Topic 2 - Paper 2 questions [420 marks]

1. [Maximum mark: 7] 24N.2.SL.TZ1.3

Figure 3(a): A simplified food web in a kelp forest ecosystem

Figure 3(b): Kelp forest ecosystems with and without the presence of sea
otters
The arrows indicate the flow of carbon between the atmosphere and the carbon
stored in kelp.
(a) Calculate the difference between carbon stored in kelp in the
ecosystem with and without sea otters. [1] 

Markscheme

180 (g C m−2) − 14 (g C m−2) = 166 (g C m−2);

(b) Outline why sea otters are considered a keystone species.

[1] 

Markscheme

a. They protect the integrity of the food web / regulate herbivore

populations;
b. Without them the biodiversity is reduced/food web may collapse;
c. Without them the kelp forest/ecosystem structure is severely
weakened;
(c) Explain how sea otters contribute to the resilience of the kelp
forest ecosystem. [3] 

Markscheme

a. The presence of sea otters increases the resiliency of the kelp forest
ecosystem;
b. The otters control the sea urchin/snail/crab/herbivore population
which allows the kelp forest to remain intact;

Resiliency increases with:

c. …greater overall biodiversity with sea otters present;

d. …more biomass/greater storages with sea otters present;
e. …greater productivity leads to greater cycling of nutrients;
f. …more complex food webs/species interactions;

Note to examiners: 2 max if no explicit connection to resilience

(d) Outline how the protection of sea otters could help mitigate
climate change. [2] 

Markscheme

a. more sea otters would result in control of crab/snail/urchin

population...;
b. increasing/stabilizing kelp abundance;
c. Increasing primary productivity/photosynthesis;
d. resulting in higher assimilation of carbon dioxide/removal from
atmosphere;
2. [Maximum mark: 7] 24M.2.SL.TZ1.1
Figure 1: Carbon cycle

[Source: The Globe Program, 2017. Global Carbon Cycle Model. [image online] Available at:
https://www.globe.gov/do-globe/measurement-campaigns/past-projects/earth-as-a-system-
projects/carbon-cycle [Accessed 13 December 2022]. Source adapted.]

(a) Identify one carbon flow caused by human activities in Figure

1. [1] 

Markscheme

Deforestation and land use change / Burning fossil fuels

(b) Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate the flows of carbon

between plants and the atmosphere shown in Figure 1.
 [2] 

Markscheme

flows: respiration/deforestation AND photosynthesis;

stores: plants AND atmosphere;

Note: [1] for correctly labelled stores;

[1] for correctly labelled flows in each direction;

(c) Using the data in Figure 1, calculate the net gain in carbon in
the oceans in 1015 g. [1] 

Markscheme

(92 + 0.8) − (90 + 0.1) = 2.7 (x 1015 g C yr−1)

(d) Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of the oceans

as a carbon sink.

[2] 
 Markscheme

Advantage:
oceans are large so absorb a lot of CO2 / increases primary
productivity/photosynthesis / reduces global warming/climate change;

Disadvantage:
increasing CO2 in oceans causes acidification / ocean acidification harms
sensitive marine species/ecosystems like coral reefs;

(e) Outline one method to mitigate the effects of atmospheric

carbon storage. [1] 

Markscheme

a. reforestation/afforestation initiatives so that more carbon can be

absorbed;
b. carbon capture and storage/CCS to bury CO2 underground;
c. land use change/urban renewal leading to revegetation/green roofs
to absorb CO2;
d. switch to renewable energy to reduce use of fossil fuels;

Note: There are multiple acceptable responses to this question i.e. any process that reduces release of CO2
or absorbs CO2 from atmosphere

NB This is an “outline” question, not “identify”, so requires a little more than “reforestation” (i.e. WHY
reforestation?) or “reduce use of fossil fuels” (...need to state HOW fossil fuel use might be reduced)

3. [Maximum mark: 20] 24M.2.SL.TZ1.4

(a) Outline the distinctive features of the anthropocentric
environmental value system. [4] 
 Markscheme

It ascribes to:

a. a human responsibility to maintain the environment;

b. concept of stewardship;
c. sustainable exploitation of the environment;
d. management/supervision of human activity;
e. imposing sustainable practices through legislation;
f. use of incentives/disincentives to regulate exploitation
(compensations/taxes/fines etc.);
g. public debate to reach consensual resolutions/pragmatic approaches;
h. population control is of equal importance to management of resource
use;

Note: Allow credit for any feature that distinguishes anthropocentrism form one or more alternative value
systems.
Do not credit responses implying more cornucopian values e.g. Human supremacy / dominance over
environment / only concerned with human benefit.

(b) With reference to a named herbivore species, explain why its

population growth curve follows an S-shape. [7] 

Markscheme

a. original colonisers are small in number;

b. unfamiliarity with local resources/habitat may hinder early
growth/result in a lag phase;
c. as they reproduce there are more individuals that can reproduce/few
limiting factors to constrain growth;
d. this creates a faster growth rate;
e. resulting in positive feedback/exponential increase;
f. growth rate/curve eventually slows down/flattens/plateaus out due to
limiting factors;
 g. limiting factors may include e.g. food/water/nesting material etc.;
h. if population increases this will reduce food availability/increase
predation;
i. causing a subsequent decrease in population/minor fluctuations in
growth rate;
j. maintaining a stability/equilibrium/carrying capacity/negative
feedback/density dependent regulation

Note: accept marking points on an annotated diagram

Award 6 max if no herbivore is named.

(c) To what extent would an anthropocentric approach to

addressing human population growth be the most successful in
maintaining a sustainable population? [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

understanding concepts & terminology of anthropocentrism;

ecocentrism; technocentrism; soft ecologists; environmental
managers; carrying capacity; ecological footprint; population policies;
pro-natal/anti-natal; incentives; disincentives; sustainable
 development; personal and communal improvement; community
involvement; legal regulations; etc.
breadth in addressing and linking different value systems and
different approaches to population regulation including a range of
development policies.
examples of anthropocentric national/international policies, other
named value systems; national populations and population policies
etc.
balanced analysis evaluating extent to which anthropocentric
policies are most conducive to sustainable development of human
populations compared with other approaches.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. Anthropocentric approaches to maintaining a
sustainable population are more realistic than the ideology of
ecocentric approaches and the recklessness of extreme technocentric
approaches.

NB Although our syllabus takes the view of anthropocentrism indicated in MS for 4a, there is a popular
perception that is more toward a cornucopian value system, where humans are rightfully dominant over the
environment and nature has a purely instrumental value as it serves humankind. While this represents a
misunderstanding of the term defined in our syllabus, please apply the spirit of ECF and be prepared to
credit arguments based on this perception.

Please see markbands

4. [Maximum mark: 20] 24M.2.SL.TZ1.5

(a) Outline the processes by which nitrogen in the atmosphere
may eventually be found in the protein of a decomposer. [4] 

Markscheme

a. nitrogen cycles within ecosystems/is recycled in the Earth system;

b. nitrogen gas may diffuse into the soil;
 c. nitrifying bacteria convert the nitrogen to ammonium/nitrites;
d. further bacteria convert the nitrites to nitrates;
e. lightning transforms/oxidises the nitrogen to nitrates;
f. nitrates are taken up by the roots of plants;
g. nitrates are transferred to the leaves of plants;
h. nitrates are assimilated into organic molecules/amino
acids/proteins/nucleic acids in the plant;
i. the leaf/plant dies and enters the soil/becomes detritus;
j. the proteins are consumed/absorbed by
decomposers/detritivores/saprotrophs;

Note: Marking points may be credited if conveyed explicitly by an appropriate annotated diagram.

(b) Explain why pyramids of numbers, biomass and productivity

may vary in shape for different food chains. [7] 

Markscheme

a. pyramids of productivity tend to get smaller at higher levels;

b. this is because energy is lost between trophic levels;
c. seasonal productivity at lower levels could temporarily be smaller;
d. …but annual productivity should always decrease at higher levels;
e. pyramids of numbers tend to get smaller at higher levels due to losses;
f. …but may get larger if individuals at lower trophic levels are larger
(e.g. trees);
g. pyramids of biomass tend to get smaller at higher levels due to losses;
h. …but as they reflect standing stock (and not rate of flow) they can be
inverted;
i. pyramids may become larger at higher levels if they represent a single
food chain in a larger food web;
j. …because more biomass may be fed in from other food chains;
k. food chain with more trophic levels will have longer shape;
l. pyramids of productivity tend to be pyramid shaped because they
show flow of energy over time;
 m. ...and because the second law of thermodynamics means energy is lost
in the flow;

Note: Alternative valid points describing/explaining why pyramid shape may vary can be credited.

Do not credit vague statements claiming shape will be “different” without explaining in what way it will
differ.

(c) To what extent can the practical strategies for obtaining data
for a pyramid of numbers be made reliable? [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

understanding concepts & terminology of reliability in sampling;

quadrats (including number, size, positioning, species distribution);
transects; aerial photographs; traps; nets; Lincoln index;
mark/release/recapture (including issues of marking technique, trap-
happy and trap shy phenomena, time interval); aquatic sampling use
of dragnets, kick samples); camera traps (difficulty of extrapolation);
general sampling issues (including repetition; extrapolation; seasonal
variation; randomisation); total census; abundance; bias; scientific
expertise; etc.
 breadth in addressing and linking different sampling methodologies
with varying degree of reliability for a range of different sessile and
motile populations in a range of different habitats;
examples of named sampling methods appropriate for different
named species etc.
balanced analysis evaluating extent to which sampling method can
be executed to produce reliable data; practical issues hindering
application of methodologies in the field.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. All methods of sampling inevitably involve a
degree of inaccuracy compared with a total census, but they can
always be made more reliable by repeated executions.

Please see markbands

5. [Maximum mark: 20] 24M.2.SL.TZ1.6

(a) Outline the mechanisms by which a terrestrial species may have
evolved from an aquatic ancestor. [4] 

Markscheme

a. there was genetic variety in aquatic species / mutations accumulated

over years;
b. certain features may have adaptation/advantage for terrestrial
existence;
c. individuals with these features could colonize terrestrial habitat;
d. they would be more likely to survive/survival of the fittest/experience
less competition (natural selection);
e. they produce offspring like themselves/feature will become more
abundant;
f. individuals with feature may be unable to breed with others without
feature/speciation occurs / reproductive/geographical barrier will give
 rise to new terrestrial species;

(b) Explain the ways in which species diversity and an abundance

of plant and herbivore species will increase the resilience of an
ecosystem. [7] 

Markscheme

Diversity:

a. a greater diversity of plant and herbivore species would mean there

are more species to take over the role of any that would be lost/creates
a more complex food web;
b. a wider variety/diversity set of plant species will support a wider range
of herbivores/increase habitat diversity;
c. a wider variety/diversity of plant species will be able to exploit a wider
range of abiotic conditions;
d. more plant species/greater plant diversity will be more likely to
include species that will survive a change in conditions;
e. a wider variety/diversity plant species will increase interspecific
competition resulting in evolution of more species;
f. a wider variety/diversity of herbivorous species will support a wider
range of predators;
g. a wider variety/diversity of herbivore species will occupy a wider
range of niches adding to the complexity of the system;

Abundance:

h. a greater abundance/larger populations of plant species means

greater primary productivity which supports a greater
abundance/larger populations of herbivores;
i. a greater abundance/larger populations of plant species is less likely to
become extinct from the ecosystem;
j. a greater abundance/larger populations of herbivores will support a
greater abundance/larger populations of predators;
 k. a greater abundance/larger populations of herbivores will be less
likely to become extinct in the ecosystem;

(c) Evaluate management strategies for reducing the impact of

agricultural pollution on an aquatic ecosystem. [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

understanding concepts & terminology of agricultural pollution;

inorganic fertilizers; organic run-off/slurry; persistent pesticides;
biomagnification; erosion; spraying; biological control; buffer zones;
organic fertilizers; eutrophication; mud-pumping; re-introduction of
aquatic species; levels of pollution management etc.
breadth in addressing and linking different forms of agricultural
pollutants with effective management strategies to protect or clean-up
different aquatic ecosystems.
examples of different pollutants; agricultural practices; management
strategies; aquatic systems etc.
balanced analysis evaluating advantages and disadvantages of
management strategies employed to reduce impacts of agricultural
pollution.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. The most effective management strategies are
those that prevent pollutants being released in the first place e.g.
 replacing inorganic with organic fertilizers, but this is not always the
most economically feasible for farmers.

Please see markbands

6. [Maximum mark: 7] 23N.2.SL.TZ1.1

Figure 1: A sample food chain from a marine ecosystem to show the
concentration of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and the energy within
each trophic level

[Source: Toller, R., 2019. Harbour seal. [online] Available at:

https://www.flickr.com/photos/richardtoller/48317311956/ [Accessed 8 February
2022]. Under CC BY-ND 2.0 DEED licence
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/bynd/2.0/. Image cropped.
Historic NMFS Collection, n.d. [Atlantic cod]. [online] Available at:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Atlantic_cod.jpg [Accessed 8 February
2022].
NOAA Fish Watch, 2012. [Atlantic herring]. [online] Available at:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clupea_harengus.png [Accessed 8
 February 2022].
NASA Earth Observatory, 2010. What are Phytoplankton? [online] Available at:
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Phytoplankton [Accessed 8 February
2022]. Source adapted.]
(a) State the trophic level of zooplankton.
[1] 

Markscheme

Primary consumer / second trophic level/2nd;

(b) State the relationship between POPs concentration and trophic

level. [1] 

Markscheme

POP concentration increases/is higher moving up to higher/at increasing

trophic levels / positive/direct correlation / as one increases the other
increases;

Note: Do not credit biomagnification or bioconcentration in response to this question.

(c) Explain the relationship between POPs concentration and

trophic level. [2] 

Markscheme

a. POPs bioaccumulate/bioconcentrate within organisms/tissues, as they

are taken up from surrounding environment/polluted ocean
water/food;
b. … because POPs are non-biodegradable/don’t break down…;
c. …and result in biomagnification, as they pass from one trophic level to
the next (across levels)...;
d. ...due to the decrease of biomass/energy (respiratory losses) up the
food chain;
 Note: Do not award marks if similar statements are given in (b) and (c)

(d) Calculate, as a percentage, the efficiency of energy transfer

between zooplankton and herring. [1] 

Markscheme

(25/500) x 100 = 5 (%);

(e) Outline one strength and one weakness of a pyramid of

productivity as a model to represent energy in an ecosystem.

[2] 

Markscheme

Strength: [1 max]

a. shows the flow/production rate of energy/biomass through a food

chain (rather than the standing stock) / never inverted;
b. tracks change over time (rather than "snapshot" in time);
c. more efficient comparison of different ecosystems;
d. Visual representation / simplification of complex system/ easy to
communicate information to non-specialist;
e. can be used to make predictions;

Weakness: [1 max]

a. difficult to place organisms that occupy more than one trophic level;
b. hard to get accurate data because collection is difficult / inevitably
some values are approximate;
 c. (estimating in field) may involve killing of organisms;
d. oversimplification and loss of detail/complexities of interacting factors

7. [Maximum mark: 20] 23N.2.SL.TZ1.6

(a) Outline how the abundance of a motile species in an ecosystem
can be measured. [4] 

Markscheme

a. abundance of motile organisms can be measured using direct and/or

indirect methods;
b. numbers can be counted from aerial images/ satellite images/trigger
cameras over a representative area
c. overall population numbers can be calculated from extrapolation to
whole area;
d. mark recapture techniques can be used to sample populations /
description of Lincoln Index method/equation;
e. method of capture e.g. pitfall trap/live trap/collection of species
f. method of marking with appropriate tag that doesn’t affect survival;
g. appropriate time interval between release and recapture

(b) Explain one natural and one human-caused factor that

influences changes in biodiversity. [7] 

Markscheme

Natural factor [4 max]:

(Extinction)
a. mass extinctions of the past/local extinctions caused by various natural
factors, have (temporarily) reduced biodiversity;
b. e.g. tectonic plate activity / super-volcanic eruption;
c. e.g. climatic changes (including drought and ice ages);
 d. e.g. meteorite impacts;

(Evolution)

a. Evolution is a natural factor that has led to increased biodiversity;

b. Mutation leads to increases in genetic diversity;
c. Natural selection may lead to some reduction in genetic diversity;
d. Speciation has led to increased species diversity;
e. Adaptive radiation has led to increased speciation/genetic diversity;

Human caused factor [4 max]:

(Extinction)
a. human activity is considered to be causing a sixth mass extinction;
b. e.g. habitat destruction/deforestation/urbanisation;
c. e.g. pollution of freshwater water
bodies/oceans/soils/atmosphere/leading to climate
change/associated environmental hazards;
d. e.g. over-exploitation of resources/overfishing/hunting/intensive
agriculture;

(Conservation)

a. conservation/restoration of ecosystems has led to increased

biodiversity;
b. e.g. establishment of national parks/nature reserves etc.;
c. e.g. ex situ conservation/zoos/plantations/seed banks reduce loss of
biodiversity;
d. e.g. legislation/trade agreements protecting species e.g. CITES/fishing
quotas/endangered species act;

(c) Discuss the effectiveness of habitat-based conservation in

relation to the impacts of climate change. [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.
The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with ‘understanding concepts’) This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may include:

understanding concepts and terminology of habitat-based

conservation; species-based conservation; reserves; national parks;
size; shape; edge effects; corridors; buffer zones; ecotourism; climate
change; precipitation patterns; global warming; biome shifts;
migrations; extinctions; salinity change; melting glaciers; hazardous
weather events; droughts; rising sea levels; salt intrusion etc.
breadth in addressing and linking a good range of features of
habitat-based conservation including design and management of
reserves and their relevance in addressing a range of impacts from
climate change including those leading to loss of biodiversity and
changing distribution patterns.
examples of named conservation areas from a variety of named
regions/countries and examples of named species impacted by climate
change along with relevant named organisations currently addressing
habitat conservation (e.g. World Wildlife Fund for Nature, Greenpeace,
Friends of the Earth International and Earth First!)
balanced analysis evaluating the degree to which the various aspects
of conservation areas can or cannot effectively address the threats of
climate change including both strengths and limitations of habitat-
based conservation.
A conclusion that is consistent with and supported by analysis and
examples given, e.g. habitat-based conservation strategies are
effective, especially when contrasted to species approach, but cannot
compensate for climate change impacts on their own; there needs to
be international cooperation and political will toward mitigating
climate change altogether.
8. [Maximum mark: 20] 23N.2.SL.TZ1.7
(a) Outline two transfers and two transformations within a soil
system [4] 

Markscheme

Transfers [2 max]:

a. biological mixing of nutrients and inorganic material;

b. movement of water due to percolation/infiltration;
c. minerals dissolved in water moving through soil/leaching;
d. feeding/ingesting of organic matter;
e. uptake of nutrients by plants;
f. soil erosion by wind/water.
g. sediment deposition;

Transformations [2 max]:

a. decomposition of organic matter/detritus/by decomposers;

b. weathering of parent material resulting in increase of inorganic matter,
c. nutrient cycling example e.g. carbon/nitrogen/phosphorus;
d. respiration by living organisms;

(b) Compare and contrast the pathways of energy through the

atmosphere and the pathways of energy through an
ecosystem. [7] 

Markscheme

In both (compare) [4 max]:

a. energy is not created or destroyed.

b. the source of energy is the sun.
c. energy is transformed from one form to another.
d. energy is lost as radiated heat.
 e. sunlight energy is reflected, absorbed, radiated.

Contrast [4 max]:

a. energy from the sun is reflected by clouds in the atmosphere

b. …and by light surfaces/ice in ecosystems.
c. energy from the sun is absorbed by clouds/GHG in the atmosphere
d. ...and by the earth’s surface/organisms/soil/water in ecosystems;
e. the energy from the sun is used in photosynthesis by plants only in
ecosystems (not in atmosphere);
f. energy is lost as the radiation of heat through respiration in
ecosystems as it is passed through food chains
g. ...whereas in the atmosphere it is lost through radiation from
resonating GHGs;
h. transfers/transformations of energy in ecosystems often go through
living organisms, but not in the atmosphere;

(c) To what extent are food production systems impacted by

anthropogenic (human-caused) changes to the atmosphere? [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the mark bands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the mark bands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with ‘understanding concepts’) This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate mark band and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may include:

understanding concepts and terminology of food production

systems; subsistence; commercial; intensive; extensive; terrestrial;
aquatic; acid rain; global warming; climate change; precipitation
 patterns; hazardous weather events; inundation; ocean acidification;
ozone depletion; tropospheric ozone; photochemical smog;
breadth in addressing and linking a wide range of anthropogenic
impacts on the atmosphere’s composition and temperature with their
associated impacts (both positive and negative) on a wide range of
food production systems in different environments/regions.
examples of named impacts on named food production systems in
named locations and societies due to named anthropogenic
influences on the atmosphere.
balanced analysis evaluating the extent to which anthropogenic
impacts on the atmosphere do or do not influence food production
systems either positively or negatively.
a conclusion that is consistent with and supported by analysis and
examples given, e.g. There are a wide range of anthropogenic
influences on the atmosphere that impact both terrestrial and aquatic
food production systems and although some impacts may positively
affect productivity, the great majority tend to reduce it.

9. [Maximum mark: 9] 23M.2.SL.TZ1.1

Figure 1(a): Extinction risk levels of species in global biodiversity by category
[Source: IPBES (2019): Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. E. S. Brondizio,
J. Settele, S. Díaz, and H. T. Ngo (editors). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 1148 pages.
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3831673. Creative Commons 4.0 Attribution 4.0 International
(CC BY 4.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. (source adapted - Image A Pg. XXX redrawn).].
(a) State the category with the highest percentage of vulnerable
species in Figure 1(a). [1] 

Markscheme

Coral (reef-forming);

(b) Outline two reasons why Amphibians have the highest

percentage of critically endangered species in Figure 1(a).
 [2] 

Markscheme

a. They require both aquatic and terrestrial habitats/specialised niches so

more likely to be affected by habitat loss/limitations;
b. They have permeable/soft skin more vulnerable to
disease/UV/pollution;
c. Few amphibians have great public/charismatic appeal attracting
protection/conservation efforts;
d. They generally have very limited parental care so offspring more
vulnerable/high mortality rates in offspring;
e. They often depend on small bodies of water that are particularly
vulnerable to drought/global warming/human development of
wetlands;

Note: Only credit marks that are explicitly related to the vulnerability of amphibians. General factors such
as habitat destruction, hunting or climate change alone are TV.

(c) Using Figure 1(a), state the approximate percentage of

threatened crustaceans. [1] 

Markscheme

28;

Note: Accept 26–29

(d) Describe one reason for the lack of available data for
crustaceans. [1] 

Markscheme

a. They are mobile species/some have large habitat range;

 b. Lack of expertise in identifying species (exacerbated by multiple
immature stages in life cycle);
c. The oceans are vast and difficult/expensive to do research in;
d. Many species camouflage with their surroundings / difficult species to
capture and tag;
e. Some species inhabit inaccessible regions;
f. Sea-floors beneath ice-sheets round Antarctica have been little
explored.

Figure 1(b): Changing species extinction risk by category 1980–2015

[Source: IPBES (2019): Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. E. S. Brondizio, J.
Settele, S. Díaz, and H. T. Ngo (editors). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 1148 pages. https://doi.
org/10.5281/zenodo.3831673. Creative Commons 4.0 Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. (source adapted – Image C Pg. XX redrawn).]
(e) Outline three reasons why the trend for corals is different to the
other categories shown in Figure 1(b). [3] 

Markscheme

corals ...

a. are sedentary/cannot migrate (to avoid pollution or other risks);

b. are r-selected species so high mortality rates (in planktonic phase);
c. (have delicate symbiotic relationship) highly sensitive to small
changes in abiotic conditions;
d. are impacted worldwide through ocean acidification (causing
bleaching);
e. are impacted worldwide by global warming/climate change/warmer
waters (causing bleaching);
f. inhabit areas with high human polluting activity such as urban
waste/agricultural run-off/oil spills/aquaculture;
g. have value as souvenirs/trophy/collectors’ items;
h. are fragile/easily damaged unintentionally (by boats/nets/storms etc);
i. have very slow growth rates (in sedentary phase);
j. have limited ranges/ocean depths/habitats where they can live;

Credit any response that is consistent with the increasing trend of extinction in corals.
Do not credit “pollution” alone there must be reference to a relevant source of pollutant as in MPf

(f ) Figures 1(a) and 1(b) are based on records for species diversity.
Identify one other factor that may be measured to assess the
diversity of life on Earth. [1] 

Markscheme

a. genetic diversity;
b. habitat diversity;
 Do not accept “evenness/equitability” or “richness” they are already included within concept of species
diversity

10. [Maximum mark: 20] 23M.2.SL.TZ1.4

(a) Outline the transfers and transformations of matter as it enters
and flows through the first trophic level of a food chain. [4] 

Markscheme

Transfers: [3 max]

a. Carbon dioxide diffuses into leaves;

b. Nitrates/phosphates/(inorganic) minerals diffuse/actively transported
into roots;
c. Water is taken up/diffuses into roots;
d. Sugars translocated from leaves to other parts of the plant;
e. Water vapour/oxygen diffuses out of leaves;
f. Organic matter is transferred to next trophic level/decomposers
through feeding

Transformations: [3 max]

a. Conversion of carbon dioxide/water into organic

matter/glucose/oxygen in photosynthesis;
b. Conversion of some organic matter into inorganic matter/CO2/water
through respiration;
c. Conversion of glucose to other organic compounds in metabolism;
d. Water evaporates through leaves in transpiration;
e. Conversion of organic matter to inorganic matter through
decomposition

Only credit transfers/transformations referring to matter (not energy).

(b) Describe how the emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels
may impact the productivity of terrestrial ecosystems. [7] 

Markscheme

a. CO2/greenhouse gas emissions lead to increasing global/atmospheric

temperatures;
b. Increased temps may cause increase in rate of
photosynthesis/increased productivity;
c. ...or may cause evaporation of water/desertification/drought;
d. ...extreme temperatures could result in enzyme
denaturation/decreasing productivity;
e. CO2 emissions may increase rate of photosynthesis increasing
productivity;
f. Extreme weather events from CO2 concentration/global warming
resulting in droughts/floods/saline inundation/forest fires;
g. NOx may cause depletion of stratospheric ozone and increased
exposure to UV radiation;
h. ...which will damage plants & reduce primary productivity;
i. NOx/hydrocarbons may cause photochemical smog that damages
plants/reduces primary productivity;
j. NOx/hydrocarbons may produce tropospheric ozone further
increasing atmospheric temperatures;
k. NOx/SOx are sources of acid deposition that can alter soil pH/damage
plants reducing productivity;
l. ...also causing the leaching of soil nutrients which reduces
productivity;
m. ...or causing the release of toxic metal ions that damage plants,
reducing productivity;
n. ...reduction in primary productivity is likely to cause loss of secondary
productivity;

Accept other reasonable responses linked to productivity of ecosystem.

(c) With reference to named societies, to what extent do the
environmental impacts of energy resources influence their
choice of energy? [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

understanding concepts & terminology of renewable/non-

renewable energies; wind; solar; hydro; geothermal; fossil fuels; global
warming/climate change; acid deposition; ozone depletion;
photochemical smog; oil spills; political/economic/geographic factors
affecting energy choice; energy security etc.
breadth in addressing and linking energy choices of a range of
different countries in different locations to environmental impacts and
other factors.
examples of named energy sources, and countries energy choices,
and environmental impacts; and other influences etc.
balanced analysis evaluating extent to which energy choice is
determined more by environmental impact than any other influence.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. Although countries are becoming more concerned with regard to
environmental impact, while MEDCs may afford environmentally friendly choices, the need in LEDCs
to adopt economic solutions tends to be an over-riding factor in energy choices.
Note: Reward giving specific examples: e.g. UK, Netherlands, France, Scandinavia are leaders in
relatively expensive (to install) wind power.
11. [Maximum mark: 20] 23M.2.SL.TZ1.6
(a) A new parasite is introduced into an ecosystem and manages to
infect a host species. Outline how the host and parasite species [4] 
may reach an equilibrium over time.

Markscheme

a. The parasite species may grow slowly to begin with because there are
only a few of them to reproduce;
b. They will then grow at an increasing/exponential rate as the numbers
reproducing increase;
c. Eventually they may begin to cause a fall in the number of hosts;
d. This will cause a subsequent decline in the number of parasite species;
e. This in turn will allow the host species to recover;
f. This reciprocal/cyclical fluctuation may continue indefinitely;
g. Achieving a negative feedback mechanism/dynamic equilibrium;
h. hosts that are best able to tolerate the parasite are the most likely to
survive/reproduce/increase in numbers;
i. parasites that kill their hosts often struggle to reproduce as efficiently,
so the milder versions might be more likely to
survive/reproduce/increase in numbers;
j. which in means over time parasites are less deadly and hosts are less
affected;

(b) Explain how tectonic plate activity may lead to the formation of
new species. [7] 

Markscheme

a. Volcanic activity may give rise to new habitats eg mountains/islands;

b. Continental drift may bring populations into new climates;
c. Populations may get divided by geographical barriers/uplift of
mountains/plates separating;
d. Different parts of the population may find themselves in new
habitats/climates;
 e. There may be a variety of traits/genetic diversity in the population;
f. Some features/genetic traits may be more adapted/fit for the new
habitat/climate/subject to natural selection;
g. Individuals with these adaptive traits will be most likely to survive;
h. These survivors will pass the adaptive features on to their offspring;
i. Over time further adaptations may give rise to a population that is
unable to interbreed with original species;
j. Once the populations are unable to interbreed a new species has been
formed

(c) Justify the role of different environmental value systems (EVSs)

in deciding between in situ and ex situ conservation strategies. [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

understanding concepts & terminology of ex situ/in situ

conservation; ecocentric/anthropocentric and technocentric value
systems; biorights; intrinsic value; deep ecology; cornucopian values;
stewardship; keystone species; flagship species; reserves; zoos;
breeding/re-introduction programmes; gene banks; etc.
breadth in addressing and linking a range of in situ/ex situ
conservation strategies with different value systems/perspectives on
the nature of living things/species.
examples of different value systems; different perspectives on living
things and different in situ & ex situ conservation strategies.
 balanced analysis evaluating the relative merits and demerits of
different values systems and their perspectives on in situ v ex situ
conservation.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. While ecocentrics are more likely to value the hands-off approach
possible with in situ conservation there are certain cases where a natural habitat is so degraded the
only way forward for conserving a given species is the more technocentric ex situ conservation.

12. [Maximum mark: 20] 23M.2.SL.TZ1.5

(a) With reference to four named agricultural strategies, outline
how they improve the sustainable use of soils. [4] 

Markscheme

a. Using organic fertilisers maintains the presence of a

decomposer community/humus in soils;
b. Crop rotation/strip cropping prevents the excessive loss of particular
nutrients from the soil;
c. Cover crops to replace nutrients/reduce desertification/soil
erosion/loss of water from soils;
d. Drip irrigation prevents excessive leaching of nutrients/water loss
through evaporation/salinization of soils;
e. Terracing/contour ploughing prevents water erosion/run-off of soils
on slopes;
f. No-till farming reduces soil erosion/nutrient loss;
g. Windbreaks prevent wind erosion/loss of soils by winds;
h. Biological pest control avoids pesticide use that can toxify soils/kill
non-target species.
i. Manually pull weeds/mulch/use ground cover instead of using
herbicides to avoid killing non-target species/toxify soils;
j. Using crops that are tolerant to the climate (local/GMO) to minimize
soil damage from irrigation;
k. Rotate pastures for livestock to avoid nutrient loss/soil compaction
from overgrazing;
(b) Explain how the process of succession leads to changes in
productivity. [7] 

Markscheme

General:
a. GPP continues to increase throughout the successional stages due to
increasing nutrient cycling / improved soil fertility/nutrients leads to
greater productivity;
b. NP as a proportion of GP decreases throughout the stages due to
increasing respiration from consumers/decomposers;

In primary succession/pioneer community:

c. Abiotic conditions are poor/nutrient levels are low so GPP is low;

d. NP of the community is high/NP as a proportion of the GP is high due
to low consumption/respiration;

In intermediate stages:

e. Secondary productivity increases as consumers join food chain;

f. NP/increase in biomass of entire community slows due to
consumption of GPP/increased respiratory losses by consumers;

In climax community/final stages:

g. Secondary productivity is at maximum as food chains are fully

developed;
h. GPP is at maximum due to plant communities reaching carrying
capacity;
i. No NP/biomass gains for community as a whole as all PP being
consumed/lost to respiration;
 (c) With reference to named examples, compare and contrast wild
fisheries and aqua culture systems in terms of their efficiency
and environmental impacts. [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

understanding concepts & terminology of aquaculture and wild

fisheries; monoculture/polyculture; genetically modified organisms;
genetic diversity; harvesting efficiency; use of
fertilisers/pesticides/antibiotics; genetic degradation through
escapees; waste & eutrophication; overfishing; bycatch; etc,
breadth in addressing and linking wild fisheries and aquaculture
systems with a range of potential impacts on the environment and
issues of efficiency.
examples of wild fisheries and aquaculture systems along with
examples of associated impacts.
balanced analysis evaluating the relative efficiency and overall
environmental impact of wild fisheries versus aquaculture systems.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. When aquaculture is practised at a subsistence rather than commercial
level it can be very efficient and have minimum environmental impact, but commercial aquaculture
has many environmental impacts probably making it less sustainable than many wild fisheries.

13. [Maximum mark: 20] 23M.2.SL.TZ1.7

(a) Outline how the ecological footprint (EF) of a human
population is likely to change through the stages of the
demographic transition model (DTM). [4] 

Markscheme

a. EF is likely to start off very small because of low population;

b. Footprint will be low because of subsistence food
production/hunter/gathering;
c. It will then increase with increasing
numbers/consumption/development of agriculture;
d. With industrialisation/commercialisation footprint is likely to increase
with heavy use of fossil fuels;
e. Development of technology for alternative energy resources may
reduce footprint;
f. Technological development in food production/transport may come
to reduce footprint;
g. Reduced population growth/declining populations in MEDCs may
tend to reduce overall footprint;
h. However, if greater consumerism/materialism/economic growth is still
pursued footprint may continue to increase / per capita footprint
increases can negate effects of decreased population;

(b) A wild population of fish may provide a sustainable resource for

human consumption. Describe practical procedures for
estimating the maximum sustainable yield from such a
resource. [7] 

Markscheme

a. Maximum sustainable yield is the greatest amount of harvest that can

be taken without reducing potential for further growth of fish
population;
 b. To measure its MSY one needs to measure net productivity/natural
income;
c. Measuring annual change/increase in population size/biomass;
d. Population would need estimating at start and again after end of
year/given time period;
e. Population can be measured using mark/release/recapture / Lincoln
index;
f. A sample is caught using traps/nets and marked;
g. Trap/mesh size should be selected to only catch adult individuals;
h. They are released and given time to mix with whole population;
i. Traps are re-set/second sample is caught to identify proportion
marked;
j. Total population is estimated using equation: n1 x n2 / nm (number in
1st sample x number in 2nd sample / total marked in 2nd sample);
k. Difference in population (divided by given time) is the net
productivity/natural income/MSY .

Note: Credit can be given if equivalent procedures to measure change in biomass rather than population
size are described.

(c) To what extent do different strategies for the management of

solid domestic waste (SDW) influence the sustainability of
human populations? [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

 understanding concepts & terminology of sustainability; managing
solid domestic waste; recycling; reuse; reduction in consumption;
landfills; incineration; waste for energy; import/export of waste;
leaching of toxins; greenhouse gases; zero waste; etc.
breadth in addressing and linking the pros and cons of a range of
waste management strategies with their specific implications for
sustainability.
examples of specific waste management strategies adopted by named
communities/locations and their impacts on sustainability.
balanced analysis of the extent to which the waste management
strategy is increasing or decreasing the sustainability of a society.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. The most significant of all the strategies is reduction in the initial
consumption of resources which is directly leads to greater sustainability. All the others, even
recycling, involve some consumption of energy or production of pollution that is unsustainable.

14. [Maximum mark: 7] 24N.2.SL.TZ1.3

Figure 3(a): A simplified food web in a kelp forest ecosystem
Figure 3(b): Kelp forest ecosystems with and without the presence of sea
otters

The arrows indicate the flow of carbon between the atmosphere and the carbon
stored in kelp.
(a) Calculate the difference between carbon stored in kelp in the
ecosystem with and without sea otters. [1] 

Markscheme

180 (g C m−2) − 14 (g C m−2) = 166 (g C m−2);

(b) Outline why sea otters are considered a keystone species.

[1] 

Markscheme

a. They protect the integrity of the food web / regulate herbivore

populations;
 b. Without them the biodiversity is reduced/food web may collapse;
c. Without them the kelp forest/ecosystem structure is severely
weakened;

(c) Explain how sea otters contribute to the resilience of the kelp
forest ecosystem. [3] 

Markscheme

a. The presence of sea otters increases the resiliency of the kelp forest
ecosystem;
b. The otters control the sea urchin/snail/crab/herbivore population
which allows the kelp forest to remain intact;

Resiliency increases with:

c. …greater overall biodiversity with sea otters present;

d. …more biomass/greater storages with sea otters present;
e. …greater productivity leads to greater cycling of nutrients;
f. …more complex food webs/species interactions;

Note to examiners: 2 max if no explicit connection to resilience

(d) Outline how the protection of sea otters could help mitigate
climate change. [2] 

Markscheme

a. more sea otters would result in control of crab/snail/urchin

population...;
b. increasing/stabilizing kelp abundance;
c. Increasing primary productivity/photosynthesis;
 d. resulting in higher assimilation of carbon dioxide/removal from
atmosphere;

15. [Maximum mark: 7] 24M.2.SL.TZ1.1

Figure 1: Carbon cycle

[Source: The Globe Program, 2017. Global Carbon Cycle Model. [image online] Available at:
https://www.globe.gov/do-globe/measurement-campaigns/past-projects/earth-as-a-system-
projects/carbon-cycle [Accessed 13 December 2022]. Source adapted.]

(a) Identify one carbon flow caused by human activities in Figure

1. [1] 

Markscheme
 Deforestation and land use change / Burning fossil fuels

(b) Draw a labelled diagram to illustrate the flows of carbon

between plants and the atmosphere shown in Figure 1. [2] 

Markscheme

flows: respiration/deforestation AND photosynthesis;

stores: plants AND atmosphere;

Note: [1] for correctly labelled stores;

[1] for correctly labelled flows in each direction;

(c) Using the data in Figure 1, calculate the net gain in carbon in
the oceans in 1015 g. [1] 

Markscheme

(92 + 0.8) − (90 + 0.1) = 2.7 (x 1015 g C yr−1)

(d) Describe one advantage and one disadvantage of the oceans

as a carbon sink.
 [2] 

Markscheme

Advantage:
oceans are large so absorb a lot of CO2 / increases primary
productivity/photosynthesis / reduces global warming/climate change;

Disadvantage:
increasing CO2 in oceans causes acidification / ocean acidification harms
sensitive marine species/ecosystems like coral reefs;

(e) Outline one method to mitigate the effects of atmospheric

carbon storage. [1] 

Markscheme

a. reforestation/afforestation initiatives so that more carbon can be

absorbed;
b. carbon capture and storage/CCS to bury CO2 underground;
c. land use change/urban renewal leading to revegetation/green roofs
to absorb CO2;
d. switch to renewable energy to reduce use of fossil fuels;

Note: There are multiple acceptable responses to this question i.e. any process that reduces release of CO2
or absorbs CO2 from atmosphere

NB This is an “outline” question, not “identify”, so requires a little more than “reforestation” (i.e. WHY
reforestation?) or “reduce use of fossil fuels” (...need to state HOW fossil fuel use might be reduced)
16. [Maximum mark: 20] 24M.2.SL.TZ1.4
(a) Outline the distinctive features of the anthropocentric
environmental value system. [4] 

Markscheme

It ascribes to:

a. a human responsibility to maintain the environment;

b. concept of stewardship;
c. sustainable exploitation of the environment;
d. management/supervision of human activity;
e. imposing sustainable practices through legislation;
f. use of incentives/disincentives to regulate exploitation
(compensations/taxes/fines etc.);
g. public debate to reach consensual resolutions/pragmatic approaches;
h. population control is of equal importance to management of resource
use;

Note: Allow credit for any feature that distinguishes anthropocentrism form one or more alternative value
systems.
Do not credit responses implying more cornucopian values e.g. Human supremacy / dominance over
environment / only concerned with human benefit.

(b) With reference to a named herbivore species, explain why its

population growth curve follows an S-shape. [7] 

Markscheme

a. original colonisers are small in number;

b. unfamiliarity with local resources/habitat may hinder early
growth/result in a lag phase;
 c. as they reproduce there are more individuals that can reproduce/few
limiting factors to constrain growth;
d. this creates a faster growth rate;
e. resulting in positive feedback/exponential increase;
f. growth rate/curve eventually slows down/flattens/plateaus out due to
limiting factors;
g. limiting factors may include e.g. food/water/nesting material etc.;
h. if population increases this will reduce food availability/increase
predation;
i. causing a subsequent decrease in population/minor fluctuations in
growth rate;
j. maintaining a stability/equilibrium/carrying capacity/negative
feedback/density dependent regulation

Note: accept marking points on an annotated diagram

Award 6 max if no herbivore is named.

(c) To what extent would an anthropocentric approach to

addressing human population growth be the most successful in
maintaining a sustainable population? [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

 understanding concepts & terminology of anthropocentrism;
ecocentrism; technocentrism; soft ecologists; environmental
managers; carrying capacity; ecological footprint; population policies;
pro-natal/anti-natal; incentives; disincentives; sustainable
development; personal and communal improvement; community
involvement; legal regulations; etc.
breadth in addressing and linking different value systems and
different approaches to population regulation including a range of
development policies.
examples of anthropocentric national/international policies, other
named value systems; national populations and population policies
etc.
balanced analysis evaluating extent to which anthropocentric
policies are most conducive to sustainable development of human
populations compared with other approaches.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. Anthropocentric approaches to maintaining a
sustainable population are more realistic than the ideology of
ecocentric approaches and the recklessness of extreme technocentric
approaches.

NB Although our syllabus takes the view of anthropocentrism indicated in MS for 4a, there is a popular
perception that is more toward a cornucopian value system, where humans are rightfully dominant over the
environment and nature has a purely instrumental value as it serves humankind. While this represents a
misunderstanding of the term defined in our syllabus, please apply the spirit of ECF and be prepared to
credit arguments based on this perception.

Please see markbands

17. [Maximum mark: 20] 24M.2.SL.TZ1.5

(a) Outline the processes by which nitrogen in the atmosphere
may eventually be found in the protein of a decomposer. [4] 
 Markscheme

a. nitrogen cycles within ecosystems/is recycled in the Earth system;

b. nitrogen gas may diffuse into the soil;
c. nitrifying bacteria convert the nitrogen to ammonium/nitrites;
d. further bacteria convert the nitrites to nitrates;
e. lightning transforms/oxidises the nitrogen to nitrates;
f. nitrates are taken up by the roots of plants;
g. nitrates are transferred to the leaves of plants;
h. nitrates are assimilated into organic molecules/amino
acids/proteins/nucleic acids in the plant;
i. the leaf/plant dies and enters the soil/becomes detritus;
j. the proteins are consumed/absorbed by
decomposers/detritivores/saprotrophs;

Note: Marking points may be credited if conveyed explicitly by an appropriate annotated diagram.

(b) Explain why pyramids of numbers, biomass and productivity

may vary in shape for different food chains. [7] 

Markscheme

a. pyramids of productivity tend to get smaller at higher levels;

b. this is because energy is lost between trophic levels;
c. seasonal productivity at lower levels could temporarily be smaller;
d. …but annual productivity should always decrease at higher levels;
e. pyramids of numbers tend to get smaller at higher levels due to losses;
f. …but may get larger if individuals at lower trophic levels are larger
(e.g. trees);
g. pyramids of biomass tend to get smaller at higher levels due to losses;
h. …but as they reflect standing stock (and not rate of flow) they can be
inverted;
 i. pyramids may become larger at higher levels if they represent a single
food chain in a larger food web;
j. …because more biomass may be fed in from other food chains;
k. food chain with more trophic levels will have longer shape;
l. pyramids of productivity tend to be pyramid shaped because they
show flow of energy over time;
m. ...and because the second law of thermodynamics means energy is lost
in the flow;

Note: Alternative valid points describing/explaining why pyramid shape may vary can be credited.

Do not credit vague statements claiming shape will be “different” without explaining in what way it will
differ.

(c) To what extent can the practical strategies for obtaining data
for a pyramid of numbers be made reliable? [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

understanding concepts & terminology of reliability in sampling;

quadrats (including number, size, positioning, species distribution);
transects; aerial photographs; traps; nets; Lincoln index;
mark/release/recapture (including issues of marking technique, trap-
 happy and trap shy phenomena, time interval); aquatic sampling use
of dragnets, kick samples); camera traps (difficulty of extrapolation);
general sampling issues (including repetition; extrapolation; seasonal
variation; randomisation); total census; abundance; bias; scientific
expertise; etc.
breadth in addressing and linking different sampling methodologies
with varying degree of reliability for a range of different sessile and
motile populations in a range of different habitats;
examples of named sampling methods appropriate for different
named species etc.
balanced analysis evaluating extent to which sampling method can
be executed to produce reliable data; practical issues hindering
application of methodologies in the field.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. All methods of sampling inevitably involve a
degree of inaccuracy compared with a total census, but they can
always be made more reliable by repeated executions.

Please see markbands

18. [Maximum mark: 20] 24M.2.SL.TZ1.6

(a) Outline the mechanisms by which a terrestrial species may have
evolved from an aquatic ancestor. [4] 

Markscheme

a. there was genetic variety in aquatic species / mutations accumulated

over years;
b. certain features may have adaptation/advantage for terrestrial
existence;
c. individuals with these features could colonize terrestrial habitat;
 d. they would be more likely to survive/survival of the fittest/experience
less competition (natural selection);
e. they produce offspring like themselves/feature will become more
abundant;
f. individuals with feature may be unable to breed with others without
feature/speciation occurs / reproductive/geographical barrier will give
rise to new terrestrial species;

(b) Explain the ways in which species diversity and an abundance

of plant and herbivore species will increase the resilience of an
ecosystem. [7] 

Markscheme

Diversity:

a. a greater diversity of plant and herbivore species would mean there

are more species to take over the role of any that would be lost/creates
a more complex food web;
b. a wider variety/diversity set of plant species will support a wider range
of herbivores/increase habitat diversity;
c. a wider variety/diversity of plant species will be able to exploit a wider
range of abiotic conditions;
d. more plant species/greater plant diversity will be more likely to
include species that will survive a change in conditions;
e. a wider variety/diversity plant species will increase interspecific
competition resulting in evolution of more species;
f. a wider variety/diversity of herbivorous species will support a wider
range of predators;
g. a wider variety/diversity of herbivore species will occupy a wider
range of niches adding to the complexity of the system;

Abundance:
 h. a greater abundance/larger populations of plant species means
greater primary productivity which supports a greater
abundance/larger populations of herbivores;
i. a greater abundance/larger populations of plant species is less likely to
become extinct from the ecosystem;
j. a greater abundance/larger populations of herbivores will support a
greater abundance/larger populations of predators;
k. a greater abundance/larger populations of herbivores will be less
likely to become extinct in the ecosystem;

(c) Evaluate management strategies for reducing the impact of

agricultural pollution on an aquatic ecosystem. [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

understanding concepts & terminology of agricultural pollution;

inorganic fertilizers; organic run-off/slurry; persistent pesticides;
biomagnification; erosion; spraying; biological control; buffer zones;
organic fertilizers; eutrophication; mud-pumping; re-introduction of
aquatic species; levels of pollution management etc.
breadth in addressing and linking different forms of agricultural
pollutants with effective management strategies to protect or clean-up
different aquatic ecosystems.
 examples of different pollutants; agricultural practices; management
strategies; aquatic systems etc.
balanced analysis evaluating advantages and disadvantages of
management strategies employed to reduce impacts of agricultural
pollution.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. The most effective management strategies are
those that prevent pollutants being released in the first place e.g.
replacing inorganic with organic fertilizers, but this is not always the
most economically feasible for farmers.

Please see markbands

19. [Maximum mark: 7] 23N.2.SL.TZ1.1

Figure 1: A sample food chain from a marine ecosystem to show the
concentration of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and the energy within
each trophic level
 [Source: Toller, R., 2019. Harbour seal. [online] Available at:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/richardtoller/48317311956/ [Accessed 8 February
2022]. Under CC BY-ND 2.0 DEED licence
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/bynd/2.0/. Image cropped.
Historic NMFS Collection, n.d. [Atlantic cod]. [online] Available at:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Atlantic_cod.jpg [Accessed 8 February
2022].
NOAA Fish Watch, 2012. [Atlantic herring]. [online] Available at:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Clupea_harengus.png [Accessed 8
February 2022].
NASA Earth Observatory, 2010. What are Phytoplankton? [online] Available at:
https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Phytoplankton [Accessed 8 February
2022]. Source adapted.]
(a) State the trophic level of zooplankton.
[1] 

Markscheme

Primary consumer / second trophic level/2nd;

(b) State the relationship between POPs concentration and trophic

level. [1] 

Markscheme

POP concentration increases/is higher moving up to higher/at increasing

trophic levels / positive/direct correlation / as one increases the other
increases;

Note: Do not credit biomagnification or bioconcentration in response to this question.

(c) Explain the relationship between POPs concentration and

trophic level. [2] 

Markscheme
 a. POPs bioaccumulate/bioconcentrate within organisms/tissues, as they
are taken up from surrounding environment/polluted ocean
water/food;
b. … because POPs are non-biodegradable/don’t break down…;
c. …and result in biomagnification, as they pass from one trophic level to
the next (across levels)...;
d. ...due to the decrease of biomass/energy (respiratory losses) up the
food chain;

Note: Do not award marks if similar statements are given in (b) and (c)

(d) Calculate, as a percentage, the efficiency of energy transfer

between zooplankton and herring. [1] 

Markscheme

(25/500) x 100 = 5 (%);

(e) Outline one strength and one weakness of a pyramid of

productivity as a model to represent energy in an ecosystem.

[2] 

Markscheme

Strength: [1 max]

a. shows the flow/production rate of energy/biomass through a food

chain (rather than the standing stock) / never inverted;
b. tracks change over time (rather than "snapshot" in time);
 c. more efficient comparison of different ecosystems;
d. Visual representation / simplification of complex system/ easy to
communicate information to non-specialist;
e. can be used to make predictions;

Weakness: [1 max]

a. difficult to place organisms that occupy more than one trophic level;
b. hard to get accurate data because collection is difficult / inevitably
some values are approximate;
c. (estimating in field) may involve killing of organisms;
d. oversimplification and loss of detail/complexities of interacting factors

20. [Maximum mark: 20] 23N.2.SL.TZ1.6

(a) Outline how the abundance of a motile species in an ecosystem
can be measured. [4] 

Markscheme

a. abundance of motile organisms can be measured using direct and/or

indirect methods;
b. numbers can be counted from aerial images/ satellite images/trigger
cameras over a representative area
c. overall population numbers can be calculated from extrapolation to
whole area;
d. mark recapture techniques can be used to sample populations /
description of Lincoln Index method/equation;
e. method of capture e.g. pitfall trap/live trap/collection of species
f. method of marking with appropriate tag that doesn’t affect survival;
g. appropriate time interval between release and recapture
(b) Explain one natural and one human-caused factor that
influences changes in biodiversity. [7] 

Markscheme

Natural factor [4 max]:

(Extinction)
a. mass extinctions of the past/local extinctions caused by various natural
factors, have (temporarily) reduced biodiversity;
b. e.g. tectonic plate activity / super-volcanic eruption;
c. e.g. climatic changes (including drought and ice ages);
d. e.g. meteorite impacts;

(Evolution)

a. Evolution is a natural factor that has led to increased biodiversity;

b. Mutation leads to increases in genetic diversity;
c. Natural selection may lead to some reduction in genetic diversity;
d. Speciation has led to increased species diversity;
e. Adaptive radiation has led to increased speciation/genetic diversity;

Human caused factor [4 max]:

(Extinction)
a. human activity is considered to be causing a sixth mass extinction;
b. e.g. habitat destruction/deforestation/urbanisation;
c. e.g. pollution of freshwater water
bodies/oceans/soils/atmosphere/leading to climate
change/associated environmental hazards;
d. e.g. over-exploitation of resources/overfishing/hunting/intensive
agriculture;

(Conservation)

a. conservation/restoration of ecosystems has led to increased

biodiversity;
b. e.g. establishment of national parks/nature reserves etc.;
 c. e.g. ex situ conservation/zoos/plantations/seed banks reduce loss of
biodiversity;
d. e.g. legislation/trade agreements protecting species e.g. CITES/fishing
quotas/endangered species act;

(c) Discuss the effectiveness of habitat-based conservation in

relation to the impacts of climate change. [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with ‘understanding concepts’) This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may include:

understanding concepts and terminology of habitat-based

conservation; species-based conservation; reserves; national parks;
size; shape; edge effects; corridors; buffer zones; ecotourism; climate
change; precipitation patterns; global warming; biome shifts;
migrations; extinctions; salinity change; melting glaciers; hazardous
weather events; droughts; rising sea levels; salt intrusion etc.
breadth in addressing and linking a good range of features of
habitat-based conservation including design and management of
reserves and their relevance in addressing a range of impacts from
climate change including those leading to loss of biodiversity and
changing distribution patterns.
examples of named conservation areas from a variety of named
regions/countries and examples of named species impacted by climate
change along with relevant named organisations currently addressing
 habitat conservation (e.g. World Wildlife Fund for Nature, Greenpeace,
Friends of the Earth International and Earth First!)
balanced analysis evaluating the degree to which the various aspects
of conservation areas can or cannot effectively address the threats of
climate change including both strengths and limitations of habitat-
based conservation.
A conclusion that is consistent with and supported by analysis and
examples given, e.g. habitat-based conservation strategies are
effective, especially when contrasted to species approach, but cannot
compensate for climate change impacts on their own; there needs to
be international cooperation and political will toward mitigating
climate change altogether.

21. [Maximum mark: 20] 23N.2.SL.TZ1.7

(a) Outline two transfers and two transformations within a soil
system [4] 

Markscheme

Transfers [2 max]:

a. biological mixing of nutrients and inorganic material;

b. movement of water due to percolation/infiltration;
c. minerals dissolved in water moving through soil/leaching;
d. feeding/ingesting of organic matter;
e. uptake of nutrients by plants;
f. soil erosion by wind/water.
g. sediment deposition;

Transformations [2 max]:

a. decomposition of organic matter/detritus/by decomposers;

b. weathering of parent material resulting in increase of inorganic matter,
c. nutrient cycling example e.g. carbon/nitrogen/phosphorus;
 d. respiration by living organisms;

(b) Compare and contrast the pathways of energy through the

atmosphere and the pathways of energy through an
ecosystem. [7] 

Markscheme

In both (compare) [4 max]:

a. energy is not created or destroyed.

b. the source of energy is the sun.
c. energy is transformed from one form to another.
d. energy is lost as radiated heat.
e. sunlight energy is reflected, absorbed, radiated.

Contrast [4 max]:

a. energy from the sun is reflected by clouds in the atmosphere

b. …and by light surfaces/ice in ecosystems.
c. energy from the sun is absorbed by clouds/GHG in the atmosphere
d. ...and by the earth’s surface/organisms/soil/water in ecosystems;
e. the energy from the sun is used in photosynthesis by plants only in
ecosystems (not in atmosphere);
f. energy is lost as the radiation of heat through respiration in
ecosystems as it is passed through food chains
g. ...whereas in the atmosphere it is lost through radiation from
resonating GHGs;
h. transfers/transformations of energy in ecosystems often go through
living organisms, but not in the atmosphere;

(c) To what extent are food production systems impacted by

anthropogenic (human-caused) changes to the atmosphere? [9] 
 Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the mark bands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the mark bands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with ‘understanding concepts’) This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate mark band and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may include:

understanding concepts and terminology of food production

systems; subsistence; commercial; intensive; extensive; terrestrial;
aquatic; acid rain; global warming; climate change; precipitation
patterns; hazardous weather events; inundation; ocean acidification;
ozone depletion; tropospheric ozone; photochemical smog;
breadth in addressing and linking a wide range of anthropogenic
impacts on the atmosphere’s composition and temperature with their
associated impacts (both positive and negative) on a wide range of
food production systems in different environments/regions.
examples of named impacts on named food production systems in
named locations and societies due to named anthropogenic
influences on the atmosphere.
balanced analysis evaluating the extent to which anthropogenic
impacts on the atmosphere do or do not influence food production
systems either positively or negatively.
a conclusion that is consistent with and supported by analysis and
examples given, e.g. There are a wide range of anthropogenic
influences on the atmosphere that impact both terrestrial and aquatic
food production systems and although some impacts may positively
affect productivity, the great majority tend to reduce it.

22. [Maximum mark: 9] 23M.2.SL.TZ1.1

Figure 1(a): Extinction risk levels of species in global biodiversity by category

[Source: IPBES (2019): Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. E. S. Brondizio,
J. Settele, S. Díaz, and H. T. Ngo (editors). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 1148 pages.
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3831673. Creative Commons 4.0 Attribution 4.0 International
(CC BY 4.0) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. (source adapted - Image A Pg. XXX redrawn).].

(a) State the category with the highest percentage of vulnerable

species in Figure 1(a). [1] 

Markscheme

Coral (reef-forming);
(b) Outline two reasons why Amphibians have the highest
percentage of critically endangered species in Figure 1(a). [2] 

Markscheme

a. They require both aquatic and terrestrial habitats/specialised niches so

more likely to be affected by habitat loss/limitations;
b. They have permeable/soft skin more vulnerable to
disease/UV/pollution;
c. Few amphibians have great public/charismatic appeal attracting
protection/conservation efforts;
d. They generally have very limited parental care so offspring more
vulnerable/high mortality rates in offspring;
e. They often depend on small bodies of water that are particularly
vulnerable to drought/global warming/human development of
wetlands;

Note: Only credit marks that are explicitly related to the vulnerability of amphibians. General factors such
as habitat destruction, hunting or climate change alone are TV.

(c) Using Figure 1(a), state the approximate percentage of

threatened crustaceans. [1] 

Markscheme

28;

Note: Accept 26–29

(d) Describe one reason for the lack of available data for
crustaceans. [1] 

Markscheme

a. They are mobile species/some have large habitat range;

 b. Lack of expertise in identifying species (exacerbated by multiple
immature stages in life cycle);
c. The oceans are vast and difficult/expensive to do research in;
d. Many species camouflage with their surroundings / difficult species to
capture and tag;
e. Some species inhabit inaccessible regions;
f. Sea-floors beneath ice-sheets round Antarctica have been little
explored.

Figure 1(b): Changing species extinction risk by category 1980–2015

[Source: IPBES (2019): Global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. E. S. Brondizio, J.
Settele, S. Díaz, and H. T. Ngo (editors). IPBES secretariat, Bonn, Germany. 1148 pages. https://doi.
org/10.5281/zenodo.3831673. Creative Commons 4.0 Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. (source adapted – Image C Pg. XX redrawn).]
(e) Outline three reasons why the trend for corals is different to the
other categories shown in Figure 1(b). [3] 

Markscheme

corals ...

a. are sedentary/cannot migrate (to avoid pollution or other risks);

b. are r-selected species so high mortality rates (in planktonic phase);
c. (have delicate symbiotic relationship) highly sensitive to small
changes in abiotic conditions;
d. are impacted worldwide through ocean acidification (causing
bleaching);
e. are impacted worldwide by global warming/climate change/warmer
waters (causing bleaching);
f. inhabit areas with high human polluting activity such as urban
waste/agricultural run-off/oil spills/aquaculture;
g. have value as souvenirs/trophy/collectors’ items;
h. are fragile/easily damaged unintentionally (by boats/nets/storms etc);
i. have very slow growth rates (in sedentary phase);
j. have limited ranges/ocean depths/habitats where they can live;

Credit any response that is consistent with the increasing trend of extinction in corals.
Do not credit “pollution” alone there must be reference to a relevant source of pollutant as in MPf

(f ) Figures 1(a) and 1(b) are based on records for species diversity.
Identify one other factor that may be measured to assess the
diversity of life on Earth. [1] 

Markscheme

a. genetic diversity;
b. habitat diversity;
 Do not accept “evenness/equitability” or “richness” they are already included within concept of species
diversity

23. [Maximum mark: 20] 23M.2.SL.TZ1.4

(a) Outline the transfers and transformations of matter as it enters
and flows through the first trophic level of a food chain. [4] 

Markscheme

Transfers: [3 max]

a. Carbon dioxide diffuses into leaves;

b. Nitrates/phosphates/(inorganic) minerals diffuse/actively transported
into roots;
c. Water is taken up/diffuses into roots;
d. Sugars translocated from leaves to other parts of the plant;
e. Water vapour/oxygen diffuses out of leaves;
f. Organic matter is transferred to next trophic level/decomposers
through feeding

Transformations: [3 max]

a. Conversion of carbon dioxide/water into organic

matter/glucose/oxygen in photosynthesis;
b. Conversion of some organic matter into inorganic matter/CO2/water
through respiration;
c. Conversion of glucose to other organic compounds in metabolism;
d. Water evaporates through leaves in transpiration;
e. Conversion of organic matter to inorganic matter through
decomposition

Only credit transfers/transformations referring to matter (not energy).

(b) Describe how the emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels
may impact the productivity of terrestrial ecosystems. [7] 

Markscheme

a. CO2/greenhouse gas emissions lead to increasing global/atmospheric

temperatures;
b. Increased temps may cause increase in rate of
photosynthesis/increased productivity;
c. ...or may cause evaporation of water/desertification/drought;
d. ...extreme temperatures could result in enzyme
denaturation/decreasing productivity;
e. CO2 emissions may increase rate of photosynthesis increasing
productivity;
f. Extreme weather events from CO2 concentration/global warming
resulting in droughts/floods/saline inundation/forest fires;
g. NOx may cause depletion of stratospheric ozone and increased
exposure to UV radiation;
h. ...which will damage plants & reduce primary productivity;
i. NOx/hydrocarbons may cause photochemical smog that damages
plants/reduces primary productivity;
j. NOx/hydrocarbons may produce tropospheric ozone further
increasing atmospheric temperatures;
k. NOx/SOx are sources of acid deposition that can alter soil pH/damage
plants reducing productivity;
l. ...also causing the leaching of soil nutrients which reduces
productivity;
m. ...or causing the release of toxic metal ions that damage plants,
reducing productivity;
n. ...reduction in primary productivity is likely to cause loss of secondary
productivity;

Accept other reasonable responses linked to productivity of ecosystem.

(c) With reference to named societies, to what extent do the
environmental impacts of energy resources influence their
choice of energy? [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

understanding concepts & terminology of renewable/non-

renewable energies; wind; solar; hydro; geothermal; fossil fuels; global
warming/climate change; acid deposition; ozone depletion;
photochemical smog; oil spills; political/economic/geographic factors
affecting energy choice; energy security etc.
breadth in addressing and linking energy choices of a range of
different countries in different locations to environmental impacts and
other factors.
examples of named energy sources, and countries energy choices,
and environmental impacts; and other influences etc.
balanced analysis evaluating extent to which energy choice is
determined more by environmental impact than any other influence.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. Although countries are becoming more concerned with regard to
environmental impact, while MEDCs may afford environmentally friendly choices, the need in LEDCs
to adopt economic solutions tends to be an over-riding factor in energy choices.
Note: Reward giving specific examples: e.g. UK, Netherlands, France, Scandinavia are leaders in
relatively expensive (to install) wind power.
24. [Maximum mark: 20] 23M.2.SL.TZ1.6
(a) A new parasite is introduced into an ecosystem and manages to
infect a host species. Outline how the host and parasite species [4] 
may reach an equilibrium over time.

Markscheme

a. The parasite species may grow slowly to begin with because there are
only a few of them to reproduce;
b. They will then grow at an increasing/exponential rate as the numbers
reproducing increase;
c. Eventually they may begin to cause a fall in the number of hosts;
d. This will cause a subsequent decline in the number of parasite species;
e. This in turn will allow the host species to recover;
f. This reciprocal/cyclical fluctuation may continue indefinitely;
g. Achieving a negative feedback mechanism/dynamic equilibrium;
h. hosts that are best able to tolerate the parasite are the most likely to
survive/reproduce/increase in numbers;
i. parasites that kill their hosts often struggle to reproduce as efficiently,
so the milder versions might be more likely to
survive/reproduce/increase in numbers;
j. which in means over time parasites are less deadly and hosts are less
affected;

(b) Explain how tectonic plate activity may lead to the formation of
new species. [7] 

Markscheme

a. Volcanic activity may give rise to new habitats eg mountains/islands;

b. Continental drift may bring populations into new climates;
c. Populations may get divided by geographical barriers/uplift of
mountains/plates separating;
d. Different parts of the population may find themselves in new
habitats/climates;
 e. There may be a variety of traits/genetic diversity in the population;
f. Some features/genetic traits may be more adapted/fit for the new
habitat/climate/subject to natural selection;
g. Individuals with these adaptive traits will be most likely to survive;
h. These survivors will pass the adaptive features on to their offspring;
i. Over time further adaptations may give rise to a population that is
unable to interbreed with original species;
j. Once the populations are unable to interbreed a new species has been
formed

(c) Justify the role of different environmental value systems (EVSs)

in deciding between in situ and ex situ conservation strategies. [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

understanding concepts & terminology of ex situ/in situ

conservation; ecocentric/anthropocentric and technocentric value
systems; biorights; intrinsic value; deep ecology; cornucopian values;
stewardship; keystone species; flagship species; reserves; zoos;
breeding/re-introduction programmes; gene banks; etc.
breadth in addressing and linking a range of in situ/ex situ
conservation strategies with different value systems/perspectives on
the nature of living things/species.
examples of different value systems; different perspectives on living
things and different in situ & ex situ conservation strategies.
 balanced analysis evaluating the relative merits and demerits of
different values systems and their perspectives on in situ v ex situ
conservation.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. While ecocentrics are more likely to value the hands-off approach
possible with in situ conservation there are certain cases where a natural habitat is so degraded the
only way forward for conserving a given species is the more technocentric ex situ conservation.

25. [Maximum mark: 20] 23M.2.SL.TZ1.5

(a) With reference to four named agricultural strategies, outline
how they improve the sustainable use of soils. [4] 

Markscheme

a. Using organic fertilisers maintains the presence of a

decomposer community/humus in soils;
b. Crop rotation/strip cropping prevents the excessive loss of particular
nutrients from the soil;
c. Cover crops to replace nutrients/reduce desertification/soil
erosion/loss of water from soils;
d. Drip irrigation prevents excessive leaching of nutrients/water loss
through evaporation/salinization of soils;
e. Terracing/contour ploughing prevents water erosion/run-off of soils
on slopes;
f. No-till farming reduces soil erosion/nutrient loss;
g. Windbreaks prevent wind erosion/loss of soils by winds;
h. Biological pest control avoids pesticide use that can toxify soils/kill
non-target species.
i. Manually pull weeds/mulch/use ground cover instead of using
herbicides to avoid killing non-target species/toxify soils;
j. Using crops that are tolerant to the climate (local/GMO) to minimize
soil damage from irrigation;
k. Rotate pastures for livestock to avoid nutrient loss/soil compaction
from overgrazing;
(b) Explain how the process of succession leads to changes in
productivity. [7] 

Markscheme

General:
a. GPP continues to increase throughout the successional stages due to
increasing nutrient cycling / improved soil fertility/nutrients leads to
greater productivity;
b. NP as a proportion of GP decreases throughout the stages due to
increasing respiration from consumers/decomposers;

In primary succession/pioneer community:

c. Abiotic conditions are poor/nutrient levels are low so GPP is low;

d. NP of the community is high/NP as a proportion of the GP is high due
to low consumption/respiration;

In intermediate stages:

e. Secondary productivity increases as consumers join food chain;

f. NP/increase in biomass of entire community slows due to
consumption of GPP/increased respiratory losses by consumers;

In climax community/final stages:

g. Secondary productivity is at maximum as food chains are fully

developed;
h. GPP is at maximum due to plant communities reaching carrying
capacity;
i. No NP/biomass gains for community as a whole as all PP being
consumed/lost to respiration;
 (c) With reference to named examples, compare and contrast wild
fisheries and aqua culture systems in terms of their efficiency
and environmental impacts. [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

understanding concepts & terminology of aquaculture and wild

fisheries; monoculture/polyculture; genetically modified organisms;
genetic diversity; harvesting efficiency; use of
fertilisers/pesticides/antibiotics; genetic degradation through
escapees; waste & eutrophication; overfishing; bycatch; etc,
breadth in addressing and linking wild fisheries and aquaculture
systems with a range of potential impacts on the environment and
issues of efficiency.
examples of wild fisheries and aquaculture systems along with
examples of associated impacts.
balanced analysis evaluating the relative efficiency and overall
environmental impact of wild fisheries versus aquaculture systems.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. When aquaculture is practised at a subsistence rather than commercial
level it can be very efficient and have minimum environmental impact, but commercial aquaculture
has many environmental impacts probably making it less sustainable than many wild fisheries.

26. [Maximum mark: 20] 23M.2.SL.TZ1.7

(a) Outline how the ecological footprint (EF) of a human
population is likely to change through the stages of the
demographic transition model (DTM). [4] 

Markscheme

a. EF is likely to start off very small because of low population;

b. Footprint will be low because of subsistence food
production/hunter/gathering;
c. It will then increase with increasing
numbers/consumption/development of agriculture;
d. With industrialisation/commercialisation footprint is likely to increase
with heavy use of fossil fuels;
e. Development of technology for alternative energy resources may
reduce footprint;
f. Technological development in food production/transport may come
to reduce footprint;
g. Reduced population growth/declining populations in MEDCs may
tend to reduce overall footprint;
h. However, if greater consumerism/materialism/economic growth is still
pursued footprint may continue to increase / per capita footprint
increases can negate effects of decreased population;

(b) A wild population of fish may provide a sustainable resource for

human consumption. Describe practical procedures for
estimating the maximum sustainable yield from such a
resource. [7] 

Markscheme

a. Maximum sustainable yield is the greatest amount of harvest that can

be taken without reducing potential for further growth of fish
population;
 b. To measure its MSY one needs to measure net productivity/natural
income;
c. Measuring annual change/increase in population size/biomass;
d. Population would need estimating at start and again after end of
year/given time period;
e. Population can be measured using mark/release/recapture / Lincoln
index;
f. A sample is caught using traps/nets and marked;
g. Trap/mesh size should be selected to only catch adult individuals;
h. They are released and given time to mix with whole population;
i. Traps are re-set/second sample is caught to identify proportion
marked;
j. Total population is estimated using equation: n1 x n2 / nm (number in
1st sample x number in 2nd sample / total marked in 2nd sample);
k. Difference in population (divided by given time) is the net
productivity/natural income/MSY .

Note: Credit can be given if equivalent procedures to measure change in biomass rather than population
size are described.

(c) To what extent do different strategies for the management of

solid domestic waste (SDW) influence the sustainability of
human populations? [9] 

Markscheme

Refer to paper 2 markbands, available under “your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The following guide for using the markbands suggests certain features that may be offered in responses.
The five headings coincide with the criteria in each of the markbands (although ESS terminology has been
conflated with “understanding concepts”). This guide simply provides some possible inclusions and should
not be seen as requisite or comprehensive. It outlines the kind of elements to look for when deciding on the
appropriate markband and the specific mark within that band.

Answers may demonstrate:

understanding concepts & terminology of sustainability; managing
solid domestic waste; recycling; reuse; reduction in consumption;
landfills; incineration; waste for energy; import/export of waste;
leaching of toxins; greenhouse gases; zero waste; etc.
breadth in addressing and linking the pros and cons of a range of
waste management strategies with their specific implications for
sustainability.
examples of specific waste management strategies adopted by named
communities/locations and their impacts on sustainability.
balanced analysis of the extent to which the waste management
strategy is increasing or decreasing the sustainability of a society.
a conclusion that is consistent with, and supported by analysis and
examples given e.g. The most significant of all the strategies is reduction in the initial
consumption of resources which is directly leads to greater sustainability. All the others, even
recycling, involve some consumption of energy or production of pollution that is unsustainable.

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