Chapter 4

Modeling of Fluid and Thermal Systems

This chapter presents the mathematical modeling of the fluid and thermal systems,
the governing fundamental equations, and how to develop the different standard
models.
Introduction
• Pressurized fluids (liquids and gases) are used by mechanical engineers in designing
devices that deliver forces and torques to mechanical loads. Hydraulic systems use
a liquid as the working fluid while pneumatic systems use air or other gases.
Hydraulic and pneumatic actuators are so many used in construction and industry.
Fluid systems convert energy from a power source (pressurized fluid) to mechanical
energy (position and velocity).
• Thermal systems involve the transfer of heat energy, and temperature is typically
the dynamic variable of interest.

5.1 Hydraulic Systems

A general hydraulic system is composed of the following fundamental elements:

(1) a pump that provides a high-pressure fluid;
(2) a fluid capacitance due to fluid energy stored in a reservoir or tank;
(3) hoses, pipes, and valves that connect the various reservoirs and control flow.
(4) fluid stiffness due to fluid compressibility.
(5) hydromechanical actuator that transform the hydraulic power to mechanical power.
Resistance of Hydraulic Systems

A fluid resistance element is any component that resists flow and dissipates energy,
and, therefore, they are analogous to electrical resistors.
Laminar fluid resistance exhibits a linear relationship between the pressure drop ∆P =
P1 - P2 and the volumetric flow rate Q.

Note that laminar resistance is analogous to electrical resistance eR = R . I, where the

voltage drop is analogous to the pressure drop ∆P and current flow I is analogous to
fluid flow Q.
The laminar fluid resistance can be computed using the Hagen-Poiseuille law

where μ is the dynamic (or absolute) viscosity of the fluid, in Pa s.

Most industrial hydraulic systems involve turbulent flow. Turbulent flow is
characterized by irregular, eddy-like, swirling flow where the streamlines are not
uniform or parallel. Turbulent fluid resistance exhibits a nonlinear relationship
between the pressure drop ∆P = P1 - P2 across the orifice and the volumetric flow
rate Q.

We can rewrite the equation in the form

The coefficient, KT = 1/ RT , can be calculated using energy equation

Where Cd is the coefficient of discharge and ρ is the density.

Fluid Capacitance
The capacitance of a fluid reservoir or tank is a measure of its ability to store energy
due to fluid pressure. For hydraulic systems (liquids), the fluid capacitance C is usually
defined as the ratio of the change in volume V to the change in pressure P.

The pressure at the base of the tank is

determined from the hydrostatic
equation, assuming incompressible
flow

We can compute the fluid capacitance of the tank as

V = Ah, and hence

Also,
The fluid capacitance definition can be rewritten

Dividing both sides by dt yields

Fluid Inductance

Fluid inductance is the effect due to fluid's inertia as it accelerates along a pipe. For
fluid systems, the inductance Lf is defined as the ratio of the change in pressure P to
the change in the time-rate of volumetric flow rate .

While inertia effects are important in modeling mechanical systems, fluid inertia
effects are usually insignificant and can be ignored in modeling fluid systems (except
for long pipe systems).
Fluid Bulk Modulus

A fluid is said to be incompressible if its

density remains constant and compressible
if its density changes with pressure. Under
relatively low pressures, liquids can be
considered as incompressible fluids, while
high-pressure hydraulic fluids are
compressible. The fluid bulk modulus β
measures the fluid's resistance to
compressibility and is defined as

A typical hydraulic oil used in industrial applications has a fluid bulk modulus of β = 109
Pa and a nominal density of about ρ = 860 kg/m3.
Conservation of Mass
One of the important laws that used in deriving the mathematical models of fluid
systems is the conservation of mass.
The conservation of mass for the CV
yields

where is the net rate of change of

the total fluid mass in the CV. Also

If mass does not accumulate in the CV (i .e., steady flow through the CV) then

If the fluid is incompressible ( ρ = c ), then

Example 5.1
The figure shows a single hydraulic tank with input volumetric flow rate Qin· Derive the
mathematical model of the hydraulic system in terms of the tank level h and input
volumetric flow rate Qin , assuming once laminar flow and once turbulent through the
valve. Determine the state variables.

Solution
Applying the conservation of mass for incompressible fluid

The change in the tank volume can be expressed in terms of the capacitance as
Substituting we get
(1)

(a) Laminar

For laminar flow, the flow through the valve is expressed as

so,

or,
(2)

Pressure and height are related by the hydrostatic equation

Substituting in (2) we get,

Note: this is a first order linear equation

(b) Turbulent

For Turbulent flow, the flow through the valve is expressed as

Substituting in (1) we get,

Since,
and

we get

Note: this is a first order nonlinear equation

The state variable is x1 = h

Modeling of Hydromechanical Systems

Hydromechanical systems are created by combining hydraulic and mechanical

components, and they are used to convert the energy stored in the pressurized fluid
to mechanical energy. For example, a hydraulic actuator uses a pressurized oil to move
a piston in a cylinder that is connected to a mechanical load.
The figure shows a simple
hydraulic actuator that
consists of a piston and
cylinder with circular cross
sectional area A. In the next
we wish to derive a
mathematical model that
express the system dynamics.
Note that, under high pressure
the oil compressibility is
considered, that is ρ ≠ c.

Applying conservation of mass

(1)
The time derivative of density can be expressed by using the chain rule

(2)

From the definition of fluid bulk modulus

Substituting in (2) we get,

Substituting in (1) we get,

(3)

If equation (3) becomes

A 
xP + Ax =Qin

Note that: If we consider the fluid is incompressible ρ = C,

Ax = Qin
Example 5.2
The figure shows a simple hydraulic actuator with an input flow rate Qin to the cylinder
and a piston connected to the load mass. Derive the mathematical model of the
hydromechanical system considering the fluid bulk modulus of elasticity β. Determine
the state and input variables .

Solution

(a) Compressible fluid

Conservation of mass

(1)
Using the chain rule (2)

From the definition of fluid bulk modulus

Substituting in (2) we get,

Substituting in (1) we get,

(3)

Since equation (3) becomes

A 
xP + Ax =Qin

Next, we derive the mechanical model that governs the position and velocity of the
piston and load mass.
The mathematical model of the hydromechanical system becomes:

A 
xP + Ax =Qin


This a third order nonlinear system. To get the state space representation we can
choose as state variables

x1 = P x2 = x x3 = x

The input variables are

u1 = Qin u2 = FL u3 = Patm

The output could be

y1 = x or x or P
5.2 Pneumatic Systems
Pneumatic systems involve compressible gases where the density changes
significantly with pressure. Another difference between hydraulic and pneumatic
systems involves the inclusion of thermodynamic effects. Although temperature
changes can affect the properties of liquids (such as viscosity and bulk modulus), these
effects are small compared to the pressure variations and hence were not considered
in the development of hydraulic system models. Pneumatic systems, on the other
hand, exhibit a functional relationship between pressure, temperature, and density as
demonstrated by the ideal gas law:

where P is the absolute pressure, ρ is the gas density, R is the gas constant, and T is
the absolute temperature (in kelvin, K).

Resistance of Pneumatic Systems

In rare cases where the gas is incompressible (i.e., very low-speed flow), the
pneumatic resistance can be modeled by either the linear laminar or nonlinear
turbulent equations shown in the previous section (modeling of hydraulic systems).
The corresponding laminar or turbulent resistance coefficients RL and RT can be
approximated from experimental results, such as a plot of mass-flow rate vs. pressure
drop.
In most industrial applications (such as pneumatic actuators), the working gas flows
through valves and orifices at a high speed, and therefore the gas is compressible.
Compressible gas flow is a complex phenomenon, and therefore, we do not develop
the flow equations here. Instead, we present the results for gas flow through a sharp-
edged orifice, which we can use to model compressible flow in a pneumatic system

The figure shows compressible gas flow through a sharp-edged orifice with area Ao at
the throat (minimum area). Expressions for the mass-flow rate of the gas can be
derived by assuming that
- the gas is an ideal gas
- the expansion through the orifice is isentropic (i.e., frictionless and adiabatic).
In addition, we need to consider two cases:

(1) "unchoked'' flow and (2) "choked" flow.

The flow is said to be "choked" when it achieves sonic conditions (the speed of sound,
or Mach= 1) at the throat.
The ratio of the downstream-to-
upstream pressures, P2/P1
determines whether or not the flow
is choked.
Clearly, if the upstream and
downstream pressures are nearly
equal (P2/P1 ≈ 1), then no gas flows
through the orifice.
Gas begins to flow through the
orifice at an increasing speed as the
pressure ratio P2/P1 decreases from
unity. When the pressure ratio P2/P1
is greater than the critical ratio Cr
the gas flow is subsonic and
"unchoked" and the corresponding
mass-flow rate is
Where γ is the ratio of specific heats ( = 1.4 for air) and Cd is the discharge coefficient
for losses associated with flow through the orifice.

If the downstream pressure P2 becomes low enough, the flow speed increases until it
reaches the sonic (Mach 1) condition at the throat and the flow becomes choked. In
this case, the choked mass-flow rate is

The critical pressure ratio that divides the unchoked and choked flow regimes is a
function of γ.

For air γ = 1.4 and, therefore, the critical pressure is Cr = 0.528.

Modeling of Pneumatic Systems

Similar to the hydraulic systems,

mathematical models of pneumatic
systems can be derived by applying
the conservation of mass to the CV.
The derivation is only slightly different
from the steps we applied to the
hydraulic system due to gas
compressibility

and

Assuming a polytropic gas expansion process

where a is a constant and n is the polytropic exponent. For an isothermal process, n = 1;

for an isentropic process, n = γ.

Taking the time differentials of both sides yields

Substituting for yields,

 Since hence,

Substituting into the mass-flow rate

Example 5.3

The figure shows a simple pneumatic actuator with an input mass flow rate m  in to the
cylinder and a piston connected to the load mass. Derive the mathematical model of
the system considering the gas expansion process is polytropic. Identify the state and
input variables.
Solution

For a polytropic gas expansion process

Taking the time differentials of both sides yields

Substituting for yields,

Since hence,

Substituting into the mass-flow rate

 Since the last equation becomes
Ax  P
P+ Ax = m in
nRT RT
Next, we derive the mechanical model that governs the position and velocity of the
piston and load mass.

The mathematical model of the system becomes:

Ax  P
P+ Ax = m in
nRT RT
This a third order nonlinear system. To get the state space representation we can
choose as state variables

x1 = P x2 = x x3 = x

The input variables are

u1 = m in u2 = FL u3 = Patm

The output could be

y1 = x or x or P
Modeling of Thermal Systems
Thermal systems involve the storage and flow of heat energy. Temperature T (in kelvin,
K) is the principal dynamic variable of interest and heat flow rate q is also a
fundamental variable in thermal models. Thermal system models are derived by
applying the conservation of energy to the system boundary.

The figure shows an open thermal system with a boundary that encloses a thermal
capacitance C. Heat energy could flow into or out of the capacitance through the
boundary. Furthermore, heat energy can enter or leave the system because of mass
transferring across the boundary (e.g., fluid flow).
Thermal Resistance
Heat can be transferred in three ways: conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction involves the diffusion of heat energy between two bodies that are in
physical contact, such as heat transfer through a solid material. Convection involves
the transfer of heat energy through the motion of a fluid. Radiation involves the
transfer of heat through the absorption of electromagnetic radiation such as infrared
waves and solar energy.
Conductive or convective heat transfer can be approximated by a linear function of
temperature difference, while heat transfer via radiation is a highly nonlinear function
of the temperature difference. Therefore, we consider only conduction and convection
in this section.
Thermal resistance elements resist the flow of
heat energy despite a temperature difference.
For conduction or convection, the rate of heat
A
transfer q can be approximated by a linear
function of the temperature difference ∆T T1 q
T2

x
where R is the thermal resistance.
This is analogous to Ohm's law for an electrical resistor (eR =R I), where heat flow rate
q is analogous to electrical current I and temperature difference ∆T is analogous to
voltage drop eR.
Thermal resistance R for conduction is proportional to the thickness of the material
(x) and inversely proportional to area normal to the heat flow (A) and the material's
thermal conductivity coefficient k:

Thermal resistance R for convection is inversely proportional to the area A and the
convection coefficient H:

Thermal Capacitance
Thermal capacitance is a measure of a body's ability to store heat energy due to its
mass and thermal properties. Thermal capacitance C is the product of the body's mass
m and its specific heat capacity at constant pressure cp,
The rate of energy stored by the thermal capacitance is given by

E = C T
Modeling Thermal Systems

Thermal system models are derived by applying the conservation of energy to the
system boundary
E
Substituting the time-rate of enthalpy and E = C T we get

where Tin and Tout are the fluid temperatures of the streams flowing into and out of
the thermal capacitance, respectively, and T is the uniform temperature of the
thermal capacitance.

Models of thermal systems can be derived using the following steps:

1. Draw a thermal system boundary around each thermal capacitance, identifying
whether the system is a closed or an open system.
2. Label the input and output heat transfer rates qi and qout between thermal
capacitances or their surroundings. For open systems, label the enthalpy rates due
to mass flowing into or out of the thermal capacitance.
3. Apply the energy balance equation to each thermal capacitance.
Example 5.4
The figure shows an interior office room with a baseboard heater, which can be
modeled by a lumped-capacitance thermal system. The air in the room has total
thermal capacitance C and temperature T and the baseboard heater provides heat
input qBH. The four walls and ceiling and floor surfaces are modeled by six different
thermal resistances (Ri, i = I, 2 .... 6) due to the different materials, dimensions, and
existence of a window or door for that surface. Derive the mathematical model of the
thermal system.
Solution
Because there is no mass crossing the system boundary, we remove the enthalpy-rate
terms from the energy balance equation.

the single input heat flow rate is clearly qBH and the output heat flow rates from the
room to its surroundings are qi, i = 1, 2 ... . , 6. Each of the six output heat flow rates
can be expressed as,
where REQ is the equivalent thermal resistance defined by

The final form becomes

If the state space representation is required

State variables x1 = T
The input variables are u1 = qBH u2 = Ta
The output is y=T