID proof, which plan you are taking, which caller tune you are using etc.
 AUC : AUC stands for Authentication Center. AUC authenticates the mobile
subscriber that wants to connect in the network.
 EIR : EIR stands for Equipment Identity Register. EIR is a database that keeps the
record of all allowed or banned in the network. If you are banned in the network then
you can’t enter the network, and you can’t make the calls.
 PSTN : PSTN stands for Public Switched Telephone Network. PSTN connects with
MSC. PSTN originally a network of fixed line analog telephone systems. Now almost
entirely digital in its core network and includes mobile and other networks as well as
fixed telephones. The earlier landline phones which places at our home is nothing but
PSTN.

5.OMC : OMC stands for Operation Maintenance Center. OMC monitor and maintain the
performance of each MS, BSC and MSC within a GSM system.

Three subsystem BSS, NSS and OSS are connected with each other via some interfaces.
Total three interfaces are there:

o Air Interface : Air interface is also known as UM interface. Interface between MS

and BTS is called as UM interface because it is mobile analog to the U interface of
ISDN.
o AbisInterface : It is a BSS internal interface linking with BTS and BSC.
o A interface : It provides communication between BSS and MSC.
Services of GSM:

1. Bearer services/ data services:

GSM specifies different mechanism for data transmission, The original GSM
allowing for data rates of up to 9600 bits/s.

Bearer services permit transparent or non transparent data transmission.

1 A. Transparent bearer services:

Transparent bearer services only use the physical layer to transmit data. Data
transmission has a constant delay at throughput if no transmission error occurs.

1 B. Non-transparent bearer services:

Non-transparent bearer services use protocols of layer two and three two three to
implement error correction and flow control.(data link layer and network layer).

2.Tele services:

Tele services are nothing but we use now as at also.

 Video calls.
 Video text and face emoji.
 short text message(SMS).

3.Supplementary services:

supplementary services it means advanced services.

 Conference calls.
 Call waiting.
 Call forwarding.

GSM security:

GSM offers several security using confidential information stored in the AUC and in the
individual SIM.

The SIM stores personal secret data and is protected with a pin against unauthorized use.

Advantages:

1. Compatibility: GSM is widely used around the world, so it is compatible with many
different networks and devices.

2. Security: GSM offers enhanced security features such as authentication, encryption and
confidentiality, which helps to protect the user’s privacy and data.
3. Efficient use of bandwidth: GSM uses a time-division multiplexing (TDM) technique
which enables many users to share the same frequency channel at different times, making it
an efficient use of the available bandwidth.

4. Roaming: GSM allows users to roam internationally and use their mobile phones in other
countries that use the same GSM standard.

5. Wide range of features: GSM supports a wide range of features, including call
forwarding, call waiting, voicemail, conference calling, and more.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited coverage: GSM networks may have limited coverage in some remote areas, which
can make it difficult for users to make calls or access the internet.

2. Network congestion: GSM networks may become congested during peak hours, which
can lead to dropped calls or poor call quality.

3. Security vulnerabilities: Although GSM offers enhanced security features, it is still

vulnerable to certain types of attacks, such as eavesdropping and spoofing.

4. Data transfer speed: GSM networks offer relatively slow data transfer speeds compared
to newer technologies such as 3G and 4G.

5. Limited capacity: GSM networks have a limited capacity for handling large volumes of
data, which can be a disadvantage for users who require high-speed internet access or other
data-intensive applications.

Hence, this is the complete architecture and functionalities of GSM components

What Is GPRS?

General packet radio service (GPRS) is defined as a mobile communications standard that
operates on 2G and 3G cellular networks to enable moderately high-speed data transfers
using packet-based technologies.
How GPRS Establishes a Connected Mobile Environment for IoT Applications

General packet radio service (GPRS) is essentially a packet-switching technology

that allows information to be transmitted via mobile networks. This is utilized for internet
connectivity, multimedia messaging service, and other types of data transmission.

GPRS is supported by GPRS cellphones, as well as laptops and handheld devices

equipped with GPRS modems. Subscribers have reported downstream bandwidths of up to 80
Kbps.

GPRS could be employed to facilitate connections related to Internet protocols

which provide a set of functions including commercial and enterprise applications.

Before the transmission, the information is split into individual packets and routed
through the core network and radio. At the receiver’s end, the data is reattached.

The global system for mobile communications (GSM) is the primary standard for
the second generation (2G) cellular network, while GPRS is an improved version. GPRS is
not like GSM’s short messaging service (GSM-SMS), which has a message length limit of
160 bytes.

GPRS has a theoretical maximum speed of 115 kbps, although most networks
operate at roughly 35 kbps. GPRS is sometimes known as 2.5G unofficially. It’s a third-
generation route to gain availability on the internet.

GPRS can operate from either symmetric or asymmetric configuration, whereas

frequency for either direction is determined by which one of the 12 multislot provider classes
are chosen. The number of time slots for every path is determined by the multislot service
class, for every time slot propping up a theoretical connection speed of 21.4 kbps.

One of the most basic is service class 1, which allows a one-time slot for each path.
Service class 12 is by far the most proficient, with four-time slots in every direction.

GSM-IP stands for global-system mobile communications internet protocol and is

also another name for GPRS. It ensures that customers are connected, making audio calls and
browsing the internet.

This method enables packet radio access to even time division multiple access
(TDMA) customers. GPRS also allows network operators to deploy an IP-based core
architecture for integrated audio and data applications, which can be used and improved for
3G networks.

GPRS used to be the fastest network-accessible option – this has, however,

changed in terms of speed and dependability, as both 3G and 4G networks surpass it.
However, it is still used in several areas, particularly rural regions and emerging nations that
have not ventured into other more sophisticated technology.

When a GPRS network is available, most smartphones might use it, albeit those
used to better connections will notice the considerably slower bandwidth and long waits.

How Does GPRS Work?

GPRS adds several new essential features to aid the end-to-end transmission of IP-
based data packets. The GSM standards created GPRS, which resulted in a structure with
specified attributes, interfaces, and inter-network operations for roaming assistance.

GPRS enhances the architecture of the GSM standard to enable packetized

communication services at speeds up to 114 kbit/s in reality. Data transmission uses the
network whenever it is essential because of the packet transfer mode.

As a result of the GPRS standard, users could be paid based on the volume
exchanged instead of the connection length, allowing them to remain connected without
incurring further charges.

GPRS enables network operators to have a more effective method to distribute data
to their customers by removing the requirement to use speech channels for data transmission.
Customers get four times the rate for the most typical dial-up connections when using a
GPRS connection.

The overall average speed of dial-up data services is 9.6 kbps, whereas GPRS
speeds range from 40 to 172.2 kbps. Users can also access rich media applications and
information using GPRS connectivity. It is not necessary to download any data to view or use
it. As a result, GPRS technology is suitable for cellphone internet use. Because of the GPRS
network, one can access rich media apps via mobile networks.

Further, because of circuit-switched data speed constraints and the 160-character

short message service (SMS) limit, many applications were previously inaccessible in GSM
networks. The GPRS system enables mobile services to use apps that have been previously
only available on desktop laptops and computers. This unlocks a slew of new technological
and creative potential.

GPRS networks can also allow for internet access. It suggests that online services
such as web surfing, email, chat, and file transfer protocol (FTP) could be accessible via cell
phones. The GPRS connection could be seen as a sub-network of the Internet because it uses
similar protocols, and GPRS phones could be regarded as mobile hosts since they are using
the same methods.

GPRS operates on cell phones, laptops, and other portable devices with a GPRS
modem or a GPRS Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card. A GPRS modem is ideal for
sending and receiving messages from a computer.

This packet-based platform was one of the first to offer multimedia messaging and
push-to-talk features, similar to a walkie-talkie. However, GPRS devices are rarely capable of
transmitting longer voice recordings.

GPRS technology, for instance, couldn’t allow individuals to send a given text to a
transcription system since the audio files became too huge to be transferred at acceptable
rates.

The idea of Quality of Service (QoS) is incorporated into GPRS. It refers to the
capacity to adapt a service to the requirements of an app. The following QoS conditions apply
– priority, reliability, delay, and throughput. The inclusion of new network nodes called GSN
(GPRS support nodes) situated on a backbone network is required to integrate GPRS into a
GSM architecture:

The SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node) is a router that controls the locations of
nearby stations and offers a packet transit interface to the GGSN portal. It is in charge of
GPRS mobile device authentication, network registration, mobility management, and data
collection on pricing for using the air interface.

A gateway that connects to other data networks is the GGSN (Gateway GPRS
Support Node). The GGSN is responsible for delivering an IP address to the mobile terminals
throughout the connection. It connects to external networks as both a router and an interface.
 It comprises GPRS cellular routing information, which is used to route packets
through the IP-based internal backbone to the appropriate Serving GPRS Support Node. The
GGSN could also operate as a packet filter for incoming traffic and record pricing data
related to external internet services.

GPRS wireless packet data has three main characteristics:

 An always-online function that eliminates the need for dial-up, enabling programs
accessible with just one click.
 The upgraded usual systems mean that carriers do not have to update their equipment;
instead, GPRS is put on top of the current equipment.
 An essential part of future 3G networks, meaning the packet data core network for 3G
systems EDGE and WCDMA, GPRS is a necessary foundation for the future.

GPRS provides the services listed below:

 Broadcasting and SMS messaging

 Cellular-based push-to-talk
 Presence and instant messaging
 Service for multimedia messaging
 Services such as point-to-point and point-to-multipoint

Advantages and Challenges of GPRS

Compared to the original GSM system, GPRS technology provides various perks
and advantages to users and network providers. Companies commonly used this to create
precise data capabilities using mobile communications technology. Let’s take a look at some
of the benefits of GPRS.
Benefits of GPRS

1. Billing made simple

When compared to circuit-switched services, GPRS packet transfer offers better consumer
billing. When it comes to circuit-switched services, the cost is determined by the length of the
connection. One of the significant disadvantages of circuit switching for IoT is cost-
efficiency. The connection length determines the subscriber’s operating costs in the circuit
switch.

Now suppose you’re using an asset tracking system or a remote sensor. One should
preferably keep these gadgets in ‘always-on’ mode. On the other hand, these products are
only designed to transmit or receive information somewhat irregularly. Each subscriber is
responsible for the entire cost of airtime, including during times when no packets have been
sent.

2. Increased speed

A significant advantage of the GPRS system is that it provides a higher data rate than GSM.
GSM was designed to transmit data at approximately 14.4 kbit/s at first. Over the 2G
network, GPRS, on the other hand, provided data speeds up to 86kbit/s. It made matters like
streaming and gaming possible for customers. It allowed for monitoring in enterprises.

Rates of up to 172 kbps are feasible. However, top data speeds of 15 to 40 kbps are
achievable in most scenarios. 2G or 3G with GPRS is typically a theoretically acceptable fit if
all you need is slow, occasional data transfers.

3. “Always-on” connectivity
Another benefit of GPRS is that it is always available. A GPRS connection can provide
constant Internet connectivity, quick messaging, and improved SMS transfers. It was also the
fastest network ever seen when it was first launched. For example, with a standard Global
System for Mobile Communications technology, somebody could transmit only 10 SMSs per
minute.

On the other hand, somebody could transmit three times as many messages a minute while
using SMS-boosted GPRS transfer. Costs depend on how often a circuit has been used over
time and whenever circuit-switched procedures have been used. The expenses of packet-
switched technology are computed above any volumes of information transmitted, which
would be consumed by the provider’s bandwidth. Always-on connectivity is enabled
simultaneously.

Despite the benefits of GPRS technology, several drawbacks may deter some clients. GPRS
retains a stronghold on the people despite its flaws. The following are the disadvantages of
GPRS:

Disadvantages of GPRS

1. Sunsetting of 2G and 3G

Because of the GPRS protocol, both 2G and 3G networks have proven to be quite successful
in supporting IoT projects over a previous couple of decades. On the other hand, new
networks are putting more strain on the limited radio frequency (RF) bandwidth.

Carriers have already begun to turn off existing 2G and 3G networks to make place for the
new networks, with the pace set to pick up in the coming years. Users will have to change
technology at a certain point. Now would be the time to evaluate and plan for changes to the
current 2G and 3G IoT networks to prevent a last-minute scramble.
2. Limited cell capacity

GPRS is technically adequate for most IoT use cases, but not all. 2G or 3G with GPRS is
typically a theoretically acceptable fit if all you need is slow, occasional data transfers.
However, for data-intensive applications, the existing cell capacity of a system is impacted by
GPRS.

There are only a few radio resources that one can use for various purposes. Voice and GPRS
calls, for example, share similar network services. The magnitude of the impact is determined
by the number of timeslots set for GPRS use only.

3. Risk of slower speeds

To achieve the maximum possible GPRS data transmission speed of 172.2 kbps, all eight
timeslots should be taken over by an individual user with no error safety. The supported data
rates (171.2/384 Kbps) are slower than the current wireless protocols such as HSPA, LTE,
LTE-advanced, and so on.

A network operator is unlikely to enable one GPRS customer to occupy all time slots.
Furthermore, the first GPRS terminals are projected to be highly constrained, with only one,
two, or three time slots being supported.

Top 8 Applications of GPRS

GPRS provides various unique services to wireless mobile subscribers and business users,
and some of them supply users with higher-value services. Non-voice mobile services like
GPRS enable a wide range of business and consumer applications, and we’ll show you which
ones are best for you. Some of these aspects are listed below:

Mobility: GPRS allows for continuous voice and data connectivity while moving.

Immediacy: GPRS allows subscribers to connect whenever they want. Users don’t need to be
concerned about their location or where they are signed in.

Localization: GPRS provides data about the available facility based on their current position.

Various potential applications are now being developed for users by leveraging the
aforementioned three features. These GPRS applications include the following:

1. Communication

Communication applications appear as mobile communication systems solely to obtain

messages or data. In contrast to applications where consumers think they are using a service
offered or conveyed by the network provider. They include; fax, e-mail, intranet/internet
access, and unified messaging, among other things.

2. Value-added services
Apps that give information services and other games, for example, are considered value-
added services. It only refers to the content offered by telecom companies to boost the quality
of their services to customers. Push and pull are two concepts widely used in GPRS-based
information delivery, as explained below.

Push refers to sending information at a specific moment or in particular circumstances. It can

refer to the uninvited distribution of advertising.

Pull refers to the customer’s demand for information in real-time. This content must have
specific properties to be valuable to subscribers: This content must have particular properties
to be helpful to subscribers. With relevant information, personalized information is tailored to
user-specific needs.

Two examples of tailored information sent through GPRS are a market ticker that focuses on
crucial quotes and news and an e-commerce application that knows a user’s profile.

3. E-commerce

E-commerce can be described as business conducted over the Internet or through a data
system. It would only involve applications in which an agreement is formed over the network
connection, including when buying goods and services and online banking applications, due
to the common criteria of the consumer-authentication process and secure transmission of
personal information.

It includes retail apps like ticket purchases, banking apps, and financial trading, among other
things. Applications include navigation, traffic updates, airline/rail schedules, and location
finders, among other services.

4. Vertical applications

Vertical applications in the mobile context refer to platforms that use mobile frameworks to
aid the achievement of the desired tasks in a company’s value chain, compared to
applications that are then sold to a customer. Vertical applications that run using GPRS
include:

Sales support-providing stock and product data to sales representatives and integrating any
use of appointment details and distant order placement

Dispatching which entails communication of scope of work such as location and work
schedules; allowing data interrogation to assist the work

Fleet management, including fleet tracking or service personnel and location tracking, and
work schedule

Parcel delivery involves tracking package locations for user feedback and performance
evaluation

5. Advertising
Thanks to GPRS, companies can provide advertising services in the form of a push-type
information service. They could provide consumers advertising to help offset the costs of
voice or other data services. Lastly, advertising could be location sensitive, such as when a
customer enters a shopping center and receives advertising uniquely tailored to the shops
within specific malls.

6. Telematics and location-based services.

Location-based services enable consumers to link push or pull information services to their
current location. Telematics technology is built on GPRS frameworks, and hotel and
restaurant locators, roadside assistance, and city-specific news and information are some
examples. One can also find vertical applications in this technology, including workforce
management and vehicle tracking.

7. Consumer applications of GPRS

Weather, traffic, entertainment, the stock market, travel schedules, and other consumer
applications that use data on demand all rely on GPRS. This also includes money transfers,
which require immediate contact with the network provider for administrative data like
statements, bill reminders, or new services. The rise of mobile application security is also due
to the proliferation of GPRS.

8. Remote operations

By pressing a button on a terminal, a truck driver can transmit a consumer invoice back to the
corporation. Without a phone call, a fashion designer traveling in another nation turns on her
digital assistant and gets a couple of megabytes of fresh designs with a “beep.” These
qualities assist individuals in performing their occupations more effectively. And GPRS, with
its expanded data transfer abilities, will be the medium for doing so.

What Is UMTS?

UMTS or Universal Mobile Telecommunications Framework, is the 3G successor to the

GSM family of measures counting GPRS and EDGE. 3G UMTS employments a completely
diverse radio interface based around the utilize of Coordinate Grouping Spread Range as
CDMA or Code Division Multiple Access. Although 3G UMTS employments a completely
distinctive radio get to standard, the center arrange is the same as that utilized for GPRS and
EDGE to carry partitioned circuit exchanged voice and bundle data.

UMTS employments a wideband adaptation of CDMA possessing a 5 MHz wide channel.

Being more extensive than its competition CDMA2000 which as it was utilized a 1.25MHz
channel, the tweak conspire was known as wideband CDMA or WCDMA/W-CDMA. This
title was regularly utilized to allude to the total framework. It could be a frame of media
transmission utilized for remote gathering and transmission. It is an advancement in speed
boost from the more seasoned 2G standard of transmission speed and can increment
information transmission times between gadgets and servers.

UMTS Applications

 Streaming / Download (Video, Audio)

 Videoconferences.
 Fast Internet / Intranet.
 Mobile E-Commerce (M-Commerce)
 Remote Login
 Background Class applications
 Multimedia-Messaging, E-Mail
 FTP Access
 Mobile Entertainment (Games)

Features of UMTS

 UMTS could be a component of IMT-2000 standard of the Universal

Broadcast communications Union (ITU), created by 3GPP.
 It employments wideband code division multiple access (W-CDMA)
discuss interface.
 It gives transmission of content, digitized voice, video and multimedia.
 It gives tall transmission capacity to portable operators.
 It gives a tall information rate of 2Mbps.
 For High-Speed Downlink Parcel Get to (HSDPA) handsets, the data-rate
is as tall as 7.2 Mbps within the downlink connection.
 It is additionally known as Flexibility of Mobile Multimedia Access
(FOMA).

Advantages of UMTS

UMTS could be a successor to 2G based GSM advances counting GPRS and EDGE .
Gaining a 3rd title 3GSM since it could be a 3G relocation for GSM

Support 2Mbit/s information rates.

Higher Information rates at lower incremental costs.

Benefits of programmed universal wandering also necessarily security and charging

capacities, permitting administrators emigrate from 2G to 3G whereas holding numerous of
their existing back-office frameworks

Gives administrators the adaptability to present unused mixed media administrations to trade
clients and buyers

This not as it were gives client a valuable phone but moreover deciphers higher incomes for
the administrator.
Disadvantages of UMTS

It is more expensive than GSM.

Universal Mobile Telecommunication System has poor video experience.

Universal Mobile Telecommunication System still not broadband.

UMTS

Universal mobile telecommunication system (UMTS) is defined as the third-generation

(3G) mobile network built on the global GSM standard, compatible with data transfer up
to 2 Megabits per second.

UMTS is popularly known as a third-generation (3G) cellular network. It was seen as a better
cellular technology for data transfer than its predecessor, the GSM technology, which used
GPRS and EDGE data services, primarily due to its speed of transfer and operation.

It is a pioneering wireless radio technology associated with third-generation (3G) cellular

networks. AT&T first deployed it in North America in the early 2000s, and its use spread
globally over the next few years.

Today, UMTS is used interchangeably with 3G. Unlike global system for mobile
communications (GSM) – which was widely used before the deployment of UMTS – UMTS
offers faster data transfer, improved cellular capabilities, greater range/bandwidth, and better
radio spectrum efficiency.
 This ensures a better method of transferring data and a better customer experience.
Although UMTS uses code division multiple access (CDMA) technology, it has a broader
bandwidth than other CDMA systems, e.g., CDMA2000. So, it is sometimes referred to as
wideband CDMA or WCDMA.

CDMA is a channel access network that allows multiple transmitters to transmit

information over a single communication channel simultaneously. Wideband CDMA was
effective in the transfer of ‘data packets’ over the air from one user to the other, unlike GSM,
which worked using a mix of frequency division multiple access (FDMA) and time division
multiple access (TDMA) as its communication services.

The frequency spectrum is broken down into smaller channels in GSM communication
and then distributed based on time slots. This was not convenient for simultaneously
transferring large amounts of information. Hence, big corporations sought a better
technology, so UMTS was born.

Despite Its increased functionality, UMTS was not created to serve as a replacement
for the GSM system but to act as a complementary technology. This ensures that one can use
both network technologies in the same devices if they were made to access either network.
Due to the need for better wireless connectivity of the Internet of Things (IoT) devices,
UMTS has been widely applied due to its lesser cost, better customer experience, wide
bandwidth, reliability, speed, and ease of application. UMTS also introduced more cellular
capabilities like video streaming and mobile television, but significantly, a higher data
transfer rate.

How Does UMTS Work?

A mobile network of the UMTS can be divided into three major parts – user equipment, the
access network, and the core network. These parts are linked and work together to transfer
data through the UMTS mobile network.

1. The user equipment

The user equipment is divided into the mobile station, which is the device itself and the SIM
card, which describes the U-SIM or universal subscriber identity module. The mobile station
cannot transmit signals without the U-SIM. The U-SIM performs three main functions, which
include:

Holding of a subscriber’s identity

Performing authentication algorithms

Storing authentication and encryption keys

2. The access network

The access network consists of towers to which the mobile station connects. These towers are
known as Node B, intermediates between the mobile station and the rest of the mobile
network. There can be one or more Node Bs depending on the size of the network.

Another essential component of the access network is the radio network controller (RNC).
This is where the intelligence of the access network lies. It processes the data gotten from
Node B connected to it. The Node B and RNC composite structure is known as UMTS
terrestrial radio access network (UTRAN).

The interface between the mobile station and the Node B is based on the air Wideband
CDMA technology (WCDMA). When Node B receives information from the Radio Network
Controller, it spreads it by multiplying it with the CDMA code, modulates it, and then sends
the information to the mobile station. If the data comes from the mobile station, it must
undergo despreading and demodulation at Node B before it gets to the RNC.

Node B also handles error correction between the station and RNC. The RNC also acts as an
admission controller. For instance, if a mobile station (e.g., a phone) wants to transmit
through a voice call, and a particular Node B is congested with other connected devices, the
RNC gives it a new CDMA code to connect it to an available Node B.

Also, since UMTS also sends information in the form of packets of data, like voice calls over
Skype, the RNC regulates the bit rate and speed of transmission to ensure hitch-free
transmission as this is a real-time activity. If the application is not a real-time activity – such
as downloading a file – if a particular Node B is congested, the RNC reduces the bit rate of
other devices that do not require real-time feedback.

3. The core network

This is the backbone network. It consists of a circuit-switched (CS) domain and packet-
switched (PS) domain. The circuit-switched domain is the part of the network responsible for
voice calls, while the packet-switched domain is responsible for carrying the packet data. The
packet-switched domain takes care of the internet services. The CS and PS domains consist
of various databases that hold information necessary for running the system

UNIT III

1) A GPRS Network is a part of ____ in GSM network.

A) BTS B) BSS C) NSS D) VLR
2) Which is the organization providing standards for GPRS network?
A) ANSI B) ETSI C) 3GPP D) UMTS
3) Which is the main protocol that transfers packets in a GPRS Core network?
A) GTP B) SSTP C) SCTP D) None
4) A GPRS Network works same in _____.
A) 2G B) 3G C) 2G and /or 3G D) 4G
5) The Gb interface in a GRPS network uses which protocol?
A) Frame Relay B) IP C) Frame Realy or IP protocol D) None
6) The Gd interface in a GPRS network uses which protocol?
A) MAP 1 (MAP- Message Application Protocol) B) MAP 2
C) MAP 3 D) All MAP1, MAP2 and MAP3
7) The Ge interface between SGSN and Service Control Point(SCP) uses which
protocol?
A) MAP 1 B) IP C) CAP (Camel Application Protocol) D) None
8) The Gr interface in a GRPS network uses which protocol?
A) MAP1 B) MAP2 C) MAP3 D) None
9) The Ga interface in a GRPS network uses which protocol?
A) MAP B) CAP C) Frame Relay D) GTP (GPRS Tunneling Protocol)
10) GPRS stands for?
A) General Packet Repair Service B) General Packet Radio Service
C) Graphics Packet Radio Service D) None
11) What is the data rate or speed offered by a GPRS connection?
A) 56-115kbps B) 9-256kbps C) 64-128kbps D) None
12) GPRS services belong to which generation?
A) 1G B) 2G C) 3G D) 4G
13) Choose a correct abbreviation below.
A) SGSN - Serving GPRS Support Node B) GGSN - Gateway GPRS Support
Node
C) IP - Internet Protocol D) All
14) Choose a correct Abbreviation below.
A) PCU - Packet Control Unit B) CG - Charging Gateway
C) BG - Border Gateway D) All
15) Choose a correct Abbreviation below.
A) PCU - Packet Control Unit B ) CCU - Channel Codec Unit
C) GTP - GPRS Tunneling Protocol D) All
16) GPRS is a Connection Oriented service. True/False?
A) False B) True
17) GPRS is a Circuit Switched Data (CSD) service. True/False?
A) False B) True
18) GPRS uses which unused channels for transportation of Data in general?
A) SDCCH B) BCCH C) TCH D) SCH
19) Type-A Mobile Station supports ________.
A) Only Speech B) Only Data
C) Speech and Data Simultaneously D) Speech or Data one at a time.
20) Type-B Mobile Station supports _______.
A) Speech only B) GPRS only
C) GPRS or Speech One at a time D) GPRS and Speech simultaneously
21) Type-C Mobile Station supports _______.
A) Speech only B) Data only
C) Speech and Data simultaneously D) Speech or Data automatically
22) What is the abbreviation of EDGE?
A) Enhanced Digital Generation Gap B) Enhanced Data rate for GSM
Evolution
C) Encryption Data rate for GSM Evolution D) None
23) What is the maximum speed offered by an EDGE connection?
A) 64kbps B) 128kbps C) 256kbps D) 236 kbps
24) An EDGE connection is ______?
A) CS data B) PS data C) CS and PS data D) None
25) A PCU separates Packet Switched and Circuit Switched traffic and passes PSD to
_______?
A) MSS B) SGSN C) GGSN D) None
26) In a GPRS network, SGSN is the equivalent of ______ system in GSM.
A) BSC B) MSC C) VLR D) GMSC
27) What are the functions of a CCU?
A) Power Control B) Timing Advance C) Coding algorithms D) All
28) GPRS Roaming from one SGSN to another SGSN is offered by ?
A) GMSC B) GGSN C) HLR D) VLR
29) Which is the system in GPRS that connects to External Networks using GTP?
A) SGSN B) HLR C) GGSN D) GMSC
30) What are the functions of SGSN in a GPRS Architecture?
A) Authentication, Authorization, Ciphering
B) GTP tunneling to GGSN, Charging (Billing), Session management
C) Mobility manage, interaction with HLR, MSC/VLR, NMS interface
D) All
31) What are the functions of GGSN of a GPRS network?
A) Charging (Billing), Filter user traffic
B) Routing mobile originated traffic, GTP Tunneling to SGSN
C) Interface external networks
D) All
32) A DNS (Domain Name Server) converts Host Name or Website name to _____?
A) Packets B) Bytes C) IP address D) None
33) A BG(Border Gateway) connects to ______ using Tunneling.
A) Same operator's GPRS network B) Different operator's
GPRS network
C) Same or different operator GPRS N/W D) None
34) Which system in a GPRS architecture collects all Charging (Billing) records for
final processing?
A) SGSN B) GGSN C) CH (Charging Gateway) D) None
35) A GPRS network contains Firewalls to _______?
A) Hack phones B) Intercept phones C) Protection from Virus D)
None
36) An LIG(Legal Interception Gateway) in a GPRS network provides ________ .
A) Parallel access to law agencies B) Eavesdrop user sessions
C) Sample packets to get information D) All

5 MARK
1. EXPLIAN THE MOBILE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM.
2. BRIEFLY EXPLAIN THE GSM?

10 MARK
1. WRITE ABOUT THE GPRS.
2. WHAT IS UMTS AND BRIEFLY?

UNIT III COMPLETED

UNIT IV

Introduction of Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET)

MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network also called a wireless Adhoc
network or Adhoc wireless network that usually has a routable networking environment on
top of a Link Layer ad hoc network.. They consist of a set of mobile nodes connected
wirelessly in a self-configured, self-healing network without having a fixed infrastructure.
MANET nodes are free to move randomly as the network topology changes frequently. Each
node behaves as a router as they forward traffic to other specified nodes in the network.
MANET may operate a standalone fashion or they can be part of larger internet.
They form a highly dynamic autonomous topology with the presence of one or multiple
different transceivers between nodes.
The main challenge for the MANET is to equip each device to continuously
maintain the information required to properly route traffic. MANETs consist of a peer-to-
peer, self-forming, self-healing network MANET’s circa 2000-2015 typically communicate
at radio frequencies (30MHz-5GHz).
This can be used in road safety, ranging from sensors for the environment,
home, health, disaster rescue operations, air/land/navy defense, weapons, robots, etc.
Characteristics of MANET –
 Dynamic Topologies:
Network topology which is typically multihop may change randomly and rapidly with
time, it can form unidirectional or bi-directional links.
 Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity links:
Wireless links usually have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity as
compared to a wired network
 Autonomous Behavior:
Each node can act as a host and router, which shows its autonomous behavior.
 Energy Constrained Operation:
As some or all the nodes rely on batteries or other exhaustible means for their energy.
Mobile nodes are characterized by less memory, power, and lightweight features.
 Limited Security:
Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A centralized firewall is absent due
to the distributed nature of the operation for security, routing, and host configuration.
 Less Human Intervention:
They require minimum human intervention to configure the network, therefore they are
dynamically autonomous in nature.

Pros and Cons of MANET –

Pros:
1. Separation from central network administration.
2. Each node can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing autonomous nature.
3. Self-configuring and self-healing nodes do not require human intervention.
4. Highly scalable and suits the expansion of more network hub.
Cons:
1. Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference conditions, etc.
2. Lack of authorization facilities.
3. More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.
4. High latency i.e. There is a huge delay in the transfer of data between two sleeping nodes.
Improvement in MANET:
1. Quality of Service (QoS): Researchers are working to improve the quality of service of
MANET by developing efficient routing protocols that provide better bandwidth,
throughput, and latency.
2. Security: To ensure the security of the MANET, researchers are developing efficient
security mechanisms that provide encryption, authentication, and authorization facilities.
3. Power management: To enhance the lifetime of MANET nodes, researchers are working
on developing efficient power management techniques that reduce the energy
consumption of nodes.
4. Multimedia support: Researchers are working to provide multimedia support to MANET
by developing efficient routing protocols that can handle multimedia traffic efficiently.
5. Standardization: To ensure the interoperability of different MANET devices, researchers
are working on developing standard protocols and interfaces that can be used by different
MANET devices.

Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET) is a wireless network made up of a collection

of mobile nodes connected wirelessly and free of any fixed infrastructure. It is self-
configuring and self-healing. MANET provides a lot of benefits, but it also has several
drawbacks that need to be fixed. Researchers are always trying to make MANET’s features
better in order to get over these constraints. Future advancements in new technology and
methodologies might make MANET a dependable and effective wireless network.

Advantages:

Flexibility: MANETs are highly flexible, as they can be easily deployed in various
environments and can be adapted to different applications and scenarios. This makes them
ideal for use in emergency situations or military operations, where there may not be a pre-
existing network infrastructure.
Scalability: MANETs can easily scale to accommodate a large number of nodes, making
them suitable for large-scale deployments. They can also handle dynamic changes in network
topology, such as the addition or removal of nodes.
Cost-effective: Since MANETs do not require any centralized infrastructure, they are often
more cost-effective than traditional wired or wireless networks. They can also be used to
extend the range of existing networks without the need for additional infrastructure.
Rapid Deployment: MANETs can be rapidly deployed in areas where infrastructure is not
available, such as disaster zones or rural areas.

Disadvantages:

Security: MANETs are vulnerable to security threats, such as attacks by malicious nodes,
eavesdropping, and data interception. Since the network is decentralized, there is no central
authority to ensure the security of the network.
Reliability: MANETs are less reliable than traditional networks, as they are subject to
interference, signal attenuation, and other environmental factors that can affect the quality of
the connection.
Bandwidth: Since MANETs rely on wireless communication, bandwidth can be limited.
This can lead to congestion and delays, particularly when multiple nodes are competing for
the same channel.
Routing: Routing in MANETs can be complex, particularly when dealing with dynamic
network topologies. This can result in inefficient routing and longer delays in data
transmission.
Power Consumption: Since MANETs rely on battery-powered devices, power consumption
can be a significant issue. Nodes may need to conserve power to extend the life of the battery,
which can limit the amount of data that can be transmitted.

Applications of MANET

Some specific applications of ad hoc networks include industrial and commercial applications
involving cooperative mobile data exchange. There are many existing and future military
networking requirements for robust, IP-compliant data services within mobile wireless
communication networks, with many of these networks consist of highly dynamic
autonomous topology segments. Advanced features of Mobile ad hoc networks, including
data rates compatible with multimedia applications global roaming capability, and
coordination with other network structures are enabling new applications.

o Defense applications: Many defense applications require on the fly communications

set-up, and ad hoc/sensor networks are excellent candidates for use in battlefield
management.
o Crisis management applications: These arise, for example, as a result of natural
disasters in which the entire communication infrastructure is in disarray. Restoring
communications quickly is essential.
o Telemedicine: The paramedic assisting the victim of a traffic accident in a remote
location must access medical records (e.g. X-rays) and may need video conference
assistance from a surgeon for an emergency intervention. In fact, the paramedic may
need to instantaneously relay back to the hospital the victim's X-rays and other
diagnostic tests from the site of the accident.
o Tele-geoprocessing application: The combination of GPS, GIS (Geographical
Information Systems), and high-capacity wireless mobile systems enables a new type
of application referred to as tele- geo processing.
o Virtual Navigation: A remote database contains the graphical representation of
building, streets, and physical characteristics of a large metropolis. They may also
"virtually" see the internal layout of buildings, including an emergency rescue plan, or
find possible points of interest.
 o Education via the internet: Educational opportunities available on the internet or
remote areas because of the economic infeasibility of providing expensive last-mile
wire line internet access in these areas to all subscribers.
o Vehicular area network: This a growing and very useful application of adhoc
network in providing emergency services and other information. This is equally
effective in both urban and rural setup. The basic and exchange necessary data that is
beneficial in a given situation.

Routing

Routing is the process of finding the best path for traffic in a network, or across multiple
networks. The role of routing is similar to the road map for a hotel. In both cases, we need to
deliver messages at proper location and in an appropriate way.

Routing in a mobile ad-hoc network depends on many factors such as:

o Modeling of the topology,

o Selection of routers,
o Initiation of a route request,
o And specific underlying characteristics that could serve as heuristics in finding the
path effectively.

In a MANET, each node or device is expected to serve as a router, and each router is
indistinguishable from another in the sense that all routers execute the same routing algorithm
to compute paths through the entire network.

Need for Routing

There are following needs for routing:

o Since centralized routing in a dynamic and even for small networks is impossible
therefore routing computation must be distributed.
o Route computation should not add many more nodes.
o If any host demands for the route, they must have quick access.
o Maintenance of a global state should not involve in the route computation.
o Each node should care about their destination node to its route and should not be
involved in frequent topology updates for those portions of the network that have no
traffic.
o Since broadcast can be time consuming for MANETs, it must be avoided as much as
possible.
 o In routing there must have a backup route when the primary route has become stale.

Routing Classification

Routing protocol can be classified as:

1. Proactive Protocol
2. Reactive Protocol
3. Hybrid Protocol

1. Proactive Protocol

Proactive protocols attempt to evaluate continuously the routes within the network. It means
proactive protocol continuously maintain the routing information, so that when a packet
needs to be forwarded, the path is known already and can be immediately used. The family of
distance vector protocols is an example of proactive scheme.

The advantage of the proactive schemes is that whenever a route is needed, there is negligible
delay in determining the route.

Unfortunately, it is a big overhead to maintain routing tables in the MANET environment.

Therefore, this type of protocol has following common disadvantages:

o Requires more amounts of data for maintaining routing information.

o Low reaction on re-structuring network and failures of individual nodes.

2. Reactive Protocols

Reactive protocols do not maintain routes but invoke a route determination procedure only on
demand or we can say reactive protocols build the routes only on demand. Thus, when a route
is required, some sort of global search procedure is initiated. The family of classical flooding
algorithms belongs to the reactive protocol group. Examples of reactive ad-hoc network
routing protocols include ad hoc on demand distance vector (AODV) and temporally ordered
routing algorithm (TORA).

These protocols have the following advantages:

o No large overhead for global routing table maintenance as in proactive protocols.

o Reaction is quick for network restructure and node failure.
Even though reactive protocols have become the main stream for MANET routing,
they still have the following disadvantages:
o Latency time is high in route finding
o Excessive flooding can lead to network clogging.
3. Hybrid Protocols

Hybrid protocols attempt to take advantage of best of reactive and proactive schemes. The
basic idea behind such protocols is to initiate route discovery on demand but at a limited
search cost. One of the popular hybrid protocols is zone routing protocol (ZRP).

Routing protocols may also be categorized as follows:

1. Table-driven protocols
2. Source initiated on -demand protocols

1. Table-driven routing protocol

o These protocols are called table-driven because each node is required to maintain one
or more tables containing routing information on every other node in the network.
o They are proactive in nature so that the routing information is always consistent and
up to date.
o The protocols respond to changes in network topology by propagating the updates
throughput the network so that every node has a consistent view of the network.

The table driven routing protocols are categorized as follows:

Destination - sequenced distance vector routing

o Destination sequenced distance vector routing (DSDV) is a table driven routing

protocol for MANET based on Bellman-Ford algorithm.
o DSDV was developed by C. Perkins and P. Bhagwat in 1994. The main
contribution of the algorithm was that the algorithm works correctly, even in the
presence of the loops in the routing table.
o As we know, each mobile node maintains a routing table with a route to every
possible destination in the network and the number of hops to the destination.
o Each entry in the table contains a sequence number assigned by the destination node.
o The sequence numbers allow the node to distinguish stale routes from new ones, and
help avoid formation of routing loops.
o A new route broadcast contains:
o The destination address.
o The number of hops required to reach the destination.
o The sequence number of the information received about the destination and a
new sequence number unique to the broadcast.
 o If there multiple routes are available for the same destination, the route with the most
recent sequence number is used. If two updates have the same sequence number, the
route with smaller metric is used to optimize the routing.

For example the routing table of Node A from the above network is:

Destination Next Hop No. of Hops Sequence no. Install

time

A A 0 A46 001000

B B 1 B36 001200

C B 2 C28 001500

Basically the table stores description of all possible paths reachable by node A, along with the
hop, number of hops, sequence number and install time.

Advantages

o Destination sequenced distance vector routing was one of the early algorithms
available. It is suitable for creating ad-hoc networks with small no. of nodes.

Disadvantage

o Destination sequenced distance vector routing requires a regular update of its routing
tables, which uses more battery power and a small amount of bandwidth even when
the network is idle.
o This algorithm is not suitable for highly dynamic networks.

Cluster Head gateway switch Routing

o The cluster head (CH) gateway switch routing (CGSR) protocol is different from the
destination sequenced distance vector routing in the type of addressing and the
network organization scheme employed.
 o Instead of a flat network, CGSR uses cluster heads, which control a group of ad hoc
nodes and hence achieve a hierarchical framework for code separation among
clusters, routing, channel access, and bandwidth allocation.
o Identification of appropriate clusters and selection of cluster heads is quite complex.
Once clusters have been defined, it is desirable to use a distributed algorithm within
the cluster to elect a node as the cluster head.
o The disadvantage of using a cluster head scheme is that frequent changes adversely
affect performance as nodes spend more time selecting a cluster head rather than
relaying packets. Hence, the least cluster change (LCC) clustering algorithm is used
rather than CH selection every time the cluster membership changes. Using LCC,
CHs change only when two CHs come into contact, or when a node moves out of
contact with all other CHs.

o In this scheme, each node must maintain a cluster member table (CMT), which stores
the destination CH for each node in the network. The cluster member tables are
broadcast periodically by the nodes using the DSDV algorithm.
o When a node receives such a table from a neighbor, it can update its own information.
As expected, each node also maintains a routing table to determine the next hop
required to reach any destination.

Wireless routing protocol (WRP)

The wireless routing protocol is a proactive unicast routing protocol for MANETs. It uses an
enhanced version of the distance vector routing protocol, which uses the Bellman - Ford
algorithm to calculate paths.

For the wireless routing protocol (WRP) each node maintains 4 tables:

o Distance table
o Routing table
o Link cost table
o Message retransmission list (MRL) table

Each entry in the message retransmission list has a sequence number of the update message, a
retransmission counter, an acknowledgment required flag vector with one entry per neighbor,
and a list of updates sent in the update message. When any node receives a hello message
from a new node, it adds the new node to its routing table and sends the new node a copy of
its routing table. A node must send a message to its neighbors within a certain time to ensure
connectivity.

Advantages
 o The advantage of WRP is similar to DSDV. In addition, it has faster convergence and
adds fewer table updates.

Disadvantage

o The complexity of maintenance of multiple tables demands a large amount of memory

and greater processing power from nodes in the MANET.
o Since it suffers from limited scalability therefore WRP is not suitable for highly
dynamic and for a very large ad hoc wireless network.

2. Source initiated on -demand protocols

o Source - initiated on demand routing is reactive in nature, unlike table driven routing.
This type of protocols generates routes only when a source demands it.
o In other words, when a source node requires a route to a destination, the source
initiates a route discovery process in the network. This process finishes when a route
to the destination has been discovered or all possible routes have been examined
without any success.
o The discovered route is maintained by a route maintenance procedure, until it is no
longer desired or the destination becomes inaccessible.

The source initiated on demand routing is categorized as follows:

Ad hoc on demand distance vector routing (AODV)

o AODV is a routing protocol for MANETs (mobile ad hoc networks) and other
wireless ad hoc networks.
o It is a reactive routing protocol; it means it establishes a route to a destination only on
demand.
o AODV routing is built over the DSDV algorithm. It is a significant improvement over
DSDV.
o The devices that are not on a particular path do not maintain routing information, nor
do they participate in the routing table exchanges.
o When a source requires sending a message to a destination and does not have a valid
route to the latter, the source initiates a route discovery process.
o Source sends a route request (RREQ) packet to all its neighbors, the latter forward the
request to all their neighbors, and so on, until either the destination or an intermediate
mobile (node) with a "fresh enough" route to the destination is reached.
The above figure illustrates the propagation of the broadcast request (RREQs) across the
network. Since in DSDV, destination sequence numbers are used to ensure that all routes are
loop free and contain the most recent route information. Each node has a unique sequence
number and a broadcast ID, which is incremented each time the node, initiates RREQ.

The broadcast ID, together with the IP address of node, uniquely identifies every RREQ.

Intermediate mobile reply only if they have a route to the destination with a sequence number
greater than or at least equal to that contained in the RREQ. To optimize the route
performance, intermediate nodes record the address.

From the above figure, since RREP (route reply packet) travels back on the reverse path, the
nodes on this path set up their forward route entries to point to the node from which RREP
had just been received. These forward route records indicate the active forward route. The
RREP continues traveling back along the reverse path till it reaches the initiator of the route
discovery. Thus, AODV can support only the use of symmetric links.

Dynamic Source Routing (DSR)

o Dynamic source routing is an on-demand routing protocol which is based on source

routing.
o It is very similar to AODV in that it forms a route on demand when a transmitting
computer requests one. But, it uses source routing instead of relying on the routing
table at each intermediate device. Many successive refinements have been made to
dynamic source routing.
o This protocol works in two main phases:
o Route discovery
o Route maintenance
o When a node has a message to send, it contacts to the route cache to determine
whether is it has a route to the destination. If an active route to the destination exists,
it is used to send a message.
o Otherwise a node initiates a route discovery by broadcasting a route request packet.
The route request stores the destination address, the source address, and a unique
identification number.
o Each device that receives the route request checks whether it has a route to the
destination. If it does not, it adds its own address to the route record of the packet and
then rebroadcasts the packet on its outgoing links.
o To minimize the no. of broadcasts, a mobile rebroadcasts a packet only if it has not
seen the packet before and its own address was not already in the route record.

Popular MANET Routing Protocols

1. Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing Protocol

2. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) Protocol

3. Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV)

4. Zone Routing Protocol

5. Multicast Routing Protocols for MANET (Refer Q.No:8)

1. Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing Protocol

 Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV) is an important MANET

routing

protocol. It is based on the table-driven (proactive) approach to packet routing.

 In DSDV, each node in a MANET maintains a routing table in which all of the
possible destinations and the number of hops to each destination are recorded.

 Each node maintains information regarding routes to all the known destinations.
The routing information is updated periodically.

 Also, there is traffic overhead even if there is no change in network topology.

Nodes maintain routes which they may never use.

 A sequenced numbering system is used to allow mobile nodes to distinguish stale

routes from new ones. Updated routing tables are exchanged periodically among the
nodes of the network to maintain table consistency.

 DSDV uses two types of route update packets. The first is known as full dump.
This type of packet carries all the available routing information and can require
multiple network protocol data units (NPDUs) to be transmitted.

 The mobile nodes maintain an additional table where they store the data received
through the incremental routing information packets from various nodes.

Important steps in the operation of DSDV

1. Each router (node) in the network collects route information from all its
neighbours.
2. After gathering information, the node determines the shortest path to the destination
based on the gathered information.

3. Based on the gathered information, a new routing table is generated.

4. The router broadcasts this table to its neighbours. On receipt by neighbours, the
neighbor nodes recompute their respective routing tables.

5. This process continues till the routing information becomes stable.

Table 7.1 is the routing table of the node N4 at the moment before the movement of
nodes. The metric field in the routing table helps to determine the number of hops
required for a packet to traverse to its destination.

2. Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV)

 The route discovery and route maintenance activities in AODV are very similar to
those for the

DSR protocol.

 AODV does make use of hop-by-hop routing, sequence numbers and beacons.

 The node that needs a route to a specific destination generates a route request.

 The route request is forwarded by intermediate nodes which also learn a reverse
route from the

source to themselves.

 When the request reaches a node with route to destination, it generates a route reply
containing

the number of hops required to reach the destination.

 All nodes that participate in forwarding this reply to the source node create a
forward route to

destination.

 This route created from each node from source to destination is a hop-by-hop route.
Recollect that DSR includes the complete route in packet headers.

 The large headers can substantially degrade the performance, especially when the
data content of packets is small.

 AODV attempts to improve upon DSR by maintaining routing tables at the nodes,
so that the data packets do not have to contain the routes.

 AODV retains a positive feature of DSR, in that the routes are maintained only
between those nodes that need to communicate.

 If a link break occurs while a route is being used to transmit a message, a route
error message is

sent to the source node by the node that observes that the next link in the route has
failed.

3. Zone Routing Protocol

 The Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) is a hybrid protocol. It incorporates the merits of
both ondemand and proactive routing protocols.

 A routing zone comprises a few MANET nodes within a few hops from the central
zone. Within a zone, a table-driven routing protocol is used.

 If a destination node happens to be outside the source’s zone, ZRP employs an

ondemand route discovery procedure which works as follows.

 The source node sends a route request to the border nodes of its zone, containing its
own address, the destination address and a unique sequence number.

 Border nodes are those nodes which are some predefined number of hops away
from the source.

Each border node checks its local zone for the destination.

Explain DSR Routing Protocols in detail?

 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) protocol was developed to be suitable for use in a
MANET having a reasonably small diameter of about 5 to 10 hops and when the
nodes do not move very fast.

 DSR is a source initiated on-demand (or reactive) routing protocol for ad hoc
networks.

 It uses source routing, a technique in which the sender of a packet determines the
complete sequence of nodes through which a packet has to travel.

 The sender of the packet then explicitly records this list of all nodes in the packet’s
header. This makes it easy for each node in the path to identify the next node to which
it should transmit the packet for routing the packet to its destination.

 In this protocol, the nodes do not need to exchange the routing table information
periodically, which helps to reduce the bandwidth overhead associated with the
protocol.

 Each mobile node participating in the protocol maintains a routing cache which
contains the list of all routes that the node has learnt.

 Whenever a node finds a new route, it adds the new route to its routing cache. Each
mobile node also maintains a sequence counter called request id to uniquely identify
the last request it had generated.

 The pair < source address, request id > uniquely identifies any request in the ad hoc
network.

DSR works in two phases:

(i) Route discovery and

(ii) Route maintenance.

Route discovery

 Route discovery allows any host to dynamically discover the route to any
destination in the ad

hoc network.
  When a node has a data packet to send, it first checks its own routing cache.

 If it finds a valid route in its own routing cache, it sends out the packet using this
route.

 Otherwise, it initiates a route discovery process by broadcasting a route request

packet to all its neighbours.

 The route request packet contains the source address, the request id and a route
record in which the sequence of hops traversed by the request packet, before reaching
the destination is recorded.

 Suppose a node N1 wishes to send a message to the destination node N8. The
intermediate nodes are N2, N3, N4, N5, N6, N7.

 The node N1 initiates the route discovery process by broadcasting a route request
packet to its neighbours N2 and N3.

 Note that each node can have multiple copies of the route request packet arriving at
it.

 The propagation of route reply is shown in Figure 7.5, and the acknowledgement
messages from destination to source are indicated by thick arrows.

Route maintenance

 Route maintenance is the process of monitoring the correct operation of a route in

use and taking any corrective action when needed.

 When a host (source) while using a route, finds that it is inoperative, it carries out
route maintenance.

 Whenever a node wanting to send a message finds that the route is broken, it would
help if it already knows of some alternative routes.

 If it has another route to the destination, it starts to retransmit the packet using the
alternative route. Otherwise, it initiates the route discovery process again.

Difference between MANET and VANET

1. Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) :
MANET consists of number of mobile devices that are connected together to form a network,
without any support from an existing internet infrastructure or any other fixed network
station. It is autonomous system of nodes connected by wireless links. In MANET the
network topology may change dynamically in an unpredictable manner since there is no fixed
infrastructure and the nodes are free to move, but each node have limited transmitting power.
MANET’s are basically peer-to-peer, multi-hop wireless network in which packets are
transmitted in store.
Uses of MANETs :
 Military Operations: MANETs can be used for secure communication and coordination
between soldiers in the field.
 Emergency Response: MANETs can be set up quickly in disaster or emergency situations
to provide communication networks for rescue and relief operations.
 Conferences and Events: MANETs can be used to provide temporary network
connectivity for attendees at conferences, trade shows, and other events.
 Rural and Remote Areas: MANETs can be used to provide connectivity in rural and
remote areas where traditional communication infrastructure is scarce.
 Transportation: MANETs can be used in transportation systems, such as buses, trains,
and airplanes, to provide passengers with network connectivity while in transit.
 Healthcare: MANETs can be used in healthcare facilities, such as hospitals and clinics, to
provide secure and reliable communication between medical staff.
Overall, MANETs can provide quick, flexible, and reliable network connectivity in a variety
of situations where traditional communication infrastructure may be unavailable or
insufficient.
2. Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANET) :
VANET is similar to MANET in terms, that is also do not need any infrastructure for data
transmission. VANET play important role in aspect of safe driving, intelligent navigation,
emergency and entertainment applications .It can be defined as an intelligent component of
transport system as vehicle are able to communicate with each other as well as roadside base
station, which are located at critical points of the road. Example :-Intersection and
Construction Sites.

Uses of VANETs :
 Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS): VANETs can be used to enhance traffic flow,
reduce congestion, and improve road safety by enabling communication between vehicles
and with road-side infrastructure.
 Navigation and Location-Based Services: VANETs can provide real-time traffic and
navigation information to drivers, allowing them to make informed decisions and avoid
congestion.
 Emergency Services: VANETs can be used to quickly and efficiently relay emergency
messages, such as accidents and road closures, to other vehicles and to emergency
services.
 Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) Communication: VANETs
can facilitate communication between vehicles and with road-side infrastructure, allowing
for a wide range of applications, such as cooperative driving and platooning.
 Entertainment and Infotainment Services: VANETs can provide entertainment and
information services, such as streaming music and video, to passengers in vehicles.
Overall, VANETs can enhance the driving experience, improve road safety, and support a
wide range of intelligent transportation applications.
Difference between MANET and VANET :
S.No. MANET VANET

Production cost of MANET is cheap as compared to

1 Much Expensive
VANET

Mobility of MANET is low as it make bit difficult High Mobility, as serving

2 for network enables the serving networks to locate a networks to locate a mobile
mobile subscriber’s point. subscriber’s point is easy.

Frequent and very fast

3 Change in network topology orientation is slow. change of network
topology,

Node density is frequent

4 Sparse node density.
variables.

VANET bandwidth is 1000

5 MANET HAVE 100 Kps bandwidth available.
Kps.

500 m range available in

6 It ranges Upto 100 m.
VANET.

7 MANET node lifetime depends on power resources. Depend on lifetime vehicle.

8 MANET have medium reliability. High reliability of VANET.

9 Movement of the nodes affects the operation of a Regular, moving pattern of

MANET as node movement MANETs need to rely nodes.
on robust routing protocols.And this MANET have
S.No. MANET VANET

random node movement.

Location Bases addressing

10 Attribute Based addressing scheme.
scheme.

VANET maintain position

11 Position acquisition is obtained using Ultrasonic. acquisition by using GPS,
RADAR.

Weakly available Multi-hop

12 Availability of Multi-hop Routing
Routing.

MANET features
The features are as follows −
 It supports Dynamic topologies
 It supports Energy constraint operation
 It has Variable capacity links.
Here is an example picture of MANET −

VANET features
The features are as follows −
  Cellular and WLAN network
 Hybrid
 Pure Ad hoc
Here is the example picture of VANET −

Differences
The differences between the MANETs with VANETs are as follows −

Parameters MANETS VANETS

Dynamic The topologies change is slow. The topology change is very

Topologies frequent and fast.

Bandwidth The Bandwidth is 100Kps. The bandwidth is Thousand Kps.

constraints

Scalability They have medium scalability. They have high scalability.

Energy constraints It has a medium energy constraint. It has low energy constraint.

Network and It does not have fixed infrastructure. It has security issues which are
information It is prone to attacks eg DoS, illegal tracking, brute force attacks,
security eavesdropping etc. eavesdropping etc.

Security Issues in a MANET

 MANETS are fundamentally different from both wired networks and infrastructure-based

wireless networks.
 The nature of MANETs not only introduces new security concerns but also exacerbates the

problem of detecting and preventing anomalous behaviour.

 In a wired network or in an infrastructure-based wireless network, an intruder is usually a

host that is outside the network and therefore could be controlled through a firewall and
subjected to access control and authentication.

 In a MANET, on the other hand, an intruder is part of the network, and therefore much
more difficult to detect and isolate.

 Dynamic topological changes and the inherent wireless communications in a MANET,

make it vulnerable to different types of attacks.

 At the physical layer, an intruder can easily cause jamming or overload the available
network resources beyond their capacities, thereby effectively paralysing it.

 Wireless links can get jammed and the batteries at the nodes can get depleted by such

overloading, causing breakdowns of the network.

 Attackers can also disturb the normal operation of routing protocols by modifying the
headers of packets.

 The intruder may insert spurious information while routing packets, causing erroneous
routing table updates and thereby leading to frequent misroutings.

UNIT IV

1. Military vehicles on a battlefield with no existing infrastructure will deploy ...............

network.

(A) MANET (B) Cell Network

(C) LAN (D) Wi-Fi

Answer: A

2. The network in which all the nodes are symmetric and there is no central control or
hierarchy is .................

(A) MANET (B) Client -Server Technology

(C) Peer-to-Peer (D) None of these

Answer: C

3. What is the type of network in which the topology change from time to time?
(A) Wi-Fi (B) Cell Network

(C) LAN (D) MANET

Answer: D

4. The processes that keep track of all mobile hosts visiting the area is .................

(A) Home agent (B) Mobile agent

(C) Foreign agent (D) User agent

Answer: C

5. The hosts which are basically stationary hosts who move from one fixed site to another
from time to time but use the network only when they are physically connected to it are
called ................

(A) Migratory hosts (B) Stationary hosts

(C) Mobile hosts (D) Random hosts

Answer: A

6. The hosts who compute on the run and want to maintain their connections as they
move around ...............

(A) Migratory hosts (B) Stationary hosts

(C) Mobile hosts (D) Random hosts

Answer: C

7. What is the type of network in which the routers themselves are mobile?

(A) Wide Area Network (B) Mobile Ad hoc Network

(C) Mobile Network (D) Local Area Network

Answer: B

8. What is the routing algorithm used in MANETs?

(A) Shortest Path First

(B) Routing Information Protocol

(C) Distance Vector Protocol

(D) Ad hoc On -demand Distance Vector Protocol

Answer: D
9. Why probe packets are transmitted in the network?

(A) to know about the capacity of the channel

(B) to count the number of host in the network

(C) to know about efficiency of the routing algorithm

(D) to know about the congestion

Answer: D

10. If the source deduces the existence of congestion by making local observations, such as
the time needed for acknowledgements to come back is called as .................

(A) Explicit feedback algorithm (B) Implicit feedback algorithm

(C) Explicit forward algorithm (D) Implicit forward algorithm

Answer: B

11. A _________ is a device that forwards data that is not explicitly destined to it.
A. hub
B. switch
C. router
D. All of the above

12. There exists ________ forms of routing protocols.

A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4

13. Routing protocols can be divided in ________ categories.

A. 2
B. 3
C. 4
D. 5
14. RIPng stands for __________.

A. Routing Information Path Next Generation

B. Routing Interior Protocol Next Generation
C. Routing Information Protocol Next Gateway
D. Routing Information Protocol Next Generation

15. An __________ distributes routing information between two different autonomous

systems or organization.
A. Interior Routing Protocol
B. Exterior Routing Protocol
C. Link-State Routing Protocol
D. Distance Vector Routing Protocol
16. ________ is an upgraded implementation of ICMP to accommodate IPv6 requirements.
A. ICMPv6
B. DHCPv6
C. DNS
D. None of the above

17. Which type of Ethernet framing is used for TCP/IP and DEC net?

A. Ethernet 802.3
B. Ethernet 802.2
C. Ethernet II
D. Ethernet SNAP
18. Which NetWare protocol works on layer 3–network layer—of the OSI model?
A. IPX
B. NCP
C. SPX
D. NetBIOS

19. Which NetWare protocol provides link-state routing?

A. RIP
B. SAP
C. NCP
D. NLSP
20. A Distance Vector router running distance vector protocol advertises its connected routes
and learns new routes from its neighbors.

A. Yes
B. No
C. Can be yes or no
D. Can not say
21. Which of the following correctly describes an advantage of a Mobile Ad-hoc Network?

a. Autonomous nodes that can act as both a host and a router.

b. Maximum Security
c. Faster than Wired networks
d. Highly Reliable
22. Mobile Ad-hoc Networks are less secure because _____.

a. there is no firewall in a MANET as it is a decentralized network.

b. the nodes are autonomous.
c. the MANET is a centralized network.
d. the MANET uses multi-hop transmission

UNIT V
Mobile O/S—A Few Basic Concepts

The operating system providing a set of services to the application programs. The operating
system is usually structured into a kernel layer and a shell layer.

The shell essentially provides facilities for user interaction with the kernel. The kernel
executes in the supervisor mode and can run privileged instructions that could not be run in
the user mode.

During booting, the kernel gets loaded first and continues to remain in the main memory of
the device.

This implies that in a virtual memory system, paging does not apply to the kernel code and
kernel data.

Therefore the kernel is called the memory resident part of an operating system.

The shell programs are usually not memory resident. The kernel of the operating system is
responsible for interrupt servicing and management of processes, memory, and files.

The traditional operating systems such as Unix and Windows are known to have a monolithic
kernel

design.

In a monolithic kernel OS design, the kernel essentially constitutes the entire operating
system code,

except for the code for the shell.

The principal motivation behind this monolithic design was the belief that in the supervisor
mode, the operating system services can run more securely and efficiently.
Monolithic design versus microkernel design of an operating system.

The main problem with the monolithic kernel design is that it makes the kernel massive, non-
modular, hard to tailor, maintain, extend, and configure.

The microkernel design approach tries to minimize the size of the kernel code. Only the basic
hardware dependent functionalities and a few critical functionalities are implemented in the
kernel mode and all other functionalities are implemented in the user mode.

Most of the operating system services run as user level processes. The main advantage of this
approach is that it becomes easier to port, extend, and maintain the operating system code.

The kernel code is very difficult to debug compared to application programs. The reason for
this is that a bug in a kernel code can crash the system, thus crashing the debugger too.

Further, even when some operating system service crashes while being used by a user, it does
not bring down the entire system. This is one reason as to why a microkernel operating
system could be expected to be more reliable than an equivalent monolithic kernel operating
system.

The overall architectural difference between a monolithic kernel and a microkernel

architecture is: To restrict the size of the kernel of a mobile OS to the minimum, most
mobile OS are, to different extents, based on the microkernel design..

Special Constraints and Requirements of Mobile O/S

A few special features that are required to be supported by a mobile OS, but are not present in
traditional operating systems. A mobile device is powered by severely limited energy stored
in a tiny battery.

 Limited memory
A mobile device usually has much less permanent and volatile storage compared to that of a
contemporary desktop or laptop. To cope with the limited memory of a mobile device, the OS
must be as small as possible and yet provide a rich set of functionalities to meet user
demands.

 Limited screen size

The size of a mobile handset needs to be small to make it portable. This limits the size of the
display

screen. Consequently, new innovative user interfaces need to be supported by the mobile OS
to overcome this constraint and minimize user inconveniences.

For example, many handsets provide easy configurability of the interface to suit individual
preferences, switching between menu and iconic interfaces, etc.

 Miniature keyboard

Mobile handsets are either provided with a small keypad or the small-sized display screen is
designed to be used as a keyboard in a touch screen mode using a stylus. In both these
arrangements, typing in the documents and entering the string commands is difficult. This
mandates the provision of some facility for word completion prompts and availability of
capabilities for free form handwriting recognition.

 Limited processing power

A vast majority of modern mobile devices incorporate ARM-based processors. These

processors are certainly energy efficient, powerful, and cheaper compared to the desktop or
laptop processors, yet these are significantly slower. The sizes of the on-chip and off-chip
memory are also restricted.

The cope with the restricted processing power, storage, and battery power,
usually the operating system is made to provide only a limited number of functionalities that
are useful in the actual operation of the mobile.

Activities such as mobile application development that require use of memory-

intensive utility programs, such as editors and compilers, are carried out on a desktop or
laptop, and only after the application is completely simulated and tested, it is cross-compiled
and downloaded onto the mobile device.

 Limited battery power

Mobile devices need to be as lightweight as possible to increase their portability. Due to the
severe restrictions that are placed on their size and weight, a mobile device usually has a
small battery and often recharging cannot be done as and when required.

In spite of the small battery, a mobile phone is expected to support long talk time without the
need to recharge frequently.
Consequently, the operating system for a mobile device needs to be not only computationally
efficient, but also at the same time expected to minimize power consumption.

The techniques used by an OS to reduce power consumption include putting the processor
and display screen into sleep mode within a few seconds of inactivity, and varying the
intensity of transmitted antennae power as per requirement, etc.

 Limited and fluctuating bandwidth of the wireless medium

The operating system of a mobile handset needs to run complex protocols due to the inherent
problems caused by mobility and the wireless medium.

A wireless medium is directly susceptible to atmospheric noise, and thereby causes

high bit error rates.

The bandwidth of a wireless channel may fluctuate randomly due to atmospheric

noise, movement of some objects, or the movements of the mobile handset itself. This can
show up as short-term fades.

There can be relatively longer-term disconnections due to handoffs. In this

context, uninterrupted communication requires a special support for data caching, pre-
fetching, and integration.

A Survey of Commercial Mobile Operating Systems

It is a challenging task to design a mobile OS with a set of core capabilities that

are expected to be supported by mobile devices and with a consistent programming
environment across all smart phones that install the OS.

The mobile OS has to also facilitate third party development of application

software and yet allow manufacturers of different brands of mobile devices to build their
choice set of functionalities for the users.

Types of Mobile Operating System:

 Windows Mobile
 Palm OS
 Blackberry OS
 Symbian OS
 iPhone OS (iOS)
 Android OS

1. Windows Mobile

 Windows CE (Compact Edtion) - designed specifically for handheld devices, based

on Win32 API. It is run on Pocket PCs, Smartphones and Portable media centers.
 PDA (Personal Digital Assistant), palmtop computer, PocketPC were original
intended platform for the Windows Mobile OS
  It provides ultimate interoperability.
 Users with various requirements are able to manipulate their data.
 It provides for deterministic scheduling of time-constrained tasks.
 Windows mobile operating system to be used across a wide cross section of mobile
phone

manufacturers.

 Microsoft defined a hardware specification for hand-held computers that can run its
Windows Mobile operating system in order to simplify the design of the operating
system and to reduce the number of versions of the operating system. It was also
intended to make the cell phones manufactured by different vendors appear uniform.
 Microsoft later renamed its Pocket PC operating system to Windows Mobile Classic.
Windows mobile classic operating systems support touch screen-based user interface.

A family of Windows Mobile support three operating systems:

Windows Mobile Standard and Windows Mobile Professional are targeted for use in
smartphones, and Windows Mobile Classic is not targeted for cell phones, but for PDAs.

Many third-party software applications are available for Windows mobile. These
software applications can be purchased via the Windows Marketplace for mobiles.

The marketplace is a website maintained by Microsoft, where different application

developers can submit their applications for download by the subscribers.

A few important features of the Windows mobile OS are the following:

 The Graphics/Window/Event manager (GWE) component handles all input and

output.
 Provides a virtual memory management.
  Supports security through the provision of a cryptographic library.
 Application development is similar to that in the Win32 environment.
 Many programmers have knowledge of Win 32-based application development.
 At present, it does not provide true multitasking. An application in the background
goes into hibernation and gets active only when it comes to foreground.
 Microsoft may support true multitasking in the future versions of the Windows
Phone operating system.

Palm OS

 Palm OS (also known as Garnet OS) is a proprietary operating system that was
developed by Palm Computing in 1998 for its highly successful PDA called Palm
Pilot. Palm OS was designed for ease of use with the provision of a touchscreen-based
graphical user interface.
 Palm OS was upgraded to facilitate installation in several different mobile devices,
such as smartphones of different makes, wrist watches, hand-held gaming consoles,
bar code readers and GPS devices.

The key features of the current Palm OS (named Garnet) are the following:

 It is essentially a simple single-tasking operating system. As a result, only one application

can run at a

time. For example, if you are on voice communication, you cannot use the calculator, or read
an SMS.

 It has an elementary memory management system. To keep the operating system small and
fast, Palm

OS does not isolate the memory areas of applications from each other. Consequently, any
misbehaving

application can crash the system.

 Palm supplies Palm emulator, which emulates the Palm hardware on a PC. This allows
Palm programs

to be developed and debugged on a PC before being run on the Palm hardware.

 It supports a handwriting recognition-based system for user input.

 It supports a facility called HotSync technology for data synchronization with desktop
computers.

 It supports sound playback and recording capabilities.

 It incorporates a very simple and rudimentary security model in which a device can be
locked by
password.

 The different interfaces supported include Serial port/USB, infrared, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi
connections.

 It uses a proprietary format to store calendar, address, task and note entries and yet are
accessible by

third-party applications.

Blackberry Operating System

Blackberry operating system is a proprietary operating system designed for

BlackBerry smartphones produced by Research In Motion Limited (RIM).

Being a proprietary operating system, details of its architecture have not been
published. But, at the user level, the very good email system that it deploys is easily noticed.

It supports instant mailing while maintaining a high level of security through

ondevice hardware-based message encryption

Symbian OS

Symbian operating system was developed through a collaboration among a few

prominent mobile device manufacturers including Nokia, Ericsson, Panasonic, and Samsung.

Its objective was to develop a single industry standard operating system.

In 2008, Ericsson, Sony, Panasonic, and Samsung pulled out of the

collaboration, selling their stake to Nokia. Around the same time, Google announced Android
as an open operating system.

The Symbian source code was published under Eclipse Public License (EPL)
in February 2010. This event was reported to be the largest codebase transition from
proprietary to Open Source in the entire history.

Symbian OS is a real time, multitasking, pre-emptive, 32-bit operating system

that runs on ARMbased processor designs.

Symbian comes in two major flavours.

(a) Series 60: It support large sized colour screen, easy-to-use interface and an extensive
suite of

applications make it well-suited to support advanced features such as rich content

downloading and MMS (Multimedia Messaging Service). Series 60 was mainly being used
on Nokia’s smartphones and Samsung handsets.

(b) UIQ interface: UIQ (earlier known as User Interface Quartz) is a software package
developed by
UIQ Technology for Symbian OS. Essentially, this is a graphical user interface layer that
provides

capabilities for third-party application developers to develop applications and effortlessly

create user interfaces.

A few other important features supported by the Symbian operating system are
given below:

It supports a number of communication and networking protocols

including TCP, UDP, PPP, DNS, FTP, WAP, etc. For personal area networking, it supports
Bluetooth, InfraRed and USB connectivity.

Open standards and interoperability.

Open application environment.

Flexible User Interfact Design

It supports pre-emptive multitasking scheduling and memory protection.

Symbian is a microkernel-based operating system. It is optimized for low-power

and memory requirements.

Fully object-oriented design paradigm and component based.

iOS

 iOS Founder were Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs.

 Developed and distributed by Apple. Inc.,
 Apples mobile operating system considered the foundation of the iPhone
 iPhone OS was first unveiled in Jan 2007 at the Macworld Conference and Expo
 Released June 2007
 Originally designed for the iPhone but now supports iPod touch, iPad, and Apple
TV
 iOS is derived from Mac OS.
 Apple does not license iOS for installation on third-party hardware.
 The user interactions with OS include gestures such as swipe, tap, pinch, and
reverse pinch, all of which have specific definitions within the context of the iOS
operating system.
 The other innovative user interactions are internal accelerometers used by some
applications for shaking the device as the undo command, rotating the device in
three dimensions to switch the display mode from portrait to landscape, etc.

Android OS:
  Android is a Linux-based operating system for mobile devices such as smartphones
and tablet computers. There are more than 4,00,000 apps in Android Markets Android
specially developed for applications. Android has a better app market.

The Android is an open source

Android, Inc. found in Palo alto in California united states by Andy Rubin. - October 2003

 In 2005, Google acquired a small startup company called Android, which was
developing an

operating system for mobile devices based on Linux.

 The Open Handset Alliance, a group of serveral companies was formed – 5 Nov 2007.
To develop the

Android operating system as an open source software for mobile devices.

Android Beta SDK.

Android can run multiple apps at the Same Time.Also support optimized graphics
VGA, 2D graphics

and 3D graphics

Google could embed its search engine into Android, the way Internet Explorer is
embedded into

Windows.

Android provided the ability to seamlessly use either a phone-based keyboard or a

touchscreen.

Mobile users expect to browse real web pages, and not the simplified mobile versions
of those

pages.

Many mobile handsets support browsing alternative sites provided by many website
operators for mobile handsets with small screens and limited interfacing capabilities.

Android operating systems by providing a built-in full web browser capable of

rendering full web pages and not just small mobile versions.

An important handicap of the competing operating systems is the difficulty of

development of

third-party applications.

Apple does not facilitate third party application development and is implicitly
promoting a closed
proprietary environment, where the internal working of the operating system is not exposed
to the

developers.

A prominent advantage that Android holds out is that Android SDK works in
Eclipse

environment. Since many developers are already exposed to these standard technologies,
there is a

large pool of developers available for working on projects on the Android platform.

It provides an RDBMS SQLite for data storage and data sharing across various
applications.

It has several innovative pre-installed applications such as Gmail, Maps, voice

search, etc.

Android allows application developers to write code in the Java language. It

facilitates the development of applications with the help of a set of core Java libraries
developed by Google.

The Android code is structured into four different layers as shown in

Application layer

The Android operating system comes with a set of basic applications such as
web browser, email client, SMS program, maps, calendar, and contacts repository
management programs. All these applications are written using the Java programming
language J2ME.

Application framework

An application framework is used to implement a standard structure for different

applications. The application framework essentially provides a set of services that an
application programmer can make use of.

The services include managers and content providers.

Content providers enable applications to access data from other applications. A

notification manager allows an application to display custom alerts on the status bar.

Libraries and runtime

The available libraries are written using multiple languages such as C and C++.
These are called through a Java interface. These include a Surface Manager, 2D and 3D
graphics, Media Codecs like MPEG-4 and MP3, an SQL database SQLite and the web
browser engine called WebKit.
The Android runtime consists of two components.

1. The core libraries of the Java language.

2. Dalvik virtual machine.

Most applications that run on Android are written in Java.

Dalvik translates a Java application program into machine code of the mobile
device and executes it by invoking the operating system.

These can be compiled to ARM native code and installed using the Android native
development kit (SDK).

Every Android application runs its own process with its own instance of the Dalvik
virtual machine.

Kernel

Android kernel has been developed based on a version of Linux kernel. However, it has
excluded the Native X Window System and does not support the full set of standard GNU
libraries.

Based on the Linux kernel code, Android implements its own device drivers,
memory management, and process management and networking functionalities. Android is
multitasking and allows applications to run concurrently.

For example, it is possible to hear music and read or write an email at the same
time. Google initially maintained the kernel code they contributed to in the Linux public
distribution. Google maintains its own code tree. This has marked the branching of Android
from Linux code in the public distribution.

SDK Android Software Development Kit (SDK)

Cell phones are small in size and therefore can easily be carried everywhere like a
wallet.

Considering their portability and the powerful feature sets that they provide, they
have now come to play an important part in today’s society.

The mobile phones implement new and innovative functionalities. For example,
many handsets provide facilities for radio and television reception, timer and clock, Internet
access, camera, and calculator,etc.

A successful mobile operating system needs to facilitate the development of third-

party applications. The open operating systems stand out in facilitating the development of
third-party applications and Android application development tools have now been well
received.

Android SDK Environment

 The Android SDK (Software Development Kit) is a mobile application
development frame work using which developers can create applications for the Android
platform. The Android SDK provides the tools and libraries necessary to develop applications
that can run on Android-based devices.

Advantages:

Android SDK is the low processor of RAM requirements.

Android SDK can be installed on almost all common operating systems such as
Windows, Mac OS, and Linux.

The SDK comes with an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) and other tools
which are required to develop applications. Android SDK converts Java byte code to
Android’s Dalvik VM byte code. The android based applications, the developer codes the
applications using Java.

The environment to develop applications for Android consists of the Android SDK, the
IDE Eclipse and the Java Development Kit (JDK). After installing the SDK, which is done
by simply extracting the downloaded ZIP file in a folder, the path to the SDK has to be set in
the path environment variable. Eclipse can be used as the IDE, which also automatically
installs the Android SDK as a plug-in.

Features of SDK

Using the SDK, one can either run the application on the actual Android device or a
software emulator on the host machine. This is achieved by using the Android Debug Bridge
(ADB) available with the SDK.

ADB is a client-server program and includes three main components:

A client program which runs on the developer’s (called host) machine. One can
invoke aclient from a shell by issuing an adb command.

A daemon program which runs as a background process on each emulator or device

instance.

It is the part that actually manages the communication with the handset or the
emulator and helps in executing the application.

A server program which runs as a background process on the host machine. The
server manages communication between the client and an adb daemon that runs on the
emulator or the Android handset.

Android Application Components - Application components are the essential building

blocks of an Android application.

The following are the four components of an Android application.

Activity: Each activity presents a GUI screen of an application. For example, a chat
application might have one activity that allows to create a chat, another to view the previous
chat sessions, etc. Different activities form a cohesive chat application.

Content providers: Content providers are used for reading and writing data that are either
private to an application or shared across applications. By using the content provider, an
application can query or modify the stored data.

Service: A service denotes a background task and not for interacting through a user interface.
For example, a service might play music in the background while the user is interacting with
a different application.

Broadcast receivers: The broadcast receiver responds to broadcast announcements by an

application. For example, a battery monitoring application might broadcast that the battery is
low. Based on this, the music player might reduce the volume or the screen display may be
dimmed.

Android Software Stack Structure

To a user of a mobile handset, various functionalities are provided by a cooperative

working of a number of application programs and system programs. These collections of
programs can be decomposed into a hierarchy of four layers.

Advantages of Android

The mobile platform Android is an open platform and can be ported on almost every
type of cell phone.

The Android SDK to develop applications is possible on every operating system.

Android requires a low footprint of 250 KB.

The emulator of the Android platform has a modern design and is easy to use.
Application installation on the emulator/device is possible via Android Debug Bridge (ADB)
or via Eclipse

Google offers a very good documentation as well as many examples which cover
the most basic and important techniques used to get in touch with Android and the
application development on it.

Android supports robust libraries for media access, communication and data
transfer Android offers a real database SQLite using which meaningful data manipulation
and data Sharing across applications is possible.

Android has an integrated web browser which gives an experience similar to web
browsing using a desktop PC.

Android uses the standardized and open programming language Java.

Mobile Commerce

Mobile commerce, involves carrying out any activity related to buying and selling
of commodities, services, or information using the mobile hand-held devices.

The popularity of m-commerce can be traced to the convenience it offers both to the
buyers and sellers.

An important issue in M-commerce is how payments can be made securely and

rapidly as soon as a buyer decides to make a purchase.

The use of computers and networking in trade related transactions has been limited
to automatic teller machines (ATMs), banking networks, debit and credit card systems,
electronic money and electronic bill payment systems (E-payment).

Pros and Cons of M-Commerce

Advantages

1. For the business organization, the benefits of using M-commerce include customer
convenience, cost savings, and new business opportunities.

2. From the customer’s perspective, M-commerce provides the flexibility of anytime,

anywhere shopping using just a lightweight device. The customer can save substantial time
compared to visiting several stores for identifying the right product at the lowest price.

3. Mobile devices can be highly personalized, thereby providing an additional level of

convenience to the customers. For example, a repeat order for some items can be placed at
the touch of a button.

Disadvantages

1. Mobile devices do not generally offer graphics or processing power of a PC. The users are
therefore constrained to use small screen and keyboard and low resolution pictures and
videos.

2. The small screens of mobile devices limit the complexity of applications. For example, the
menu choice, and text typing capability are severely constrained

3. The underlying network imposes several types of restrictions. For example, the available
bandwidth is severely restricted, and international reach is prohibitively expensive.

Structure of Mobile Commerce

In mobile commerce, a content provider implements an application by providing two sets of

programs:
Architecture of a mobile commerce framework.

 The client-side Programs

The client-side programs run on the micro browsers installed on the users’ mobile
devices.
 The server-side Programs

To perform a database access and computations, reside on the host computer

(servers).

Mobile devices

Hand-held devices essentially present user interfaces to the mobile users. The users
specify their requests using the appropriate interface programs, which are then transmitted to
the mobile commerce application on the Internet. The results obtained from the mobile
commerce application are displayed in suitable formats.

Mobile middleware

The main purpose of mobile middleware is to seamlessly and transparently map

the Internet content to mobile phones that may sport a wide variety of operating systems,
markup languages, micro browsers, and protocols.

Most mobile middleware also handle encrypting and decrypting communication in

order to provide secure transactions.

Network

Mobile commerce has become possible mainly because of the availability of wireless
networks. User requests are delivered either to the closest wireless access point (in a wireless
local area network environment) or to a base station (in a cellular network environment).

Wired networks are optional for a mobile commerce system. However, host
computers (servers) are generally connected to wired networks such as the Internet. So user
requests are routed to these servers using transport and/or security mechanisms provided by
wired networks.
Host computers

Host computers are essentially servers that process and store all the information
needed for mobile commerce applications. Most application programs used in the mobile
commerce are hosted on these. These applications usually consist of three major
components: web servers, database servers, and application programs and support software.

The web servers help interact with the mobile client. The database servers store
data. The application program is the middleware that implements the business logic of the
mobile commerce application.

Mobile Payment Systems

Mobile payments are a natural evolution of E-payment schemes. A mobile

payment (or M-payment) may be defined as any payment instrument where a mobile device
is used to initiate, authorize and confirm an exchange of financial value in return for goods
and services.

Mobile devices include mobile phones, PDAs, and any other device that connects
to a mobile network for making payments.

A mobile device can also be used for payment of bills (especially utilities and
insurance premiums) with access to account-based payment instruments such as electronic
funds transfer, Internet banking payments, direct debit and electronic bill presentment.

The simple message exchange via short messaging services (SMS) may prove
more successful. The important payment solutions will be SMS-based, which can easily be
charged to the mobile phone bill of customers.

The problems of M-payment schemes are those of security, privacy, and guarding
against frauds.

The challenges for providing secure transactions are many and range from physical
theft of a mobile device which can be subsequently used for fraudulent payments.

Mobile Payment Schemes

Three popular types of M-payment schemes are currently being used:

(a) Bank account based

(b) Credit card based

(c) Micropayment

In each of these approaches, a third party service provider (bank, Credit

Card Company, or telecom company) makes a payment on the customer’s behalf. An
important question that needs to be answered is since the third party incurs an overhead in
making the payment, how would it recover the cost.
 First, the service provider may require pre-payment from users, leading to some
financial gain through investment of this fund. A service provider may charge a small amount
as service charge, which can decrease with increasing customer base.

(A)Bank account based M-payment

The bank account of the customer is linked to his mobile phone number. When the
customer makes an Mpayment transaction with a vendor or in a shopping complex, based on
a Bluetooth or wireless LAN connectivity with the vendor, the bank account of the customer
is debited and the alue is credited to the vendor’s account.

(B) Credit card based M-payment

In the credit card based M-payment, the credit card number is linked to the mobile
phone number of the customer. When the customer makes an M-payment transaction with a
merchant, the credit card is charged and the value is credited to the merchant’s account.

(C) Micropayment

Micropayment is intended for payment for small purchases such as from vending
machines. The mobile device can communicate with the vending machine directly using a
Bluetooth or wireless LAN connection to negotiate the payment and then the micropayment
is carried out.

A customer makes a call to the number of a service provider where the per call
charge is equal to the cost of the vending item. Thus, the micropayment scheme is
implemented through the cooperation of the mobile phone operator and a third party service
provider. This approach has been used for vending from Coca-Cola machines.

Security Issues

1. Trace: Users of mobile devices can be difficult to trace because of roaming of the users.
Also, the mobile

devices go on-line and off-line frequently. Thus, attacks would be very difficult to trace.

2. Loss or Theft: A mobile device that is stolen or has fallen into wrong hands can cause
frauds that are difficult to track and prevent. A major problem in this regard is the lack of any
satisfactory mechanism to authenticate a particular user.

UNIT V

1. M-Commerce did not originate in which of the following countries?

A. Norway

B. Austria
C. United States

D. Japan

2. One weakness of m-commerce is that:

A. Security measures are few and far between

B. It is too expensive

C. It is considered an item for the elite status group

D. It is failing to permeate societal norms

E. Security measures are too strict

3. Which of the following is not considered a device suitable for m-commerce?

A. An iPod Touch with internet access

B. Smart Phones

C. Blackberry

D. Motorola Droid

E. None of the above

4. Global marketing and advertising revenue are expected to exceed one billion dollars in:

A. Europe

B. Asia

C. North America

D. Antarctica

E. None of the above

5. The first company to engage in m-commerce was:

A. Pepsi

B. Coca-Cola

C. Cadbury

D. Kraft

E. Apple

6. Which of the following is not a current application of m-commerce?

A. IPhone Zagat

B. RedLaser

C. JoJo Contactless Payment service

D. Zynga Farmer Exchange

7. Which of the following is not an obstacle to m-commerce?

A. Slow Connectivity

B. Security

C. Reliability

D. Standardization

E. None of the above

8. What year did m-commerce begin?

A. 1955

B. 1977

C. 1989

D. 1997

E. 2001

9. What is the name of the European association who is standardizing m-commerce?

A. FCC

B. SimPay

C. Pay Pal

D. RCR

E. EU Communication Bureau

10. Who first coined the term mobile commerce?

A. Kevin Duffey

B. Duffer brothers

C. Warren Buffet

D. Bill Gates
11. What is the name of first operating system for mobile?

A. webos
B. Tizen
C. Simon
D. LuneOS

12. Simon was created by?

A. IBM
B. Microsoft
C. Apple
D. Google

13. Mobile operating systems (OS) are specialized software that runs on?

A. smartphones
B. tablets
C. Both A and B
D. None of the above

14. Blackberry OS is an operating system used on Blackberry smartphones.

A. TRUE
B. FALSE
C. Can be true or false
D. Can not say

15. Which OS developed by the Linux Foundation?

A. iOS
B. KaiOS
C. LuneOS
D. Tizen

16. What is the most widely used mobile operating system?

A. Android
B. ios
C. Blackberry OS
D. Both A and B

17. Which OS known for its user-friendly interface, strong security features, and a wide range
of built-in apps and features?

A. Android
B. IOS
C. Windows
D. Tizen
18. Which of the following are advantage of Android?

A. flexibility
B. customization options
C. a large app ecosystem
D. All of the above

19. Mobile operating systems are continuously updated with new features, security patches
and bug fixes, which keeps the device running smoothly and securely.
A. TRUE
B. FALSE
C. Can be true or false
D. Can not say

20. Which of the following are disadvantages of mobile operating systems?

A. Fragmentation
B. Battery Drain
C. Limited Hardware support
D. All of the above

21. What is the name of the mobile operating system developed by Google?

A) iOS

B) Android

C) Windows Phone

D) BlackBerry OS

22. Which mobile operating system is considered to be the most secure?

A) iOS

B) Android

C) Windows Phone

D) BlackBerry OS

23. Which mobile operating system is used primarily on Apple devices?

A) iOS

B) Android

C) Windows Phone

D) BlackBerry OS
24. Which mobile operating system was developed by Microsoft?

A) iOS

B) Android

C) Windows Phone

D) BlackBerry OS

25. Which mobile operating system is considered to be the most popular globally?

A) iOS

B) Android

C) Windows Phone

D) BlackBerry OS

26. Which mobile operating system is used primarily on Samsung devices?

A) iOS

B) Android

C) Windows Phone

D) BlackBerry OS

27. Which mobile operating system is known for its focus on privacy and security?

A) iOS

B) Android

C) Windows Phone

D) BlackBerry OS

28. Which mobile operating system is considered to be the oldest and most established?

A) iOS

B) Android

C) Windows Phone

D) BlackBerry OS
29. Which mobile operating system is known for its integration with other Microsoft
products and services?

A) iOS

B) Android

C) Windows Phone

D) BlackBerry OS

30. Which mobile operating system is considered to be a niche player in the market?

A) iOS

B) Android

C) Windows Phone

D) BlackBerry OS

5 MARK & 10 MARK

1. Explain Mobile Payment Models and security issues.

2. Differentiate E-Commerce and M-Commerce.

3. Compare and contrast the various Mobile OS

4.Discuss the applications of M-Commerce.

5. Give four examples of Mobile OS?

6. What is M-Commerce?

7. Explain the components of Mobile Operating System?

8.Write short notes on Android SDK?

9. Explain the various applications of M-Commerce

10. Explain the Mobile Payment Schemes and Security Issues?