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Managing The Indian Coast in The Face of

The document reviews India's coastal zone management policies, focusing on the challenges posed by disasters and climate change over the past 25 years. It discusses the implementation of the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) notifications, highlighting the need for a balance between regulatory measures and stakeholder needs. The paper emphasizes the importance of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and the necessity for community participation in addressing coastal management issues.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
23 views16 pages

Managing The Indian Coast in The Face of

The document reviews India's coastal zone management policies, focusing on the challenges posed by disasters and climate change over the past 25 years. It discusses the implementation of the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) notifications, highlighting the need for a balance between regulatory measures and stakeholder needs. The paper emphasizes the importance of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) and the necessity for community participation in addressing coastal management issues.

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J Coast Conserv (2014) 18:657–672

DOI 10.1007/s11852-014-0339-7

Managing the Indian coast in the face of disasters & climate


change: a review and analysis of India’s coastal zone management
policies
R. R. Krishnamurthy & Rajarshi DasGupta &
Ranit Chatterjee & Rajib Shaw

Received: 1 July 2014 / Revised: 5 September 2014 / Accepted: 7 September 2014 / Published online: 18 September 2014
# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014

Abstract Serious attempts have been made to manage the coastal zone with special emphasis on the three coastal areas
highly populated Indian coast during the last 25 years in terms from eastern, western and southern coast of India.
of regulating the activities and managing disasters. This has
lead to formulation of various policies to maintain environ- Keywords Coastal regulationzone . India . Disaster & climate
mental quality and sustainably manage the coastal resources. risk reduction
Basically, the coastal zone needs to address the demands of all
the stakeholders starting from traditional local communities,
administrators, to academic researchers etc. India has faced Introduction
tremendous challenges in implementing regulatory measures
like Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) issued in 1991 by de- As emphasized by Gibbs (2009), marine policymakers are
marcating countries coast in to four different zones with facing increasing calls to consider the resilience of communi-
provisions and prohibitions for various activities. The concept ties that rely on coastal and marine ecosystem goods and
of Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) has been services, and the resilience of natural systems themselves.
taken with the support of spatial decision-support tools de- These calls are in response to increasing threats to coastal
rived from satellite data including national programmes on communities from external factors such as coastal hazards,
inter-sectoral approaches towards ICZM. 2004 onwards a possibly associated with climate change, and drivers that act to
series of disasters have reminded the necessity of having change local and regional economic conditions leading to
regulatory measures through implementable approaches. changes in employment and inequality. While the global coast
Subsequently, the CRZ 2011 notification has been a new is trying to accommodate high concentration of populations,
addition to the list of policies using bottom-up approach as a the government machineries are struggling to control, regulate
good governance tool. The country has strengthened its po- and monitor the activities including those in several developed
tential in coastal management, disaster management and sev- countries. Due to dynamic nature of the coast, there is no
eral community based field projects to enhance participation established method to be recommended for the global coast
of stakeholders. This paper is aimed to critically review the to uniformly demarcate the coastal zone and its appropriate
processes that are made during the last two decades including management. Under this circumstance, India is making vari-
the future challenges towards sustainable management of ous attempts to manage its coastal zone by introducing regu-
latory measures during the last two decades and more specif-
ically from 1991 by introducing the Coastal Regulation Zones
(CRZ) by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF).
R. R. Krishnamurthy
Department of Applied Geology, University of Madras, Chennai,
This top-down regulatory approach has faced several con-
India straints towards its implementation which has lead to dilution
of its vigour in order to satisfy the stakeholders. However,
R. DasGupta (*) : R. Chatterjee : R. Shaw major disasters like Orissa Cyclone in 1999, Indian Ocean
International Environment & Disaster Management Laboratory,
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto
tsunami in 2004 and floods in 2005 at both east and west coast
University, Kyoto, Japan of India reminded the importance of strict coastal regulations
e-mail: rajarshidg1@yahoo.co.in like CRZ 1991 after witnessing huge life and economic losses.
658 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

Performance Audit of Disaster Preparedness in India has Regulatory approaches in coastal management
strongly criticised the MoEF for not enforcing the
CRZ notification effectively, resulting in extensive de- The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) notification, 1991
struction in the coastal areas due to industrial expansion
(Controller & Auditor General of India, 2013). Although, the The Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) notification was issued in
Government of India has introduced Disaster Management the year 1991 by the Ministry of Environment & Forests
(DM) Act in 2005 and started the installation of warning (MoEF) under the Environmental Protection Act of 1986.
system for tsunami and cyclone, yet, considering the cumula- Although, prior to this notification, India has several legisla-
tive effects of devastations by disasters and the improper tions / Acts and rules to manage the activities along the coast,
implementation of CRZ there was an urgent need to revise this notification serves as the first comprehensive policy
the regulatory approaches based on scientific merits and also guidelines for managing its huge coastal area. The CRZ
taking in to account peoples’ aspirations which lead to the notification of 1991 broadly demarcated a physical boundary
issuance of revision of CRZ notification in 2011. of 500 m from the High Tide Line (HTL) towards land and
Consequently, the CRZ Notification of 1991 was replaced further four zones were specified, which lists prohibited and
by a new set of coastal zone regulation in 2011 (CRZ notifi- permissible activities for implementation. Entire country’s
cation, 2011) which is considered to be more participatory in coastal zone has been classified in to four zones namely
nature, however, not before of being amended by at least 25 CRZ – I (ecologically sensitive intertidal area where no future
times in consideration of requests made by various stake- developmental activities are permitted), CRZ-II (an already
holders including provincial governments, NGOs etc. Such developed urban coastal area), CRZ-III (an undeveloped rural
requests were often backed by the legal constraints of devel- coast where certain activities are permitted) and CRZ – IV (a
oping the coast and mostly judged only from economical special category includes Island coasts including the entire
perspectives. While, it is also true that the country has made Andaman & Nicobar and Lakshadweep since the environ-
significant progress through Initiatives on coastal ecosystems mental issues are very complex in this zone). Although there
management, national programmes on Marine Satellite are restrictions listed out but it also says that the clearance can
Remote Sensing Service (MARSIS) and training and capacity be given for the activities, which absolutely require waterfront
development on Integrated Coastal Zone Management and foreshore facilities after special considerations approved
(ICZM). For example, over the last decade, the country has by the Ministry of Environment and Forests
used satellite technology very effectively; especially in guid-
ing the fishing villages about the Potential Fishing Zone
(PFZ), development of village resource centre and many such Implementation challenges for CRZ (1991)
programmes. Yet, the country’s policy towards managing its
coast was largely restrictive without addressing the need and Adopting a top-down approach for implementation, the CRZ
requirements of local communities living across the coast. 1991 notification faced challenges of rapidly concentrated
While one hand, enforcement of the regulatory provisions population growth and already established settlements includ-
ended up in serious controversies, on the other, the idea of ing industrial developments. Several Committees such as B.B.
sustainable development of coast in the face of natural disas- Vohra Committee (1992), N. Balakrishnan Nair Committee
ters & climate change was not adequately addressed. Under (1996), Arcot Ramachandran Committee (1996), Saldanha
this backdrop, this paper attempts to critically review the Committees (1996 & 1997), D. M. Sukuthankar Committee
progress of activities made in India in terms of coastal (2000) and others have recommended for relaxation on CRZ
management and Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) in (1991) and subsequently the MoEF has attempted to amend
coastal areas including future challenges by broadly the following:
focusing on entire India’s coast with specific attention
to three maritime states i.e. Tamil Nadu in the south, & Promotion of coastal tourism by reducing the No
Maharashtra in the west (in specific the Greater Mumbai Development Zone (NDZ) area all along the tidal water
Region) and West Bengal in the east. The main objec- bodies from 100 m to 50 m. But due to litigation this
tives of this paper are (a) To identify the constraints in amendment was quashed and status quo maintained by the
implementing regulatory approach (CRZ 1991) in coast- MoEF,
al management (b) Differences between regulatory (CRZ & Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas was granted per-
1991) and management (CRZ 2011) approaches, and (3) mission to store petroleum products in CRZ area,
to examine the extent of interlinkage between Coastal & Permission for withdrawal of groundwater in CRZ area
Regulation Zone Notification, Integrated Coastal Zone from 0 to 200 m only by manual method,
Management and Disaster Risk Reduction priorities in & Mining of sand in CRZ area for a short period of 1–2 years,
the revised framework. and
Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 659

& Construction of dwelling units in CRZ-III for bonafide drainage in the project areas and the exit points to the sea choked,
traditional settlers subject to the condition that the area is the cloud burst on 26th July 2005 caused extensive flooding in
adequately protected with sea-wall, the proposed con- the low lying areas of the city (Concerned Citizens’ Commission
struction is on the landward side of the existing buildings draft report). On the other hand the 1991 CRZ notification was
and the construction shall not be more than 100 sq m with somewhat successful in controlling the boom of coastal aquacul-
4.5 m height (MoEF, 2005) ture but was plagued by litigations from NGOs and other CBOs
which at a later stage triggered the Coastal Aquaculture
The above relaxations have been made considering that Authority Act in 2005. Even though coastal tourism and aqua-
CRZ boundary was not made through scientific methods since culture are considered to be more revenue generating sources but
the designated 500 m CRZ boundary was empirically based there is no direct benefit to the coastal environments. Majority of
on old Survey of India (SOI) topographical maps of 1970s, the stakeholders especially local fishermen communities, NGOs
which lost its scientific validity over the years. More so, the and environmentalists have considered both these revenue gen-
boundary of 500 m from HTL was fixed in an arbitrary erating sources are long term potential threats to environmental
manner without the considerations of coastal geomorphology, quality and hence severely opposed towards their further
land elevation, tidal amplitude etc. which has widespread expansion.
geographic variation all across the Indian coast. The CRZ
notification lists lagoons as tidal influenced water bodies but History of advocacy regarding Integrated Coastal Zone
the water part of the lagoon is not covered in the notification Management (ICZM) in India
and hence constituted N. Balakrishnan Nair committee in
1996 to study and recommend for Kerala coast. In 2000 the At the same time when the CRZ 1991 notification was facing
MoEF has constituted D. M. Sukuthankar Committee as a first several challenges towards its implementation, a strong advo-
time to formulate National Coastal Zone Policy of India cacy on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) was
(NCZP) by studying the coastal zone issues in the country initiated in the country, with an intention of incorporating
including the recommendations of the Centre for Earth community participation in planning and management of the
Science Studies (CESS) in Trivandrum. The CESS has rec- coast for the first time in the country. At that time the Council
ommended that the coastal zone should be demarcated based of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
on risk perspective by taking in to consideration of shoreline Development (OCED) has adopted a series of recommenda-
erosion and flooding. Also listed out areas / features that have tions towards coastal zone management by incorporating en-
to be protected and the high-risk zone and low risk zone in the vironmental and socio-economic aspects and also the
coastal areas including the various developmental activities, Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) had
which can be taken up in low risk and high risk areas. convened its Second International Conference on
Additionally, the CESS has suggested the environmental Oceanography: Toward Sustainable use of Oceans and
clearance as a mandatory procedure to be adopted for such Coastal Zones and re-affirmed the long-term commitment of
developmental activities. However, this has not been taken up the international marine science community in achieving sus-
by the MoEF in 2000. Finally, the regulatory approach of CRZ tainability in ocean use. In India, efforts were made to do
1991 has not been implemented in the field and its impacts can stakeholders management in order to participate in CRZ 1991
be witnessed in the aftermath of 2004 Tsunami and 2005 implementation and to realize about the importance of
Mumbai floods. Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) through train-
The Mumbai floods of 2005 highlighted the gaps in the CRZ ing and capacity building in different levels such as Integrated
notification of 1991 and its implementation challenges in terms Coastal Zone Management Training (ICZOMAT) supported
of coordination with the state government and other stakeholders. by the UK Department for International Development (UK-
The Coastal Zone Management Plan of 1995 for Maharashtra DFID) and coordinated by the MoEF. Several decision-
failed to designate Mangroves as CRZ-I and hence construction makers in the country were trained through this programme
were allowed on the pretext of slum redevelopment and garbage on the importance of ICZM by providing field training in both
dumps along the coast. In addition to this, the development of India and UK coasts. While conducting ICZM training and
Bandra Kural Complex and Andheri on reclaimed land narrowed stakeholders management programs it was noted that CRZ
the Mithi River’s opening into the sea. In a coastal city like notification 1991 has also affected in putting shoreline erosion
Mumbai, wetlands, wastelands, saltpan lands and mangroves control measures along the erosion prone coasts. Strong rec-
act as natural barriers against tidal movements. Dumping of the ommendations were made for community participation in
construction waste, sewage and industrial effluents in these areas coastal management including the implementation of CRZ
lead to choking of the wetlands and creeks (Ministry of 1991. At this stage the MoEF came forward to revise the
Environment and Forests, 2010a, b). As a considerable part of CRZ 1991 by constituting an expert committee under the
Mumbai is below high tide level, inadequate storm water chairmanship of M. S. Swaminathan in 2004 to carry out a
660 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

comprehensive review on CRZ 1991 and its subsequent & CMZ –IV: Pertains to the Andaman & Nicobar Islands
amendments. Prior to this an expert committee under the and Lakshadweep Islands.
chairmanship of Arcot Ramachandran had come out with
recommendations with details on zoning of coastal waters Due to the variations in terrain, geography, climate etc. all
starting from LTL up to territorial waters as Ocean along the Indian coast, the expert committee felt that there is a
Regulation Zone (ORZ) I to IV. But unfortunately they were need of micro-level survey based on technology tools like
never taken up. remote sensing data to enable the listing of coastal assets in
By that time India’s space technology has gained momentum greater details. But till the completion of such micro-level
and the end user organizations were capable of monitoring the surveys, CRZ 1991 notification should be strictly adhered. It
coastal ecosystems and environments more precisely using tem- was felt more useful by the scientific community in order to
poral multispectral remote sensing data and very ambitious na- manage the coastal areas including the potential threats posed
tional programmes such as Marine Remote Sensing Satellite by disasters since the scientific outcomes on tsunami vulner-
Information Services (MARSIS), mapping of coastal wetlands, ability and inundation mapping were carried out along east
coral reefs, shoreline change etc. have been carried out to support coast have highlighted that the maximum damage was caused
ICZM. Spatial details derived from remote sensing data helped to within the 500 m from HTL (Krishnamurthy et al. 2014).
quantify the coastal resources apart from understanding the Several stakeholder felt that unregulated developmental activ-
underlying causes for degradation and to support decision-mak- ities on the coast without the strong implementation of CRZ
ing. Remote sensing technology has really proved its capability 1991 have resulted in several life loss, damages to properties,
up to the level of demarcating Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) environment damages etc. But there were others like local
using the Sea Surface Temperature (SST) data from AVHRR communities especially the fisher folk and their unions who
thermal sensors together with primary productivity information strongly opposed the recommendations made by M. S.
in coastal waters to forecast the PFZ information to about 500 Swaminathan expert committee as CMZ did not address the
fishing villages all over the country. 1990–2000 is an important conservation and preservation of the environment and socio-
decade for India with advancement in remote sensing data in economic needs of coastal communities and traditional fish-
coastal ocean applications, which helped in updating earlier data ermen. This lead to constitution of a second expert committee
pertaining to coastal ecosystems like mangroves, coral reefs etc. by MoEF under the chairmanship of M. S. Swaminathan and
based on 1970’s Survey of India (SOI) topographical maps and the committee brought out revised recommendations entitled
other field based surveys. With the improvements in spatial and “The Final Frontier” in July 2009 (MoEF, 2009) with the
spectral resolutions of remote sensing satellite helped consider- following positive recommendations to satisfy the coastal
ably to understand the coastal ecosystems status including the communities:
underlying causes for degradation, coastal land use / cover
change-detection, quantifying the pollution level in coastal wa- I. Inclusion of marine areas including the sea-bed up to 12
ters, shoreline changes etc. Additionally, the strong emergence of nautical miles and intertidal water bodies in the ambit of
combined use of spatial information tools like GIS and remote coastal regulation,
sensing outputs the end users used them extensively as a II. Formally recognising the rights of traditional fisher com-
Decision Support System (DSS) in planning process. munities in and to coastal spaces, and
III. Expressing concern on the cumulative impacts of ports
on the coast, the report called for a comprehensive study
Revision of CRZ (1991) and its revisit in 2011 on shoreline changes and a mechanism to address and
control the excessive proliferation of ports. Importantly,
M. S. Swaminathan expert committee recommendations were the need for the formulation of a ‘ports policy’ with an
made in the backdrop of the 26th December 2004 Indian environmental focus has now been accepted by the
Ocean Tsunami. This led to modification in 500 m HTL MoEF.
boundary with coastal vulnerability and set back boundary
as detailed below: With these recommendations the revision of CRZ 1991
notification came in July 2009. In order to make this as a
& CMZ I : Areas designated as ecologically sensitive, bottom-up approach, the MoEF issued a draft notification first
& CMZ II : Areas identified as Areas of particular Concern in September, 2010 by inviting objections and suggestions
such as economically important areas, high population from the public by declaring coastal stretches as coastal reg-
areas and culturally/strategically important areas, ulation zones and listing restrictions on industrial activities,
& CMZ-III: All other open areas, including the coastal areas, operations and processes in the CRZ (MoEF 2010a, b).
excluding those areas classified as CMZ-I and CMZ-II, Finally, CRZ-2011 notification was issued on 6th January,
and 2011 after careful consideration of the objections and
Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 661

suggestions made by the public and in super session of the Tamil Nadu coast
original notification issued on 19th February, 1991 (MoEF,
2011). Subsequently, the MoEF conducted series of consulta- About 1100 km length Tamil Nadu coast has a designated
tive meetings and public hearing in important coastal cities Ramsar site, UNESCO’s World Heritage Site and UNESCO’s
and invited the participation of stakeholders. The salient feed- MAB site apart from reserve forests, wild life sanctuaries,
back received from various public hearings include the strict tourist spots etc. on its coast. The state coast commences from
implementation of 1991 CRZ notification by changing it as an the mouth part of Pulicat Lake, which is the second largest
Act to prevent frequent amendments and also the participation brackishwater body in the country next to Chilika lagoon in
of local community representatives in CRZ implementation Odisha. The state has a population of 72 million with almost
initiatives. Also the issues like non representation of local equal proportion of urban and rural population. Chennai is the
community representatives in State Coastal Zone state capital (earlier called as “Madras”) is located about
Management Authority (SCZMA) including the expert com- 60 km south of Pulicat lake mouth, which has a dense indus-
mittee under M. S. Swaminathan etc. came out and deliberated trial complexes on its north and new developments, especially
in various consultative meetings. Finally CRZ 2011 has IT industries, residential complexes etc. on its south and
emerged as a new participatory regulatory measure with more western parts. Buckingham canal is an inland waterway,
scientific basis for implementation. A comparative analysis is which connects Chennai city to the Pulicat mouth and also
furnished in Table 1. carries the industrial effluents being discharged in to this canal
The recent disasters like Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004, by the industries located in northern part of Chennai. Recent
Mumbai floods 2005 and Cyclone Aila 2009 played a study has confirmed that the occurrence of highest level of
decisive role in the transition from a regulatory approach trace metals in Buckingham canals, which are mainly contrib-
to a management approach as shown in Fig. 1. The uted by the industrial discharges (Jayaprakash et al., 2012).
disaster impact to the coastal zone due to non-adherence CRZ 1991 notification has demarcated the coastal stretch from
to the CRZ norms is a common factor which highlights Pulicat upto Ennore Creek as Zone – I, which is ecologically
the weak implementation and need for frequent amends in sensitive due to occurrence of coastal water bodies, rich in
the 1991 notification. The new notification tries to bridge biodiversity and also subject to inundation of future SLR as
the gaps by taking up a scientific approach and imbibing per the description of MoEF. The coastal stretch between
good governance indicators to bring in public participa- Ennore and North Chennai has rural coast i.e. undeveloped
tion and strengthening the institutional mechanism. The coastal zone (Zone – III). In Zone – III upto 200 m from HTL
integration of the CZM and DRR concerns is accentuated is designated as “No Development Zone” (NDZ) and no new
by categorizing the risk reduction techniques laid down in construction / developmental activities are permitted except
the CRZ notification of 2011 under the priorities areas of repair and maintenance of existing buildings. About 60 km
action as suggested by Hyogo Framework for Actions coastal stretch of Kanchipuram coast has the East Coast Road
2005–15. with the scenic beauty of Bay of Bengal with clusters of
fishermen hamlets, backwaters, shore temple at
Mamallapuram, which is the UNESCO’s World Heritage site
use to receives large number of national as well as interna-
Coastal issues and CRZ in Tamil Nadu, maharashtra tional tourists. Mamallaupiram coast is facing the threat of
and west Bengal severe shoreline erosion and several part of this site has been
already swallowed by the Bay of Bengal. A straight coastline
In the present study three maritime states has been chosen goes up to Vedaranyam through Puducherry (earlier called as
i.e. Tamil Nadu in the south, Maharashtra on the West and “Pondicherry” Union Territory, which is an old French colony,
West Bengal on the eastern coast which are having similar has a coastal length of 45 kms. During the last 10 years
as well as diversified issues such as coastal flooding, Puducherry coast is experiencing severe shoreline erosion
coastal ecosystems degradation, coastal ocean pollution, after the construction of new harbour facilities two decades
tsunami and cyclone impacts as sample sites to provide an before (Krishnamurthy et al., 2014). Along the straight coast-
in-depth analysis and interpretation on coastal manage- line between Puducherry and Vedaranyam this low-lying
ment challenges. Additionally, these three maritime states coastal plain contains another important industrial hub in
are housing the three major Indian metropolises namely Cuddalore and the important estuarine mangroves in
Chennai (Madras), Mumbai (Bombay) & Kolkata Pichavaram. Extensive devastation by 2004 Indian Ocean
(Calcutta) which has received global attention for its high tsunami with maximum life loss along Indian coast, the
disaster & climate vulnerability. A comparative profile of Cuddalore and Nagapattinam are appeared in global vulnera-
these three coastal states have been furnished in Table 2 & bility map and received international importance including the
Fig. 2. visit of former US President Bill Clinton as a UN special
662 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

Table 1 Comparison of CRZ 1991 and CRZ 2011

Components CRZ Notification, 1991 CRZ Notification, 2011

CRZ boundary • Stipulates uniform boundary for the entire • Boundary is based on coastal vulnerability line / hazard line which
coast based on old topographic maps of will be prepared based on scientific data and the boundary will
1970s with reference to HTL. vary from site to site.
• Hazard line will be prepared through SOI for the entire country on
1:25,000 scales for macro level planning and 1:5,000 scales i.e.
on cadastral scale for micro level planning while taken in to
consideration of land use plan.
Traditional coastal communities • There were no direct restrictions on traditional • Commercial activities by traditional communities including their
coastal communities including fisher folk, dwelling units shall be regularized.
tribal to do commercial activities.
Regulation • Regulation is only to control / regulate the • Regulation includes seafront up to 12 nautical miles in the
activities pertaining to intertidal area and territorial waters and tidal influenced water bodies.
upto 500 m on the landward side from HTL. • In creeks and other water bodies such as bays, backwaters, lagoon,
ponds etc. which are influenced by tidal action the landward
boundary is taken in to consideration up to which the tidal
effects are experienced based on salinity concentration of 5 parts
per thousand (ppt) measured during the driest year.
Disaster measures • No regulations with reference to natural • Taken into consideration of potential threats of natural as well as
disasters as well as man-made disasters man-made hazards based on scientific principles.
such as coastal pollution, shoreline erosion • Disposal of untreated wastes and effluents in to coastal waters are
etc. prohibited. Dumping solid waste will be phased out.
• Entire India’s coast will be demarcated as moderate and high
shoreline erosion prone areas and stable areas and control
measures will be recommended.
• Slum rehabilitation schemes are recommended in order to provide
safe and decent dwellings for the people living in high risk
disaster prone areas.
• New projects have to be submitted with disaster management
report and risk management report for obtaining clearance.
Coastal ecosystem protection • No direct regulations / control measures • Mangrove areas exceeding 1000 sq mts require 50 m buffer around
in or to protect the coastal ecosystems its boundary.
like mangroves, coral reefs etc. • Also the importance of coral reefs, salt marshes etc. are taken in to
account.
Unorganized living population • Not taken in to consideration of slum dwellers • Slum clearance measures are included
and people living in unsafe buildings
Scientific data for management • Introduced without the understanding of • Much consideration is given to demarcate boundary and to control
scientific data including the Coastal Zone disaster impacts based technology tools like multidate satellite
Management either in State wise or data, spatial information tools etc.
for the entire country • State wise CZM plan is strongly advocated for future planning
through experienced scientific institutions or the agencies
including the National Centre for Sustainable Coastal
Management (NCSCM).
• Clearance of projects except CRZ-I the project layout
superimposed on 1:4000 scale map indicating HTL and LTL by
one of authorized agency by covering 7 km radius of project site.
Time period for project clearance • There is no stipulated time for • Sixty days based on the recommendation of concerned CZMA.
clearance of new projects
Areas requiring special • No mention about areas requiring • Developmental activities in the CRZ area of Greater Mumbai
consideration special consideration apart from which is falling under municipal limits is given special
making amendments. consideration for developmental plans without affecting free flow
of tidal waters. Special permission to cut mangroves with a
condition to replant mangroves five time more than original area
in alternate sites.
• Also redevelopment of dilapidated, cessed and unsafe buildings
in the CRZ area of Greater Mumbai is permitted due to their
age and structures, which are extremely vulnerable to disasters.
• Similarly Kerala, Goa, Chilika lagoon and Bhitarkanika in
Odhisa, Sundarbans of West Bengal etc. shall be given special
considerations due to its uniqueness in terms of ecological
sensitiveness.
Consultation of stakeholders • No public hearing and consultations were • Series of public hearing and consultations were made before the
conducted to draft the notification preparation of draft in 2010.
Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 663

Regulatory Management

Approach Approach
Indian
Ocean
Tsunami
2004

Mumbai
Floods 2005

Cyclone
Aila 2009

Fig. 1 A comparative analysis of CRZ Notification of 1991 & 2011

Table 2 Highlights of the coastal profile of maharashtra, Tamil Nadu & West Bengal

Maharashtra Tamil Nadu West Bengal

Capital City Mumbai Chennai Kolkata


Coastline in Km 720 1100 220
Salient features of the • 45 estuaries and 186 km of • 39 km of mangrove cover • 2,155 sq. km of mangrove cover,
Coast mangrove cover. UNESCO World Heritage Site
• Western ghats running across the • Pulicat Lake – designated Ramsar Site • Extremely low lying Sundarban
Konkan coast is a UNESCO world delta
heritage site.
• Sanjay Gandhi national park is • Mamallapuram – UNESCO World
located along the coast Heritage
• 48 minor ports in Maharashtra of which • SitePichavaram & Muthupet – Mangrove
Reserve Forests
• Oil rigs in Bombay High • Vedaranyam – Wild Life Sanctuary
• 6. Gulf of Mannar – Marine Biosphere
Reserve
Capital city’s • Mumbai is a WRI World Mega city • Chennai is a WRI World Mega City • Kolkata is a WRI World Mega city
significance • Mumbai is the economic hub of the country • 7th most hazard prone city of the
8th most hazard prone city of the world world (Swiss Re)
(Swiss Re)
• Greater Mumbai Region has 40 Sq. Km, the
densest mangroves in the state.
Disaster history • Tsunami in 1524 along Ratnagiri coast • Indian ocean Tsunami 2004 • Cyclone Sidr, 2007 & Cyclone
(Major) (UNESCO document ) Aila 2009
• Tsunami 1945
• Mumbai floods 2005
664 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

Fig. 2 Coastline of Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra & West Bengal

envoy for tsunami relief and also the Swiss tennis player and Department in Pichavaram through the initiatives under Joint
UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador Roger Federer in 2006. The Mangrove Management (JMM) and retrieval of degraded man-
CRZ has played a crucial role in the hands of civil society grove areas are witnessed with its damage control as a natural
organizations in controlling the boom of shrimp industries in barrier at the time of tsunami. Establishment of Village
this region through the litigations and agitations. Also, the efforts Knowledge Centres (VKC) and Village Resource Centres
taken up by research institutions, NGO’s and the State Forest (VRC) by the M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation since
Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 665

1992 along this coastal region have helped to effectively dis- level the impacts of sea level rise would be significant for the
seminate tsunami warning in 2004 and saved lives in these city. In the past, violation of coastal regulatory zone had been
villages (ISRO, 2007). The coastal stretch between Puducherry rampant and was considered as one of the main reasons for
and Vedaranyam is an important deltaic plain of Cauvery River, Mumbai flooding in 2005. It is reported that Mumbai has lost
which has clear markings of paleo-channels. It’s ideal geomor- 40 % of all its mangroves in the past decade because of change
phic set up with lagoon and associated mangrove wetlands tend in land use to meet increasing demand for housing, slums,
attract migratory birds and serves as an important wild life sewage treatment and garbage dumps resulting in higher
sanctuary in the mid-part of Tamil Nadu coast has the influence exposure to natural hazards. Last 30 years data show that the
of both biophysical and human factors in order to survive. wave action has eroded 500 m of the 16 Km long coastline in
Undeveloped coastal zone i.e. CRZ-III covers major part of Mumbai and is constantly depleting due to developmental
south Tamil Nadu along Thiruvarur, Thanjavur and works along the coast. In light of this, it is important to
Pattukottai Districts. The coastal belt of Ramanathapuram consider the implication of the new CRZ notification for the
District, which borders Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere city’s resilience to disasters.
Reserve (GMMBS) are majority of CRZ-I category. This is As per Mumbai’s official records, out of 2335 slums in
another important coastal “hot spot” in terms of ecology and Mumbai, approximately 147 are exposed to flooding and 91
ecosystem services are concerned and contains 21 islands locations are exposed to cyclones (DMAP 2007). Patankar
located half a kilometre to 4 kms from the coast are bordered et al. (2010) states that due to regular change of location the
with fringing coral reefs. Literature says that 3600 marine slums in Mumbai, these slums have moved in close to hazard
species are in GMMBS, which is one for the richest marine prone areas. As per the interim census report 2011, 60 % of
biodiversity in the world (Kumaraguru et al., 2006). Hence Mumbai’s population lives in slums and the MOEF report of
GMMBS is being considered as marine paradise, which is 2009 states 16,000 old buildings are located in the CRZ area.
listed in UNESCO’s MAB Directory and received funding The new CRZ notification of 2011, taking cognizance of the
from GEF to the State Forest Department. The reserve covers alarming situation and makes special provision for slum de-
about 10,500 sq.km of area, which spread in to coastal districts velopment schemes by State government along the CRZ-II
of Ramanathpuram, Tuticorin and Thirunelveli and approxi- areas on Public Private Partnership (PPP) and allow repairing
mately 100,000 people live in 44 coastal villages along the and reconstruction work to ensure safer structures. Section 3
Reserves’ coastal area. GEF funding to the State Government (IV) allows construction of storm water drains in the CRZ
has paved way for introducing better governance and com- area, which is crucial for preventing localized flooding.
munity participation to ensure conservation and sustainable Mumbai port plays a pivotal role in the development of the
use of coastal marine resources by the local communities national economy, trade & commerce and has lead to setting
(UNDP, 2014). At the time of taking good shape to recover up warehouses and other offices along the coastline. Kankara
its ecology and environment during last two decades, the and Subramanian (2007) states that Mangroves are highly
commencement of Sethusamudaram Shipping Canal Project susceptible to oil spill which over longer period can cause
(SSCP) by the Government of India has received wide criti- extensive damage to the mangroves and costal ecosystem. The
cism on its impact on GMMBS. As per the CRZ 2011 maps Thane- Belapur belt, Kalyan- Ulhas Nagar- Ambernath belt,
and the area calculation provided by the Institute for Ocean Thane creek and Amba-Patalganga belt account for 8 % of
Management, Anna University, majority of the coast is de- India’s industries (Zingde 1999), which has as per DMAP
marcated as CRZ-III followed by CRZ-I. Both these catego- 2007, 379 chemical industries and 29 potential hazardous
ries are strictly regulating the new developmental activities if locations. The provision 3 (ii) in the CRZ notification pro-
the same will be implemented effectively. hibits setting up of industries, oil manufacturing, storage and
handling units and dumping of city’s waste along the coast-
Maharashtra coast line. This is a major step in reducing the induced disaster risk
to the livelihood of the coastal communities and ensures
Maharashtra has 720 km of coastline along the Konkan belt of protection of the environment specially the mangroves.
which the Great Mumbai Region (GMR) occupies the most Moreover, identification of critical infrastructure in the coastal
significant portion. The GMR is taken up as a special case in zone management map will support the City and State
the new CRZ notification of 2011 considering its environmen- Disaster Management Plan (CDMP/SDMP) and help in strat-
tal concerns, mangroves protection, limiting pollution of egizing for relief and response.
coastal areas specially the creeks, solid waste management The Mangroves act as a natural barrier to cyclones and
and for sustainable housing for the poor community. Mumbai Tsunami and provide effective control over the crumbling
is among the top 20 cities with exposure to extreme sea level shoreline and tidal waves making it essential to protect them.
and tropical cyclones (OECD 2008). Considering most part of Wide consensus and case studies across the world are avail-
Mumbai is reclaimed, and at an average of 10–15 m above sea able regarding the protective role of mangrove forests & its
666 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

impeccable services in disaster risk reduction. This was par- fragile region characterized by high rate of coastal erosion,
ticularly emphasized by a number of researchers since the frequent natural disasters and poor socio-economic conditions
Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004 with case evidences where of the inhabitants. The low lying delta of Sundarban is home
mangroves substantially decreased Tsunami loss (Kathiresan to some of the extra-ordinary biological diversity in the coun-
& Rajendran, 2005, Danielsen et al. 2005, EJF, 2006). The try; however, it is also the home for 4.5 million people living
State Government of Maharashtra has declared 3000 ha of in close association with the mangroves. These coastal com-
Mangrove as protected forests and is in a process to declare it munities suffer from extreme poverty and therefore vastly
as reserve forest under section −4 of the forest act. The depend on the land and natural resources of the coastal areas.
Maharashtra Coastal Zone Management Authority has set up While the earlier CRZ notification (1991) was mostly against
a mangrove cell in 2012 and created Coastal Conservation the traditional human environmental interaction in this region,
Fund (CCF). The Urban Development Department, the implications of CRZ notification 2011, in many ways,
Government of Maharashtra has issued standardized develop- provide a unique opportunity to sustainably develop this area.
ment control and promotion regulations for regional plans for While, one of the defined objectives of the 2011 notification is
the urban local bodies (ULBs) in 2013. Moreover, Regulatory to improve the livelihood security of the fishing communities
bodies like Bombay Chamber of Commerce and Industry which can benefit a good number of the traditional fishing
have setup Sustainability Committee to bridge the gap be- community facing adverse economic starvation due to reduc-
tween the user industries and government. Considering that tion of fish catches in the Sundarban delta, on the other hand,
1860 hectors of mangrove still remains with the private sector the area significantly lack basic infrastructure. Therefore, sus-
and there is an extensive demand for land in Mumbai. The tainable development of coastal areas in contrast to the earlier
resilience of Greater Mumbai Region to future disasters will conservative policy would majorly benefit the coastal com-
depend highly on the integration of the disaster management munities living in this delta. The most important consequence
and coastal zone management. of the revised notification would be a special status of Critical
Vulnerable Coastal Area (CVCA) to the entire Sundarban
West Bengal coast delta. An integrated management plan for this region is further
proposed. As per the guidelines laid in the CRZ 2011, this
The state of West Bengal in the eastern India has a relatively management plan should take up conservation and protection
small yet highly diverse coast line stretching from mouth of ecological diversity in consultation with the dwelling commu-
rivers Harinbhanga on the Indo-Bangladesh border in the east nities. This also envisages the housing and daily needs of the
and river Subarnarekha in the west. These consist three dis- local communities including fisher folks who are living in
tinctive regions, firstly the great Sundarban delta with its such ecologically sensitive areas. Further, the area will be
extraordinary mangroves, a highly industrialized zone and a scientifically investigated in order to understand the impact
port in Haldia and a popular tourism destination in Digha. of climate change and natural disasters. This has been a clear
After the formation of the West Bengal coastal zone manage- and paradigm shift of the earlier coastal zone management
ment authority in 1998, the coastal stretch in the state has been strategy with more involvement of the community & promo-
classified into three categories under the CRZ notification of tion of community based bottom up approach. However, in
1991. As per this classification the entire stretch of Sundarban what way the communities can be more successfully involved
delta including the national park, wildlife sanctuary and the in conservation as well as uplifted both socially and econom-
Sagar islands has been demarcated under the CRZ-I (Eastern ically –needs significant participatory research.
sector), the developed and the industrial areas near and around
the Haldia coast has been put under the CRZ-II (Central
sector) and areas which are not particularly developed and
do not fall under CRZ-I & CRZ-II has been earmarked under Coastal management, environmental degradation
the CRZ III. According to the Integrated Coastal Zone and disaster risk reduction linkages
Management Plan of West Bengal (CPCB, 2001), approxi-
mately 8185 sq. km belongs to CRZ I while 3.41 sq.km & The above three cases from three different province of India
1970 sq. km qualify for CRZ II & CRZ III respectively. has strong resemblance in degradation of coastal ecosystem
Therefore, the state offers an exceptional setting with respect services under the continuous human intervention which has
to the diversity & management of its coast line. As per the lead to the increased vulnerability of the coastal communities.
recent census, the coastal zone hosts a population of nearly 7 Anthropogenic interventions in form of environmental pollu-
million people-more than half of which remain highly ex- tion, despite of several restrictive legislations, are majorly
posed to all sorts of coastal hazards such as tropical cyclones, responsible for this. Although, specific legislations were
tidal surges and severe coastal erosion. Precisely, the entire adopted to curtail such massive environmental deterioration
area of the Sundarban delta remains as an extremely eco- in coastal areas, however, the environmental pollution in
Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 667

coastal areas remains far beyond a complicated issue. ridges. This geo-morphological feature plays an extremely cru-
Unfortunately, the coastal communities, specially, the indige- cial role in determining its vulnerability to natural hazards and
nous coastal dwellers remain highly exposed to a wide range climate change. Consequently, the low lying areas in both the
of natural disasters under the face of the decreasing ecosystem eastern & western coast of India remains highly vulnerable to
services even though they are not always responsible for such climate induced disasters and sea level rise although the exposure
consequences. In this section an attempt has been made to link of the eastern coast is quite high compared to the western coast.
the major issues pertaining to the environmental and social For example, it is predicted that 1 m sea level rise will submerge
sustainability of the Indian coast with a strong emphasis on the as about 478 km2 in Paradip coastal region with an inundation
Disaster Risk Reduction priorities. zone extending to more than 40 km inward-highest in case of the
eastern coast. Similar observation has also been made for Kochi
Linking river to coast which may loss up to 169 sq km for 1 m sea level rise (INCAA,
2010). Undoubtedly, this will have significant consequences to
Functioning of coastal ecosystems especially the mangroves the coastal ecological settings, precisely to the loss of exclusive
need to receive sufficient quantity of freshwater through river coastal ecosystem services. Unless proper adaptation plans are
discharge and rainfall in order to maintain its ecology and species made, the low lying coastal areas, particularly in the eastern coast
diversity. In Cauvery delta, which houses two important man- are bound to receive adverse environmental consequences from
grove patches – Pichavaram and Muthupet is one of the ideal climate induced sea level rise. Moreover, the continuation of
cases for linking of river to coastal management policies. ecological functioning of the Indian coast is at present highly
Cauvery River is the main supplier of freshwater to these man- threatened by a number of environmental factors. The most
grove areas, however, the detailed analysis of freshwater supply serious of the lot has been a drastic reduction of freshwater flow
through Cauvery River from 1939 to 1990 and its changes due to in the major Indian rivers. While it has direct impacts on loss of
construction of dams, reservoirs in the upstream areas and the exotic mangrove species, over the past, dams in India have also
reduction of freshwater coming in to the mangrove areas of Tamil led to collapse of fisheries in almost all of its major rivers,
Nadu clearly shows its linkage with change in areal spread and severely affecting biodiversity and livelihoods in the coastal
species diversity (MSSRF, 2002). The frequent occurrence of areas. These has not only adversely affected a large amount of
drought during the period 1975–1995, the mangrove patches fishing population living in the coastal areas, but also led to
along Tamil Nadu coast have faced the natural felling apart from disappearance of some commercially important aquatic species
the anthropogenic pressure. Due to the absence of proper mixing forever. Despite of the fact that the past three National Five Year
of freshwater and seawater, both water and soil quality has Plans have recognized the problem, little has been done. The new
deteriorated, leading to natural felling. A prolonged neglect of coastal zone regulation surprisingly does not take this into ac-
mangroves and its improper maintenance has resulted in degra- count. Another major drawback of this notification is, that it fails
dation of this resource to a greater extent. Initiatives on Joint to address the key environmental factors that do not have a
Mangrove Management (JMM) have created a strong sense of coastal origin. Countries with large coastline such as Japan has
awareness in the local community and the introduction of repeatedly made it a point that the ecological connectivity be-
artificial regeneration has resulted in recovery of degraded sites tween the land and the sea is maintained and invested heavily on
along the east coast of India. A study carried out by Selvam et al. research and development to streamline such connection. The
(2003) has proved this with the comparison temporal remote US has dismantled its large dams. While, globally the concept of
sensing data. Also the improved rainfall with monsoonal floods ecological connectivity between the land and the sea is rapidly
in Tamil Nadu and adjoining states from 2005 onwards has emerging, Indian policymakers and coastal zone managers, un-
helped to maintain the recovered mangrove areas through fortunately, overlook such intense threat of coastal zone coming
JMM, which are funded by international agencies. Similar ob- from the land. Instead, the Indian coasts annually receive &
servation for the Sundarban Mangroves has been stated by accumulate industrial waste of 50×106 m3, solid waste and other
DasGupta & Shaw 2013 (a) as they mentioned that inadequacy garbage of 34×106 tonnes and untreated sewage of 0.41×
of the freshwater flow has largely impacted the annihilation of 109 m3 causing large scale damage to the marine and other
major dominant mangrove species from the Sundarban delta in coastal ecosystems. The three major Indian coastal cities, i.e.
West Bengal (DasGupta and Shaw 2013a). Mumbai, Chennai & Kolkata dispose their urban & industrial
waste water into the sea. Several recent scientific reports show
Climate and environmental changes in coastal areas of India high level of heavy metal concentration in Indian coasts and
marine sediments. Apart from the fact that in order to protect the
India’s long coast line of over 7500 km has large spatial diversity coast from being polluted, a chance of ecological & environmen-
with respect to its environmental settings. While, the Eastern tal disaster largely exists along the Indian coast. Therefore,
Coastal plain runs smoothly from the north to the south, the sustainable coastal zone management must include a similar
western coast, in some places, is intersected by the mountain approach in upstream river water management and
668 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

environmental pollution control. Unfortunately, however, the carried for the hazardous locations and integrated with the city,
CRZ notification fails to focus on the tremendous human- district and state disaster management plans. In addition, the
environmental interactions that are not confined to the coast CRZ notification mandates earmarking of helipads, cyclones
which will slowly but surely have an adverse consequence on shelters and other important infrastructure as a part of the CZM
the coastal ecosystems as well as the communities living in the plan which can be integrated with the response plan of the State
coast. or local authorities.
Further, section 30 (2) xxiii of the DM act, empowers the
Disaster risk reduction and costal regulatory zone legislation district authority to examine constructions within their admin-
istrative boundary and may ensure compliance to various
Approximately 40 % people of India’s population live in the standards as deemed necessary to ensure safety is met.
coastal areas and are highly susceptible to hydro-meteorological Similar provisions are made in the CRZ notification for re-
(i.e. cyclones, floods, drought etc.) hazards. Disaster Risk construction and redevelopment of old buildings along the
Reduction (DRR) legislation is an important tool to mitigate coastline. The actual work will be dependent on the economic
the risk of the vulnerable Indian costal line by guiding the feasibility and onsite viability of such building and hence
State, local institutions and community on aspects of planning, there is need to detail the scope of such work on case basis.
operations and monitoring. The Disaster Management Act of Considering the urban local bodies (ULB) with their limited
2005 in India recognizes the damage or degradation of the capacities are not able to leverage the spiralling hazard risk in
environment as a potential cause of disaster. In addition, the the urban areas. As at present only a few states have a
recent national action plan for climate change has included standardized Development Control Regulations (DCR) hence
‘ecosystem services enhancement’ under the Green India most of the DCRs are dependent on the city administration.
Mission with a target to increase mangrove cover of more than Hence compliance to the local town and country planning
1000 sq. km by 2020. In India, more than 200 laws and acts regulations may not ensure a uniform implementation of
regulate the developmental activities in relation to environment minimum safety standards across the country.
(NIDM Report 2011). One of the main reasons for the modifi- Considering the importance of early warning and monitor-
cation of the CRZ notification of 1991 in 2011 was to introduce ing for disaster risk reduction for setting effective up of a
policies to cope with and adapt to the future dangers from sea communication systems in case of a disaster. The DM act of
level rise and increased vulnerability of the coasts. However, 2005 and DM policy 2009 stress that developing contempo-
many sectoral policies of various government departments and rary forecasting and early warning systems is a prerogative of
ministries either overlap with disaster management policy or every State in India. This is to ensure efficient response and
have disaster management as an integral component of the relief to the vulnerable sections of the society. In conjunction
policy. Hence it is essential that these legislations are integrated to this, CRZ notification under section 8 (III) iii permits
and brought under one umbrella for a comprehensive under- installation of weather radars in the no development zone
standing. The Disaster management policy of 2009 put in guide- (NDZ), which will be essential in weather monitoring and
lines for the disaster management plans to have issues relating to cyclone forecasting specially for the coastal areas.
raising coastal belt plantation under section 5.1.6. The CRZ The CRZ notification of 2011 in a way creates scope for the
notification of 2011 compliments this by making provisions for government to use the land for tourism industry and for setting
increasing the mangrove cover along the coast. The notification up of various critical infrastructures in the coastal areas. Sarkar
suggests cutting of one unit mangrove within the CRZ for and Sharma (2006) states that in India, individual States are
developmental work could require planting five units elsewhere. responsible for responding to disasters with mitigation and
This has its own shortfalls as the notification doesn’t suggest prevention as overarching ideas for disaster management. On
where to plant these mangroves and hence there is a high the other hand, CRZ notification unlike the DM act is central-
possibility of unequal distribution of mangrove cover along the ized with very less role played by the States. Hence unless
coast line as the developmental plans doesn’t earmark such areas each State comes up with their respective costal management
at present. zone plan, the integration and implementation of both these
The DM act under section 18 (2) g and 30 (2) xii makes acts will remain a challenge.
provision for the State and district authority respectively to
review development plans of various departments. In addition
to this, the disaster management policy of 2009 spells out the Discussion and concluding remarks
need for carrying out hazard zonation, mapping and vulnerability
to be done by State and local authorities The CRZ notification Towards implementable management approach
under section 4.2 (d) makes disaster report, risk assessment report
and management plans mandatory for project clearance. These The coastal zone is not easily defined but serves interest of
together will ensure that a scientific hazard risk assessment is multiple stakeholders such as government, academia, coastal
Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 669

planners and managers, businesses, workers and community 1991 has faced several litigations in the courts the
involved directly and indirectly. The boundaries of this zone establishment of NGT under MoEF is much helpful in
may include social, biophysical and policy-oriented implementing CRZ 2011 since it is mandated to make and
definitions and uniformity in defining boundary by endeavour for disposal of applications or appeals finally
incorporating all aspects may not be possible always. within 6 months of filing of the same. In order to implement
However, there are arguments like Srinivas and Nakagawa CRZ 2011 in full spirit including the DRR components like
(2007) stating that in order to mitigate the cyclical linkages of shoreline erosion the entire state coast has been mapped by the
environmental degradation and their exacerbation of a disas- National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management
ter’s impacts, and of a disaster’s impacts on the environment (NCSCM) by taking in to consideration last 30 years data
we need to bring all the priorities such as development, (1970–2010). The location of NCSM of MoEF is also one
environment and disasters especially for the developing coun- way helpful in effective implementation of CRZ in the state
tries. But the tsunami impact studies have been carried out apart from the NGT sitting in Chennai. On the other hand the
along Tamil Nadu coast using remote sensing, GIS and GPS state of West Bengal has already prepared State Action Plan
tools have proved that the inundation and damages are more on Climate Change (SAPCC), which has been endorsed by
within 500 m from HTL i.e. CRZ area (Krishnamurthy et al., the National Steering Committee on Climate Change. The
2014). Similarly, the violation of CRZ in Mumbai by SAPCC of West Bengal has made an assessment of the current
encroaching mangrove areas, waterways etc. resulted in climate trends and the climate projection scenarios for the mid
chocking up of Mithi River during 2005 flood (Bhagat et al., Century (2021–2050) including the likely climate change
2006). Also there are arguments quoting that despite the concerns and the corresponding adaptation and mitigation
coastal policies and programmes in place, prior to the 2004 strategies that would ameliorate the climate change concerns,
tsunami, there has been a general lack of implementation of for example, bridging the gaps in embankments bordering the
ICZM. Also there has been considerable variation in the Sundarban, effective dissemination of warning messages for
interpretation and application of coastal policies and cyclones, flood etc. The SAPCC has taken in to consideration
programmes in various states (Sonak et al., 2007). The post- all important components such as agriculture, horticulture,
tsunami rehabilitation and reconstruction programmes pro- forest, biodiversity, water resources, human health etc. for
vide an opportunity for actions towards improved ICZM. the preparation of action plan and identified two vulnerable
Hence the necessity of reviewing the CRZ while regions in the state are Himalayan Darjeeling and Sundarban.
implementing rehabilitation measures by the government of The SAPCC of West Bengal has adequately addressed the
Tamil Nadu after the tsunami. Though the State Coastal Zone issues and adaptation strategies for climate change. Signing of
Management Authority (SCZMA) has not been renewed at MoU between India and Bangladesh towards the conservation
that time the state government entrusted United Nation Sundarban including the Royal Bengal Tigers is also a good
Development Programme (UNDP) to review CRZ to make sign of transnational cooperation. Under this circumstance, it
sure that the rehabilitation and reconstruction activities are is highly possible to implement the CRZ 2011 in such a way
within the CRZ norms as precautionary measure to avoid that it is beneficial to all the stakeholders including enhancing
future litigation on this matter due to an increased attention the resilience of coastal communities in the near future.
by the coastal communities and others in an attempt to under-
stand CRZ better (Sridhar, 2005). Therefore, the disasters in Future challenges in coastal management
2004 and 2005 are important in terms of taking up the regu-
latory measures very seriously by incorporating ICZM and Occupational resilience of vulnerable communities
disaster management aspects in the new regulations.
In the recent past Tamil Nadu state has a well-established In the wake of implementing participatory approach coastal
set up of District and State Coastal Zone Management regulation measure there are new threats in the management of
Authorities and all issues pertaining to CRZ are being taken coastal areas due to increasing population concentration,
up systematically and clearance being given in a transparent hydro-meteorological disasters, demand for water, energy
manner. The details on meeting minutes containing important and other resources and so on. Chennai, Mumbai and
policy decisions including the CRZ maps prepared using Kolkata are being considered as world mega-cities and ex-
remote sensing data merged with village cadastral maps on pected to exceed 8 million populations by 2015. Existing
1:25,000 scale are available to the public in the web site global analyses of the world’s coastal ecosystems reveal that
(http://www.environment.tn.nic.in/eia_authority1.html ) 18 % of all lands within 100 km are considered altered (urban
Additionally, the establishment of National Green Tribunal or agricultural use); 10 % are covered by a mosaic of crop and
in 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act 2010 is helpful natural vegetation and 72 % fall within the least modified
in effective and expeditious in disposing cases related to category. Considering the coastal ecology the terrestrial eco-
environmental protection and conservation. Since the CRZ systems were located within 100 km of the coastline has
670 R.R. Krishnamurthy et al.

influence to the coast (Martínez et al. 2007). Coastal ecosys- Mahanadhi coast of Odhisa after the JMM projects is with-
tems have to provide resource to these traditional communi- drawn. It is observed that recovered mangrove sites are now
ties. Adaptive mechanisms for both these extremes by the low being cleared for other activities. Immediate measures are
income group families are become more challenging unless required to monitor the recovered mangrove areas in the near
otherwise there are alternative options in order to maintain future. In short, the continuity of the existing projects and
their occupational resilience. Regulatory measures will be conservation initiatives needs to be prioritized at the policy
successful when adequate livelihood security is provided. level.
For example, providing employable higher education to the
vulnerable coastal communities can achieve occupational re- Enhancing institutional cooperation mechanisms
silience including their possible relocation as evident in the
state of Tamil Nadu (Krishnamurthy and Kamala, 2014). The costal regulation zone is enforced by the central govern-
Additionally, the Village Resource Centre (VRC) and the ment whereas the disaster management is a state subject,
satellite based Potential Fishing Zone (PFZ) programmes of bringing in a synergy among them will be a challenge and
the Department of Space need to reach all the vulnerable its success will depend on the respective states CRZ policies.
communities in the country. Validation of Potential Fishing Disaster Management Act of 2005 addresses indirectly lot of
Zone (PFZ) data from 2007 to 2011 has showed that the fish overlapping concerns of the coastal zone management but
catch in PFZ is 3–4 times higher than non-PFZ area future amends to act can direct the States to take up specific
(Nammalwar et al., 2013). The advisories on PFZ are being concern arising due to local conditions. National Institute of
disseminated by Indian National Centre for Oceanic Disaster Management (NIDM) an apex disaster management
Information Services (INCOIS). New research should emerge research institute should take up research pertaining to costal
in combining the technology outputs and indigenous knowl- zones to linkup disaster management practises with coastal
edge in validation and utilization in order to enhance liveli- zone management. At state level, the CZM policy needs a
hood security. better integration with the disaster management policy for a
holistic approach to mitigate disaster risk to costal zones. The
Continuity of coastal conservation programmes formation of district level committee to look into CRZ norms
will help in creating synergies with the district disaster man-
India’s response to coastal conservation program has been agement authority as both are chaired by the district collector.
traditionally sporadic and time bounded. For example, over Integrated Management Plans (IMP) and Disaster
the past several NGOs and CBOs have engaged in scientific Management Plan (DMP) can be integrated to plan for better
management of coastal areas as well as conservation of coastal decision making by the local authorities. The recent report of
ecosystems etc. However, as reviewed and analysed by the Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG) report
DasGupta and Shaw (2014), although the NGOs and CBOs raise concern over the functioning of the disaster management
have made great efforts in the conservation and management machinery in the centre and states. The disaster management
of mangrove resources by securing external funding, mobiliz- institutions having a relief and response centric approach
ing the community and successful implementation of JMM in would act as a constraint in integration and implementation
the country, their roles are mostly restricted only up to the of the CRZ guidelines.
project period and the extension or continuation of such Taking a clue from case of Mumbai, it is important to
programmes solely rest with the department of forest. This engage respective states and other stakeholder’s through dia-
was the also topic of discussion before implementing the logue and advocacy for better monitoring and imple-
JMM programme in the coastal conservation policies about mentation of the CRZ guidelines. A legal framework
the continuity, monitoring etc. after the project period. supporting the CRZ notification will act as deterrent
Scientifically it has been proved that JMM yielded good result for violations by the local government. The multiplicity
especially in improving the mangrove cover (Selvam et al., of agencies and rules of business of respective depart-
2003). Also country wise assessment on the temporal varia- ments within the government makes it difficult to re-
tions of mangrove cover in India up to 2009 shows that there duce the overlaps and would require handholding from
is an increasing trend of 3.5 % (DasGupta and Shaw, 2013b) respective departments for a holistic implementation
which denotes that considerable efforts has been put by the strategy. Sectoral activities and interventions in coastal
government and forest management agencies to conserve the and marine ecology work in silos with conflicting ob-
existing mangrove resources and develop new forested areas. jectives and outputs. The regional offices will play an
However, in some cases, it has been found that conservational important role in linking the state’s CRZ authority with
scheme has been severely disturbed after the defined project the central authority to bring better coordination.
period. For example, the Landsat optical sensor of 2013 Improved space technology enabled enforcement and
highlights that there are changes in mangrove area in monitoring through the Department of Space will help
Managing the indian coast in the face of disasters 671

in overcoming the implementation lacuna of the various Organization and Disaster Risk Reduction: The Asian Dilemma,
Disaster Risk Reduction: Methods, Approaches and Practices, doi
responsible authorities.
10.1007/978-4-431-54877-5_11
The CRZ regulations need to be aligned with the millenni- Disaster Management Action Plan for Mumbai (DMAP), Government of
um development goal on environmental sustainability by fo- M a h a r a s h t r a ( 2 0 0 7 ) A c c e s s e d o n l i n e h t t p : / / w w w.
cusing on the long term impacts of all developmental work in unitedwaymumbai.org/docs/mhl-disaster-actionplan.pdf Accessed
25 June, 2014
the notified zone. The notification though uses terminologies
EJF (2006) “Nature’s defence against Tsunamis: a report on the impact of
like sustainable development, sustainable livelihood, ecolog- mangrove loss and shrimp farm development on coastal defence”, in
ically and culturally sensitive costal resources, but fails to Mangroves. Environmental Justice Foundation, London
detail the implementation strategies for each of them. Gibbs MT (2009) Resilience: what is it and what does it mean for marine
policymakers? Mar Policy 33(2):322–331
Moreover, top down instituted CRZ regulations is a big con-
Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) (2010)
trast to a bottom up PPP measures suggested as a part of the Climate Change in India: a 4×4 Assessment
new notification. One of the major challenges of the earlier ISRO (2007) Space Technology Enabled Village Resource Centre (VRC)
notification was its multiple amends leading to the dilution of available online http://www.isro.org/publications/pdf/
VRCBrochure.pdf Accessed 25 June, 2014
the objectives. It is yet to be seen how the new notification will
Jayaprakash M, Nagarajan R, Velmurugan PM, Sathiyamoorthy J,
address the issues of development while balancing the interest Krishnamurthy RR, Urban B (2012) Assessment of trace metal
of multiple stakeholder to achieve its desired goal. contamination in a historical freshwater canal (Buckingham canal),
Chennai, India. Environ Monit Assess 184(12):7407–7424
Kankara RS, Subramanian BR (2007) Oil spill sensitivity analysis and
risk assessment for gulf of Kachchh, India, using integrated model-
Acknowledgments The author (RRK) is thankful to the Kyoto Uni-
ing. J Coast Res 23(5):1251–1258
versity, Japan, for offering visiting professorship to stay in the Graduate
Kathiresan K, Rajendran N (2005) Coastal mangrove forests mitigated
School of Global Environmental Studies (GSGES) and Inter-Graduate
tsunami. Estuar Coast Shelf Sci 65(3):601–606
School Program for Sustainable Development and Survivable Societies
Krishnamurthy RR, Kamala K (2014) Impact of Higher Education in
(GSS) during June 2014, which helped to compile this paper. Also he is
Enhancing the Resilience of Disaster Prone Coastal Communities –
thankful to the University of Madras for granting permission to avail this
A Case Study in Nemmeli Panchayat, Tamil Nadu, India
programme. The second and third authors thankfully acknowledge the
Krishnamurthy RR, Chandrasekar K, D Shanmugam (2014) Coastal zone
Japanese Government Scholarship for conducting research in Graduate
management in Tamil Nadu, India: Challenges and Innovations, In:
School of Global Environmental Studies in Kyoto University.
Disaster Recovery: Used or Misused Development Opportunity. In
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