Water is fundamental to all life on Earth.

It's not just about quenching thirst; its

significance spans across biological, social, and economic dimensions.

 Sustaining Life: Every living organism, from the smallest microbe to the
largest whale, relies on water for survival. It's the primary component of
cells, facilitates metabolic processes, regulates body temperature, and
transports nutrients and waste.
 Human Health: Access to safe water is a basic human right. It's essential
for drinking, cooking, and personal hygiene. Without it, individuals are
vulnerable to a host of waterborne diseases, impacting their health,
productivity, and overall well-being.
 Food Security: Agriculture, the backbone of our food supply, is heavily
dependent on water for irrigation. Reliable water sources are crucial for crop
production and livestock rearing, ensuring food availability for growing
populations.
 Economic Development: Water plays a vital role in various industries,
including manufacturing, energy production (hydropower, cooling),
transportation (waterways), and tourism. Its availability and management
directly impact economic growth and stability.
 Ecosystem Health: Water bodies like rivers, lakes, and wetlands are
complex ecosystems that support a rich biodiversity. They provide habitats
for countless species, regulate water cycles, and contribute to the overall
health of the planet.
 Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH): This crucial aspect ensures that water is
not only available but also safe to use. Adequate sanitation facilities and
hygienic practices are essential to prevent the spread of waterborne diseases
and maintain public health. WASH encompasses:
o Safe Water Supply: Providing access to water that is free from
harmful contaminants.
o Sanitation: Ensuring access to and use of safe and hygienic facilities
for the disposal of human waste.
o Hygiene Practices: Promoting behaviors like handwashing with soap
and water to prevent disease transmission.

Historical Development of Water Supply Systems (Global to National

Context)

The journey of water supply systems is a fascinating reflection of human

civilization's progress and understanding of public health.
 Early Civilizations (Global): Ancient civilizations recognized the
importance of water and developed rudimentary systems.
o Mesopotamia and Egypt (circa 4000 BCE): Evidence of wells,
irrigation canals, and basic water storage.
o Indus Valley Civilization (circa 2500 BCE): Sophisticated urban
planning included public and private wells, and drainage systems.
o Roman Empire (circa 300 BCE - 5th century CE): Impressive
network of aqueducts to transport water over long distances to cities,
public baths, and fountains. They also had sewer systems.
 Middle Ages (Global): A decline in public water infrastructure in Europe
after the fall of the Roman Empire. Reliance shifted back to local sources
like wells and rivers, often leading to unsanitary conditions and disease
outbreaks. Monasteries often maintained better water management practices.
 The Renaissance and Industrial Revolution (Global): Renewed focus on
water supply, driven by population growth and increasing industrial needs.
o Development of piped water systems in some cities, initially using
wooden or lead pipes.
o Early forms of water treatment, like sand filtration, began to emerge.
 19th and 20th Centuries (Global): Significant advancements in water
treatment and distribution technologies.
o Recognition of waterborne diseases led to the development of
filtration and disinfection methods (e.g., chlorination).
o Construction of large-scale reservoirs, pumping stations, and
extensive pipe networks became common in urban areas.
o Focus on public health and the establishment of water utilities.
 National Context (Nepal): The development of water supply systems in
Nepal has its own trajectory, influenced by its unique geography, socio-
economic conditions, and technological advancements.
o Traditional Systems: Historically, communities relied on traditional
sources like springs, kuwas (stone spouts), and ponds. Indigenous
knowledge played a crucial role in managing these resources.
o Early Modern Systems: The development of modern piped water
supply systems began relatively later compared to industrialized
nations, primarily concentrated in urban centers like Kathmandu.
Early systems often relied on gravity flow from nearby sources.
o Post-Independence Era: Increased efforts to expand water supply
coverage, often with the support of international organizations.
Challenges included difficult terrain, limited resources, and rapid
urbanization.
 o Current Situation: Ongoing efforts to improve access to safe and
reliable water supply and sanitation across the country, with a
growing focus on sustainability and integrated water resource
management.

Pure and Impure Water; Potable and Wholesome Water; Polluted and
Contaminated Water

Understanding these terms is crucial for assessing water quality:

 Pure Water: Theoretically, pure water (H₂O) consists only of hydrogen and
oxygen atoms. In reality, it's almost impossible to find truly pure water in
nature as it readily dissolves substances it comes into contact with.
 Impure Water: Water that contains dissolved or suspended substances
(impurities). These impurities can be natural (e.g., minerals) or human-
induced (e.g., pollutants). The presence of impurities doesn't necessarily
make water unsafe to drink.
 Potable Water (Drinking Water): Water that is safe for human
consumption. It meets specific quality standards regarding physical,
chemical, and biological parameters and does not contain harmful
substances in concentrations that could cause illness. Potability is a
regulatory and public health concept.
 Wholesome Water: This term often goes beyond just safety and implies
water that is also aesthetically pleasing for drinking. It should be clear,
odorless, tasteless, and free from excessive minerals that might affect its
palatability. While all wholesome water should be potable, not all potable
water might be considered perfectly wholesome (e.g., slightly chlorinated
water is potable but might not be considered perfectly wholesome by some).
 Polluted Water: Water that contains substances (pollutants) at
concentrations that make it unsuitable for a specific beneficial use, such as
drinking, irrigation, or recreation. Pollution often implies human-induced
degradation of water quality, such as industrial discharge or agricultural
runoff.
 Contaminated Water: Water that contains harmful microorganisms (like
bacteria, viruses, protozoa) or toxic substances that can cause illness.
Contamination specifically refers to the presence of disease-causing agents
or poisonous substances, making the water unsafe for consumption or other
uses. Polluted water can also be contaminated if the pollutants include
harmful biological or chemical agents.
In essence:

 Pure water is an ideal state.

 Impure water is the reality of natural water.
 Potable water is safe to drink.
 Wholesome water is safe and pleasant to drink.
 Polluted water is degraded in quality for a specific use.
 Contaminated water contains harmful agents.

1.4 Objectives and Importance of Water Supply System

A well-designed and managed water supply system is vital for public health,
economic development, and overall societal well-being. Its key objectives and
importance include:

 Public Health Protection: The primary objective is to provide safe and

reliable drinking water to prevent waterborne diseases and promote public
health. This involves sourcing, treating, and distributing water that meets
established quality standards.
 Meeting Water Demand: To ensure an adequate quantity of water is
available to meet the various needs of the community, including domestic,
commercial, industrial, and public uses (e.g., fire fighting).
 Convenience and Accessibility: To provide a convenient and accessible
means for people to obtain water, reducing the burden of fetching water
from distant or unsafe sources, especially for women and children.
 Economic Development: To support economic activities by providing the
necessary water for industries, businesses, and agriculture, contributing to
economic growth and job creation.
 Fire Protection: To provide an adequate supply of water under sufficient
pressure for firefighting purposes, protecting lives and property.
 Improving Living Standards: Access to a reliable water supply improves
overall living standards, enhances hygiene practices, and contributes to a
more comfortable and productive life.
 Environmental Sustainability: Increasingly, water supply systems aim for
sustainable practices, including efficient water use, leakage reduction, and
responsible wastewater management to protect water resources for future
generations.

Types of Water Supply Systems (Gravity, Pumped, and Combined); Planning,

Typical Components, and Their Functions
Water supply systems can be categorized based on how water is transported:

 Gravity System:
o Principle: Relies on the natural elevation difference between the
water source and the distribution area. Water flows downhill due to
gravity, eliminating or minimizing the need for pumping.
o Planning Considerations: Requires a water source located at a
higher elevation than the service area. Topographical surveys are
crucial to determine flow paths and pressure zones.
o Typical Components:
 Source: Reservoir, spring, or intake structure at a higher
elevation.
 Transmission Mains: Pipelines that carry raw or treated water
from the source to the distribution area.
 Distribution Network: A system of pipes that deliver water to
individual consumers.
 Storage Reservoirs (Optional): Used to balance supply and
demand and provide pressure regulation.
 Treatment Plant (If needed): Located between the source and
the distribution system to ensure water quality.
o Functions: Efficient and cost-effective where topography allows, as it
reduces energy costs associated with pumping.
 Pumped System:
o Principle: Uses pumps to lift water from the source and distribute it
to the service area. This is necessary when the water source is at a
lower elevation or when pressure needs to be increased for
distribution.
o Planning Considerations: Requires careful selection of pumps based
on flow rate, head (pressure), and energy efficiency. Power supply
reliability is crucial.
o Typical Components:
 Source: River, lake, groundwater well, or reservoir.
 Intake Structure: To draw water from the source.
 Pumping Stations: Houses pumps that lift and push water
through the system.
 Transmission Mains: Pipelines carrying water under pressure.
 Distribution Network: Pipes delivering water to consumers.
 Storage Reservoirs (Essential): To balance fluctuating
demand and maintain pressure during peak hours and power
outages.
  Treatment Plant (If needed): To ensure water quality before
distribution.
o Functions: Allows for water supply even when the source is at a
lower elevation. Provides flexibility in source location and pressure
management.
 Combined System:
o Principle: Utilizes both gravity and pumping to deliver water. Water
might flow by gravity for a portion of the system and then be pumped
to serve higher elevation areas or to maintain pressure.
o Planning Considerations: Requires careful integration of gravity
flow and pumping stations. Optimization of energy use and system
efficiency is important.
o Typical Components: A combination of the components found in
gravity and pumped systems, strategically located to leverage
elevation differences and meet pressure requirements.
o Functions: Offers a balance between energy efficiency (using gravity
where possible) and the ability to serve diverse topographies.

1.6 Schematic Diagram of Typical Water Supply Systems

While I can't draw a diagram directly, I can describe the general flow and
components you'd see in a schematic:

Gravity System:

[High Elevation Water Source (Reservoir/Spring)] ----

(Transmission Main)----> [Treatment Plant (Optional)]
----(Transmission Main)----> [Storage Reservoir
(Optional)] ----(Distribution Network)----> [Consumers]

Pumped System:

[Low Elevation Water Source (River/Lake/Well)] --

(Intake)--> [Pumping Station] ----(Transmission
Main)----> [Treatment Plant (Optional)] ----
(Transmission Main)----> [Storage Reservoir] ----
(Distribution Network)----> [Consumers]

Combined System:
This would be a more complex diagram showing elements of both, potentially with
a gravity flow section leading to a storage reservoir from which water is then
pumped to higher areas or to maintain pressure in the distribution network.

Key elements to look for in any schematic would be:

 Water Source: The origin of the raw water.

 Intake Structure: How water is drawn from the source (for surface water).
 Pumping Stations: To lift or boost water pressure (in pumped and
combined systems).
 Treatment Plant: Where raw water is purified to meet drinking water
standards.
 Transmission Mains: Large pipes carrying water over significant distances.
 Storage Reservoirs: To balance supply and demand and provide pressure.
 Distribution Network: The grid of smaller pipes that deliver water to
individual users.
 Service Connections: The pipes that connect the distribution network to
individual buildings.

Distribution of Earth's Water

Earth is often called the "blue planet" because about 71% of its surface is covered
by water. However, the vast majority of this water is saltwater in the oceans. Here's
a breakdown of where Earth's water is found:

 Oceans, Seas, and Bays: This is the largest reservoir, holding approximately
96.5% of all Earth's water.
 Ice Caps, Glaciers, and Permanent Snow: These hold the largest portion of
freshwater, about 68.7% of the total freshwater and 1.74% of all water on
Earth. Most of this is locked up in Antarctica and Greenland.
 Groundwater: This is the water found beneath the Earth's surface in soil
and rock formations. It accounts for about 30.1% of freshwater and 1.7% of
all water. Notably, groundwater constitutes about 99% of all liquid
freshwater on Earth.
o Fresh Groundwater: Makes up a significant portion of readily
available freshwater.
o Saline Groundwater: Found in deeper formations or coastal areas.
  Surface Water and Other Freshwater: This category includes all the liquid
freshwater found on the Earth's surface. It's a relatively small fraction of
the total freshwater:
o Lakes: Hold about 0.26% of freshwater.
o Soil Moisture: Contains about 0.05% of freshwater.
o Ground Ice and Permafrost: Holds about 0.86% of freshwater.
o Atmosphere: Water vapor, clouds, and precipitation account for a
tiny fraction, about 0.04% of freshwater.
o Swamp Water: About 0.03% of freshwater.
o Rivers: Contain only about 0.006% of freshwater, yet they are a
crucial source for human use.
o Biological Water: Water contained within living organisms, an even
smaller fraction.

Key Takeaways:

 The vast majority of Earth's water is saltwater in the oceans.

 Most of the freshwater is locked up in ice and groundwater.
 Only a very small percentage of Earth's total water is easily accessible liquid
freshwater in lakes and rivers.

Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle)

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous
movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth. It's a
fundamental process that sustains life and drives many of Earth's systems. The
cycle is powered by solar energy and gravity and involves the transformation of
water between its liquid, solid (ice), and gaseous (water vapor) states.

Here are the key processes involved in the water cycle:

1. Evaporation: The process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas

(water vapor) due to heat energy from the sun. This primarily occurs from
the surface of oceans, lakes, rivers, and soil.
2. Transpiration: The process where plants absorb water through their roots
and then release it as water vapor through tiny pores (stomata) on their
leaves. Evaporation and transpiration are often combined and referred to
as evapotranspiration.
 3. Sublimation: The process where ice or snow changes directly into water
vapor without first becoming a liquid. This occurs in areas with low
humidity and strong winds, such as high mountain peaks and polar regions.
4. Condensation: The process by which water vapor in the atmosphere cools
and changes back into liquid water, forming clouds, fog, or dew.
Condensation occurs when the air becomes saturated with water vapor,
often due to cooling or the addition of more water vapor.
5. Precipitation: Any form of water that falls from clouds to the Earth's
surface. This includes rain, snow, sleet, hail, and freezing rain. Precipitation
is the primary way freshwater is delivered to the land.
6. Infiltration: The process by which water on the ground surface seeps into
the soil and becomes groundwater. The rate of infiltration depends on
factors like soil type, saturation level, and vegetation cover.
7. Percolation: The downward movement of water through the soil and rock
layers beneath the surface, eventually contributing to groundwater
aquifers.
8. Runoff: The flow of water over the land surface. This occurs when
precipitation exceeds the infiltration capacity of the soil or when the
ground is already saturated. Runoff collects in streams, rivers, lakes, and
eventually flows back to the oceans.
9. Storage: Water can be stored in various forms and locations throughout the
cycle, including oceans, lakes, reservoirs, glaciers, ice caps, groundwater
aquifers, and even the atmosphere. The amount of time water stays in a
particular storage area is known as its residence time, which can vary from
hours to thousands of years.
10.Advection: The horizontal movement of water in the atmosphere (as
clouds) and across the land surface (as surface water and groundwater).
This process transports water from one location to another on Earth.

The water cycle is a continuous and dynamic process, constantly recycling water
and redistributing it around the globe. It plays a crucial role in regulating Earth's
climate, shaping landscapes through erosion and deposition, and supporting all
forms of life.

Climate change is profoundly impacting water availability around the globe, and as
a nation highly vulnerable to these changes, Nepal is already experiencing
significant effects. The intricate relationship between climate change and water
resources manifests in numerous ways, threatening ecosystems, human well-being,
and economic stability.

How Climate Change Affects Water Availability:

 Changes in Precipitation Patterns: Climate change is causing shifts in

when, where, and how much precipitation falls. This can lead to:
o Increased Intensity of Rainfall: More intense rainfall events can
overwhelm drainage systems, leading to floods and reduced
infiltration, thus less groundwater recharge. As observed in western
Nepal in July 2024, record-breaking rainfall caused substantial
damage. Similarly, extreme rainfall in eastern Nepal in 2023 damaged
hydropower facilities.
o Prolonged Dry Periods and Droughts: Some regions are
experiencing longer and more severe dry seasons, reducing surface
water flows and depleting groundwater resources.
o Unpredictable Monsoon: Changes in the timing and intensity of the
monsoon in South Asia, which provides a significant portion of the
region's rainfall, make agricultural planning difficult and can lead to
both floods and droughts.

 Melting Glaciers and Snowpack: Mountainous regions like Nepal rely

heavily on snow and glacier melt for river flow, especially during the dry
season.
o Accelerated Melting: Rising temperatures are causing glaciers in the
Himalayas to melt at an alarming rate. Studies indicate a significant
decrease in glacier area in Nepal over the past decades, and
projections suggest a substantial loss of ice mass even under
optimistic emissions scenarios.
o Altered Streamflow Timing: Warmer temperatures cause snow to
melt earlier in the year, leading to peak river flows occurring sooner,
potentially before the main agricultural demand. This can also reduce
water availability during the critical late summer and autumn months.
o Reduced Dry Season Flows: As glaciers shrink, their contribution to
river flow during the dry season diminishes, threatening water
supplies for irrigation, drinking water, and hydropower.
  Increased Evaporation: Higher temperatures lead to increased evaporation
from surface water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers) and soil, reducing water
availability. Warmer air can also hold more moisture, further exacerbating
drying conditions.
 Impacts on Groundwater: Changes in precipitation and snowmelt patterns
affect groundwater recharge rates. Intense rainfall can lead to runoff rather
than infiltration, while prolonged droughts reduce the overall amount of
water available to seep into the ground.
 Sea Level Rise and Saltwater Intrusion: While less directly impactful in
landlocked Nepal, globally, rising sea levels can contaminate coastal
freshwater aquifers with saltwater, reducing the availability of potable water
in those regions.
 Extreme Weather Events: Climate change is increasing the frequency and
intensity of extreme weather events such as floods, landslides, and
heatwaves. These events can directly impact water infrastructure,
contaminate water sources, and disrupt water supply systems. The 2021
Melamchi disaster in Nepal, triggered by intense rainfall and snowmelt
leading to landslides and floods, significantly disrupted a major water supply
project for Kathmandu Valley.
 Water Quality Degradation: Increased runoff due to heavy rainfall can
carry pollutants, sediments, and nutrients into water bodies, degrading water
quality and making it less suitable for various uses, including drinking water
supply. Higher water temperatures can also exacerbate water pollution issues
and promote the growth of harmful algae.

Impacts on Nepal:

Nepal is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change on water

availability due to its mountainous topography, reliance on snow and glacier melt,
and significant agricultural sector. Some of the key impacts include:

 Drying Water Sources: Many communities in the hills and mountains of

Nepal are already experiencing drying springs and reduced water flow in
rivers and streams.
 Challenges for Agriculture: Changes in monsoon patterns, reduced
snowmelt for irrigation, and increased frequency of droughts and floods are
impacting agricultural productivity and food security.
 Threats to Hydropower: Nepal has significant hydropower potential, but
changes in river flow regimes, particularly reduced dry season flows and
 increased risk of extreme events, pose challenges to the reliability and
efficiency of hydropower generation.
 Increased Water Scarcity: Growing population and changing climate are
exacerbating water scarcity, particularly during the dry season, affecting
domestic water supply and sanitation.
 Increased Risk of Water-Related Disasters: More frequent and intense
floods and landslides, often linked to extreme rainfall and glacial melt,
threaten lives, infrastructure, and water resources.

Addressing the Challenges:

Addressing the impacts of climate change on water availability requires a multi-

faceted approach, including:

 Mitigation Efforts: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions globally is crucial

to limit the extent of future climate change impacts.
 Adaptation Strategies: Implementing measures to adapt to the changes that
are already occurring and are projected for the future. This includes:
o Improving Water Management: Implementing efficient irrigation
techniques, reducing water loss in distribution systems, and promoting
water conservation at all levels.
o Developing Water Storage Solutions: Constructing reservoirs and
other water storage infrastructure to buffer against seasonal variations
in water availability and the impacts of climate change.
o Rainwater Harvesting: Promoting and implementing rainwater
harvesting techniques at household and community levels.
o Diversifying Water Sources: Exploring and sustainably utilizing
groundwater resources where appropriate.
o Protecting and Restoring Ecosystems: Maintaining healthy forests
and wetlands, which play a crucial role in regulating water cycles and
reducing the risk of floods and landslides.
o Improving Water Governance: Implementing integrated water
resource management approaches and ensuring equitable access to
water resources.
o Early Warning Systems: Developing and strengthening early
warning systems for floods, droughts, and other water-related
disasters.
o Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Designing and constructing water
infrastructure that can withstand the impacts of climate change.
Classification of Water Sources

Water sources can be broadly classified based on their location relative to the
Earth's surface. Here's a breakdown of the main categories you've outlined:

2.3.1 Surface Water Sources

Surface water refers to water that is found on the Earth's surface. These sources are
generally more susceptible to pollution compared to groundwater due to direct
exposure to the atmosphere, surface runoff, and human activities.

 Rivers and Streams: These are natural flowing bodies of water.

o Perennial Rivers/Streams: Flow continuously throughout the year,
usually fed by groundwater, snowmelt, or consistent rainfall. They
are often a reliable source of water.
o Intermittent Rivers/Streams: Flow only during certain times of the
year, typically during the rainy season or when snowmelt occurs.
Their reliability as a water source can vary significantly.
o Ephemeral Rivers/Streams: Flow only in direct response to rainfall
and dry up quickly afterward. They are generally not a dependable
source for continuous water supply.
 Lakes: These are large, relatively still bodies of water surrounded by land.
o Natural Lakes: Formed by geological processes such as tectonic
activity, glacial action, or volcanic activity. They can be freshwater or
saltwater.
o Artificial Lakes (Reservoirs): Created by constructing dams across
rivers or streams to store water for various purposes like water
supply, irrigation, flood control, and hydropower.
 Ponds: These are smaller and shallower bodies of still water compared to
lakes. They can be natural or artificial and may be seasonal or permanent.
 Impounded Reservoirs: These are specifically engineered water bodies
created by constructing barriers (dams) across natural watercourses. They
are designed to store large volumes of water for regulated release.
o Capacity of Reservoirs: Determining the storage capacity of a
reservoir is crucial for water supply planning and management. Two
common methods are:
 Mass Curve (Ripple Diagram): A graphical method used to
determine the required storage capacity of a reservoir to meet
 a given demand. It involves plotting the cumulative inflow into
the reservoir and the cumulative outflow (demand) over time.
The maximum vertical separation between the inflow and
outflow curves indicates the required storage.
 Analytical Methods: These involve using mathematical
equations and hydrological data to calculate the reservoir
capacity based on inflow patterns, demand rates, and
operational requirements. These methods often involve
statistical analysis of historical flow data and consideration of
factors like evaporation losses and sedimentation.

2.3.2 Groundwater Sources

Groundwater is water located beneath the Earth's surface in the saturated zone,
where the pores and fractures in rocks and soil are filled with water. Groundwater
sources are generally less susceptible to surface pollution but can be affected by
subsurface contamination.

 Aquifers: Permeable geological formations that can store and transmit

groundwater in usable quantities.
o Unconfined Aquifer (Water Table Aquifer): An aquifer whose upper
boundary is the water table, which is free to rise and fall. It is directly
recharged by infiltration of precipitation from the surface. Wells
drilled into unconfined aquifers are known as water table wells or
open wells.
o Confined Aquifer (Artesian Aquifer): An aquifer that is bounded
above and below by impermeable layers (aquitards or aquicludes).
The water in a confined aquifer is under pressure, and when a well
penetrates this aquifer, the water level may rise above the top of the
aquifer (an artesian well) or even above the ground surface (a
flowing artesian well).
 Springs: Natural discharges of groundwater at the Earth's surface where
the water table intersects the land surface or where a permeable layer
outcrops.
o Gravity Springs: Occur where groundwater flows laterally and
emerges due to gravity.
o Artesian Springs: Occur where the pressure in a confined aquifer
forces water to the surface through a fracture or fault.
  Wells: Engineered structures that allow access to groundwater.
o Open Wells (Dug Wells): Large-diameter wells that are typically
excavated or dug manually. They usually tap into unconfined
aquifers. Their yield can be limited, and they are more vulnerable to
shallow contamination.
o Tube Wells (Boreholes): Small-diameter wells that are drilled into
the ground using specialized equipment. They can tap into both
unconfined and confined aquifers and can reach greater depths,
often providing a more reliable and cleaner water source.
 Infiltration Galleries: Horizontal or slightly inclined underground structures
(tunnels or pipes with porous walls) constructed near a river or lake to
collect infiltrated water. They essentially act as horizontal wells and draw
water that has been naturally filtered through the soil.
 Sump Wells: Shallow wells or collection chambers built to collect
groundwater that seeps into the surrounding soil. They are often used in
areas with a high water table or to collect drainage water.
 Jack Wells: These are a specific type of well, often constructed near a
riverbank. They typically consist of a cylindrical structure sunk into the
ground, with the lower part having porous walls to allow infiltration of
water from the river or the adjacent saturated soil. They are often used to
obtain relatively clear water that has undergone some natural filtration.

2.3.3 Alternative Sources

As conventional water sources face increasing pressure due to population growth,

climate change, and pollution, alternative sources are gaining importance.

 Rainwater Harvesting: The collection and storage of rainwater runoff for

later use. This can be done at various scales, from individual households to
large community systems. Harvested rainwater can be used for non-
potable purposes (e.g., irrigation, flushing toilets) or treated for potable
use.
 Reclaimed Water (Water Reuse): Treated wastewater that is used for
beneficial purposes such as irrigation, industrial cooling, groundwater
recharge, or even potable water supply after advanced treatment. Water
reuse can significantly reduce the demand on freshwater sources and is
becoming increasingly important in water-scarce regions
Yield of Surface Water Sources

The yield of a surface water source refers to the amount of water that can be
reliably obtained from it over a specific period. It's a crucial factor in determining
the suitability of a source for water supply.

Factors Affecting the Yield of Surface Water Sources:

 Catchment Area (Watershed): The size and characteristics of the area

draining into the surface water body significantly influence the amount of
water it receives as runoff.
 Precipitation: The amount, intensity, and distribution of rainfall and
snowfall in the catchment area are primary drivers of surface water flow.
 Evapotranspiration: The rate at which water evaporates from the surface
and transpires from vegetation reduces the amount of water available as
runoff.
 Infiltration: The amount of water that seeps into the ground affects the
volume of surface runoff. Soil type, land cover, and saturation levels play a
role.
 Geology and Topography: The underlying geology influences groundwater
contribution to surface flow (baseflow), while the slope and terrain affect
runoff rates.
 Vegetation: Plant cover can intercept rainfall, increase infiltration, and
affect evapotranspiration, thus influencing surface water yield.
 Land Use: Human activities like urbanization, agriculture, and deforestation
can significantly alter runoff patterns and water yield. For example,
urbanization often increases surface runoff and reduces infiltration.
 Storage Capacity (for Reservoirs and Lakes): For impounded reservoirs and
natural lakes, the storage volume and how it's managed influence the
reliable yield that can be supplied, especially during dry periods.
 Climate Variability and Change: Long-term changes in temperature and
precipitation patterns due to climate change can have a significant impact
on surface water yields, leading to more frequent droughts or floods.

Methods for Determining the Yield of Surface Water Sources:

 Streamflow Measurement (Gauging): Direct measurement of the volume

of water flowing in a river or stream over time using gauging stations. This
 provides historical data that can be analyzed to determine average flows,
minimum flows (critical for safe yield), and seasonal variations.
 Hydrological Modeling: Using computer models that simulate the various
components of the water cycle (precipitation, runoff, evapotranspiration,
infiltration) within a catchment to estimate water yield under different
scenarios. These models require extensive data on climate, land use, soil
characteristics, and topography.
 Water Balance Studies: Analyzing the inputs (precipitation, inflow) and
outputs (evaporation, outflow, diversions) of a surface water body over a
period to estimate the available yield. The basic equation is: Inflow -
Outflow ± Change in Storage = 0.
 Empirical Formulas: Using statistical relationships derived from historical
data to estimate water yield based on readily available parameters like
rainfall and catchment area. These formulas are often region-specific.
 Mass Curve Analysis (for Reservoirs): As mentioned earlier, this graphical
method helps determine the required storage capacity to meet a specific
demand based on inflow patterns. It also helps estimate the firm yield (the
maximum quantity of water that can be guaranteed during a critical dry
period).

Yield of Wells

The yield of a well refers to the rate at which water can be extracted from it on a
sustainable basis. It's typically expressed in units of volume per unit time (e.g.,
liters per second, gallons per minute).

Factors Affecting the Yield of Wells:

 Aquifer Characteristics:
o Permeability: The ability of the aquifer material (soil or rock) to
transmit water. Higher permeability allows for greater flow to the
well.
o Transmissivity: A measure of how much water can flow horizontally
through a unit width of the aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. It
depends on both permeability and aquifer thickness.
o Storage Coefficient (or Specific Yield for unconfined aquifers): The
volume of water an aquifer releases or stores per unit surface area
 per unit change in hydraulic head. A higher storage coefficient
indicates a greater ability to yield water.
o Aquifer Thickness and Extent: A larger and thicker aquifer generally
has the potential for higher yields.
o Recharge Rate: The rate at which the aquifer is replenished by
precipitation, surface water infiltration, or groundwater flow from
other areas. The sustainable yield of a well cannot exceed the long-
term recharge rate of the aquifer.
 Well Characteristics:
o Diameter: A larger diameter well can have a larger screened area,
potentially allowing for more water to enter.
o Depth and Penetration: The depth of the well and the length of the
screened interval within the aquifer influence the amount of aquifer
accessed.
o Well Construction and Design: Proper well design, including the type
and size of the screen, gravel pack (if used), and well development
techniques, is crucial for maximizing yield and preventing clogging.
o Well Efficiency: The ratio of the theoretical drawdown to the actual
drawdown in a well. Inefficient wells require more drawdown for the
same yield.
 Pumping Rate and Drawdown:
o Drawdown: The lowering of the water level in the well due to
pumping. Higher pumping rates lead to greater drawdown.
o Safe Drawdown: The maximum permissible drawdown that avoids
dewatering the pump intake or causing excessive energy costs or well
damage.
o Critical Velocity: The inflow rate of water into the well screen that, if
exceeded, can cause excessive head loss and potentially mobilize fine
particles, leading to well clogging.
 Well Interference: Pumping from nearby wells can lower the water table or
potentiometric surface in the area, reducing the yield of the well in
question.
 Well Age and Maintenance: Over time, well yield can decrease due to
clogging of the screen with sediment or mineral incrustation. Regular
maintenance can help sustain yield.

Methods for Determining the Yield of Wells:

  Pumping Tests: These are the most common and reliable methods for
determining well yield. They involve pumping the well at a controlled rate
and monitoring the drawdown (lowering of water level) in the pumping
well and sometimes in nearby observation wells. Different types of
pumping tests include:
o Constant-Rate Test: Pumping at a constant rate for an extended
period (hours to days) to determine the well's sustainable yield and
aquifer characteristics.
o Step-Drawdown Test: Pumping the well at successively increasing
constant rates, with drawdown measured at each step, to evaluate
well efficiency and determine an optimal pumping rate.
o Recovery Test: Measuring the rate at which the water level recovers
in the well after pumping has stopped. This provides information
about aquifer transmissivity and storage.
 Slug Tests (Bail Tests): These are short-duration tests used to estimate the
hydraulic conductivity (related to permeability) of the aquifer near the well.
A known volume of water (slug) is rapidly added or removed from the well,
and the rate at which the water level returns to its static level is measured.
 Specific Capacity Test: A simplified measure of well yield, calculated by
dividing the pumping rate by the drawdown at a specific time. It provides a
quick estimate of well performance but is less comprehensive than longer
pumping tests.
 Well Logs and Drilling Records: Information collected during well drilling,
such as lithology (rock and soil types) and water levels, can provide initial
insights into the potential yield of the well.

Selection of Sources: Technical and Legal Considerations

Choosing the right water source is a critical first step in any water supply project.
This decision involves a careful evaluation of various technical and legal factors to
ensure a reliable, safe, and sustainable supply.

Technical Considerations:

 Quantity:
o Availability: Is the source capable of providing the required volume
of water to meet current and future demands? This involves
 assessing the long-term yield of the source, considering seasonal
variations and potential impacts of climate change.
o Reliability: How dependable is the source? Is it susceptible to
droughts, contamination events, or other factors that could interrupt
supply? Perennial sources are generally preferred over intermittent
or ephemeral ones.
 Quality:
o Raw Water Quality: What are the physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics of the raw water? This determines the level and type
of treatment required to make it potable and wholesome. Sources
with better raw water quality generally require less complex and
costly treatment.
o Potential for Contamination: What are the potential sources of
pollution that could affect the water quality? This includes upstream
discharges, agricultural runoff, industrial activities, and proximity to
sanitation facilities. Groundwater sources are often less susceptible
to surface contamination but can have their own unique
contaminants (e.g., arsenic, fluoride).
 Accessibility and Location:
o Proximity to Demand Center: Shorter distances between the source
and the area where water is needed generally lead to lower
transmission costs (pipelines, pumping).
o Topography: The terrain between the source and the demand center
affects the feasibility and cost of water conveyance (gravity vs.
pumping).
o Ease of Access for Infrastructure Development: Can the necessary
infrastructure (intake structures, wells, pumping stations, treatment
plants, pipelines) be easily constructed and maintained at the source
location?
 Environmental Impact:
o Ecological Flows: Will the withdrawal of water significantly impact
the aquatic ecosystem of the source (rivers, lakes, wetlands)?
Maintaining adequate environmental flows is crucial for ecological
health.
o Impact on Groundwater Levels: Excessive pumping from wells can
lead to depletion of aquifers, land subsidence, and saltwater
intrusion in coastal areas.
 o Impact on Surrounding Environment: Construction of reservoirs or
intake structures can have environmental consequences (e.g., habitat
loss, changes in water flow regimes).
 Cost:
o Capital Costs: Initial investment for source development (wells,
intake structures, dams), transmission pipelines, and pumping
stations.
o Operating Costs: Energy costs for pumping, chemical costs for
treatment, maintenance costs for infrastructure, and labor costs.
o Long-Term Costs: Considering the sustainability of the source and
potential future costs related to environmental regulations or
increased treatment needs.
 Technical Feasibility:
o Available Technology: Can the required infrastructure and treatment
processes be implemented with the available technology and
expertise?
o Complexity of Treatment: The level of treatment required will
depend on the raw water quality and the desired standards for
drinking water. More complex treatment processes require skilled
personnel and higher operational costs.

Legal Considerations:

 Water Rights and Permits:

o Ownership and Allocation: Who owns the water source? Are there
existing water rights or allocations that need to be considered?
Obtaining the necessary permits and approvals from relevant
government agencies is crucial. In Nepal, the Water Resources Act
and related regulations govern water rights.
o Riparian Rights: In some legal systems, landowners adjacent to a
water body have certain rights to use the water.
o Prior Appropriation: In other systems, water rights are allocated
based on the principle of "first in time, first in right."
 Environmental Regulations:
o Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): For larger water supply
projects, an EIA may be legally required to assess potential
environmental consequences and propose mitigation measures.
 o Discharge Permits: If the project involves any discharge of
wastewater back into the environment, necessary permits need to be
obtained.
o Protection Zones: Regulations may exist to establish protection
zones around water sources to prevent pollution.
 Land Acquisition:
o Ownership and Easements: Acquiring the necessary land for
infrastructure development (intake structures, treatment plants,
reservoirs, pipelines) and obtaining easements for pipeline routes
must comply with land acquisition laws.
 Public Health Regulations:
o Drinking Water Standards: The selected source must be capable of
yielding water that can be treated to meet national drinking water
quality standards.
o Sanitation Requirements: Proper sanitation measures must be in
place around the water source to prevent contamination.
 International Agreements (if applicable): For water sources shared with
neighboring countries, international treaties and agreements regarding
water sharing and management must be considered.
 Local Laws and Customs: Traditional water use practices and local customs
related to water resources may need to be taken into account.

Conservation of Drinking Water Sources

Protecting and conserving our drinking water sources is paramount to ensuring

long-term water security and public health. Conservation efforts should focus on
preventing pollution, managing water withdrawals sustainably, and preserving the
natural environment around the sources.

Strategies for Conservation of Drinking Water Sources:

 Protection of Catchment Areas:

o Land Use Management: Implementing regulations and best
management practices in the watershed to minimize pollution from
agriculture, forestry, urban development, and industrial activities.
This includes controlling the use of pesticides and fertilizers,
managing livestock grazing, and preventing deforestation.
 o Establishing Buffer Zones: Creating vegetated buffer zones along
rivers, lakes, and around wells to filter pollutants from runoff.
o Promoting Sustainable Land Management: Encouraging practices
that enhance infiltration, reduce erosion, and maintain healthy
ecosystems.
 Pollution Prevention and Control:
o Wastewater Management: Implementing proper collection,
treatment, and disposal of domestic and industrial wastewater to
prevent contamination of surface and groundwater.
o Control of Hazardous Materials: Regulating the storage, handling,
and disposal of hazardous substances to prevent spills and leaks that
could pollute water sources.
o Agricultural Best Practices: Promoting the use of integrated pest
management, efficient irrigation techniques, and responsible
nutrient management to reduce agricultural pollution.
o Sanitation and Hygiene: Ensuring access to safe sanitation facilities
to prevent fecal contamination of water sources, especially in
vulnerable areas.
 Sustainable Water Withdrawal Management:
o Monitoring Water Levels and Flows: Regularly monitoring surface
water flows and groundwater levels to ensure that withdrawals do
not exceed the sustainable yield of the source.
o Implementing Water Allocation Plans: Developing and enforcing
plans that allocate water resources equitably among different users
while ensuring environmental flows.
o Promoting Water Efficiency: Encouraging water conservation
measures among domestic, industrial, and agricultural users to
reduce overall demand.
o Leakage Reduction: Minimizing water losses in distribution systems
through regular maintenance and infrastructure upgrades.
 Preservation of Natural Environments:
o Protecting Wetlands and Riparian Areas: These ecosystems play a
vital role in filtering water, regulating flows, and providing habitat.
o Reforestation and Afforestation: Planting trees helps to improve
infiltration, reduce erosion, and enhance water retention in the
catchment area.
 o Controlling Invasive Species: Invasive plants and animals can disrupt
aquatic ecosystems and negatively impact water quality and
quantity.
 Public Awareness and Education:
o Community Engagement: Raising awareness among the public about
the importance of water source protection and promoting
responsible water use practices.
o Education Programs: Incorporating water conservation and pollution
prevention into school curricula and public outreach initiatives.
 Legal and Regulatory Framework:
o Enforcing Environmental Laws: Implementing and enforcing
regulations related to water quality, pollution control, and water
resource management.
o Establishing Water Source Protection Zones: Legally designating
areas around critical water sources where certain activities are
restricted to prevent contamination.
o Providing Incentives: Offering financial or other incentives for
adopting water-friendly practices.
 Climate Change Adaptation:
o Diversifying Water Sources: Exploring alternative sources like
rainwater harvesting and water reuse to reduce reliance on
vulnerable sources.
o Developing Water Storage Capacity: Building reservoirs and other
storage facilities to buffer against seasonal variations and potential
climate change impacts.
o Implementing Drought Management Plans: Preparing for and
mitigating the impacts of prolonged dry periods.

3. Quantity of Water

Accurately estimating the quantity of water required is fundamental to designing a

water supply system that can adequately meet the needs of a community over its
lifespan. This involves considering various factors and employing forecasting
techniques.

3.1 Water Quantity Estimation

This section focuses on the methodologies and considerations involved in

determining the amount of water needed.
3.1.1 Per Capita Demand

Per capita demand is the average amount of water consumed per person per day
within a community. It is a key parameter used to estimate the total domestic water
demand. It's typically expressed in liters per capita per day (lpcd) or gallons per
capita per day (gpcd).

Factors Influencing Per Capita Demand:

 Standard of Living: Higher standards of living generally correlate with

higher water consumption due to increased use of water-intensive
appliances and practices (e.g., dishwashers, washing machines, lawn
watering, swimming pools).
 Climate: Hot and dry climates typically have higher per capita demand due
to increased water use for drinking, bathing, and irrigation.
 Sewerage System: Communities with piped sewerage systems tend to have
higher water consumption compared to those relying on other sanitation
methods, as more water is used for flushing.
 Water Pricing Policy: The cost of water can significantly influence
consumption. Higher prices may incentivize conservation and reduce per
capita demand.
 Industrial and Commercial Activity: The presence and type of industries
and commercial establishments in a community can significantly impact the
overall water demand, although these are usually estimated separately.
 Public Water Supply System Efficiency: High leakage rates in the
distribution system can artificially inflate the apparent per capita demand.
 Habits and Customs of the People: Cultural practices and daily routines can
influence water usage patterns.
 Availability and Quality of Water: Easy access to a reliable and good-
quality water supply may lead to higher consumption.
 Pressure in the Distribution System: Higher pressure can lead to increased
water use if not managed efficiently.
 Metering: Metered water supply often results in lower per capita demand
compared to unmetered systems, as users are more conscious of their
consumption.

Determining Per Capita Demand:

Per capita demand is usually estimated based on:

  Past Consumption Data: Analyzing historical water consumption records of
the community or similar communities.
 Surveys and Studies: Conducting household surveys and water audit
studies to understand water usage patterns.
 Design Standards and Guidelines: Consulting national or regional
guidelines that provide typical per capita demand values based on
population size, living standards, and climate.
 Future Projections: Considering anticipated changes in living standards,
industrial growth, and other factors that might affect future per capita
demand.

3.1.2 Design and Base Periods and Selection Criteria

 Base Period: The current year or a recent year for which reliable data (e.g.,
population, water consumption) are available. The base period serves as
the starting point for future demand projections. The selection of the base
period should consider the availability and accuracy of data and whether it
represents typical conditions (avoiding years with unusual events like major
disasters or economic downturns).
 Design Period: The future period for which the water supply system is
designed to meet the projected water demand. It is also known as the
planning horizon. The design period is typically several decades (e.g., 20-50
years) and depends on the lifespan of the infrastructure components, the
expected rate of population growth, and the financial and planning horizon
of the project.

Selection Criteria for Design Period:

 Lifespan of Components: Different components of a water supply system

have varying lifespans (e.g., pipelines 50+ years, pumping equipment 15-30
years, treatment plants 20-40 years). The design period is often chosen to
align with the economic lifespan of the major components.
 Investment Cycle: The frequency at which major capital investments can be
made for expansion or upgrades. A longer design period may reduce the
frequency of large investments.
 Rate of Population Growth: Higher population growth rates may
necessitate a shorter design period to avoid over- or under-designing the
system.
  Technological Advancements: Rapid technological changes in water
treatment and distribution may favor a shorter design period to allow for
the incorporation of newer technologies in future expansions.
 Uncertainty in Projections: Longer design periods involve greater
uncertainty in population and demand forecasts.
 Financial Considerations: The availability of funds and the economic
viability of the project over the design period are important factors.
 Planning Horizon: The long-term development plans and policies of the
region or municipality.

3.1.3 Demographic Trends and Forecasting

Accurate population forecasting is crucial for estimating future water demand.

Several methods are used, each with its own assumptions and applicability:

 Arithmetical Increase Method: Assumes a constant rate of population

increase per year. It is suitable for large, established cities with a relatively
stable growth rate.
o Formula: (P_t = P_0 + kt)
 (P_t) = Population after (t) years
 (P_0) = Present population (at the base year)
 (k) = Average arithmetic increase per year (calculated from
past census data)
 (t) = Number of years in the future (design period)
 Geometrical Increase Method: Assumes a constant percentage rate of
population growth per year. It is often used for rapidly growing cities.
o Formula: (P_t = P_0 (1 + r)^t)
 (P_t) = Population after (t) years
 (P_0) = Present population
 (r) = Average geometric growth rate per year (calculated from
past census data)
 (t) = Number of years in the future
 Incremental Increase Method: Combines the arithmetical and geometrical
increase methods. It considers both the constant arithmetic increase and
the changing rate of arithmetic increase. It is often considered more
accurate than the previous two for cities with fluctuating growth rates.
o Formula: (P_t = P_0 + kt + \frac{t(t+1)}{2} i)
 (P_t) = Population after (t) years
  (P_0) = Present population
 (k) = Average arithmetic increase per year
 (i) = Average incremental increase per year (the average of the
year-to-year changes in the arithmetic increase)
 (t) = Number of years in the future
 Decrease Rate of Growth Method (Logistic Curve Method): Assumes that
the population growth rate decreases as the city approaches its saturation
population. It fits a logistic curve to the population data. This method is
suitable for mature cities approaching their maximum possible size.
o Formula: This involves fitting a logistic curve, which can be complex
and requires estimating the saturation population. One common
form is:
 (P_t = \frac{P_s}{1 + (\frac{P_s - P_0}{P_0}) e^{-kt}})
 (P_t) = Population at time (t)
 (P_s) = Saturation population
 (P_0) = Present population
 (k) = Growth rate constant
 (t) = Time
 Zoning Method (Component Method): Divides the city into different zones
(residential, commercial, industrial) and forecasts the population growth in
each zone separately based on land use plans, development policies, and
potential for growth. The total population is then the sum of the
populations of all zones. This method is useful for cities with planned
development.
 Numerical on Population Forecasting: This refers to applying the above
methods to actual population data to project future populations. It
involves:

1. Collecting historical population data (census records).

2. Calculating the parameters for each method (e.g., (k), (r), (i)).
3. Selecting the most appropriate method(s) based on the city's
growth pattern and characteristics.
4. Applying the chosen method(s) to forecast the population for the
design period.
5. Comparing the results from different methods and using judgment
to arrive at a reasonable projection.

3.2 Types of Water Demand

Total water demand in a community comprises various components:

 Domestic Water Demand: Water used for residential purposes, including

drinking, cooking, bathing, washing clothes and utensils, sanitation, and
gardening. This is usually the largest component and is estimated based on
per capita demand and the projected population.
 Livestock Water Demand: Water required for animals in urban and peri-
urban areas. This depends on the type and number of livestock.
 Commercial Water Demand: Water used by commercial establishments
such as shops, restaurants, hotels, offices, shopping malls, and educational
institutions. This is often estimated based on the type and size of the
commercial activity or per employee/customer.
 Public/Municipal Water Demand: Water used for public services like street
cleaning, watering public parks and gardens, fire hydrants, public fountains,
and municipal buildings.
 Industrial Water Demand: Water required by industries for various
processes, cooling, sanitation, and other uses. This is highly variable
depending on the type and scale of industrial activity. It is usually estimated
based on the specific water requirements of different industries.
 Firefighting Demand: The amount of water required to fight fires. This is an
intermittent but critical demand and is usually estimated based on
empirical formulas (e.g., Kuichling's formula, Freeman's formula) or local
fire safety regulations.
 Loss/Wastage (Unaccounted-for Water): This includes water lost due to
leakage in the distribution system, illegal connections, meter inaccuracies,
and unauthorized use. It is usually estimated as a percentage of the total
treated water (typically 15-25%, but efforts should be made to minimize it).
 Total Demand: The sum of all the above types of water demand. It is the
basis for designing the capacity of the water source, treatment plant, and
distribution system.

3.3 Variation in Water Demand, Peak Factors, and its Significance

Water demand is not constant over time. It fluctuates on an hourly, daily, and
seasonal basis. To design a water supply system that can meet the maximum
demand, it's essential to consider these variations using peak factors.
  Hourly Variation: Water demand is typically highest during morning and
evening peak hours when most domestic activities occur. It is lowest during
the night.
 Daily Variation: Water demand varies throughout the week, with higher
demand on weekends or certain days due to increased domestic activities
like laundry and gardening.
 Seasonal Variation: Water demand can vary with seasons, being higher in
summer due to increased use for irrigation, swimming pools, and cooling.

Peak Factors: These are ratios used to estimate the maximum demand based on
the average daily demand.

 Peak Hourly Factor: The ratio of the maximum hourly demand to the
average hourly demand of the maximum day. It is used to design the
distribution system and pumping capacity. Typical values range from 1.5 to
3.0 or higher.
 Peak Daily Factor: The ratio of the maximum daily demand of the year to
the average daily demand of the year. It is used to design the capacity of
the treatment plant and source. Typical values range from 1.5 to 2.0 or
higher.
 Coincident Peak Demand: The maximum demand that occurs when
multiple types of demand (e.g., domestic, industrial, firefighting) occur
simultaneously. For firefighting, it's often considered as an additional
demand on top of the maximum hourly or daily demand.

Significance of Peak Factors:

 Ensuring Adequate Capacity: Peak factors ensure that the water supply
system (source, treatment, storage, distribution) is designed with sufficient
capacity to meet the highest anticipated water demands without pressure
drops or shortages.
 Economic Efficiency: While designing for peak demand increases capital
costs, it prevents system failures and ensures consumer satisfaction.
Balancing the cost of over-design with the risks of under-design is crucial.
 Operational Efficiency: Understanding peak demand patterns helps in
optimizing pumping schedules and managing storage reservoirs effectively.
 Public Health and Safety: Adequate capacity during peak hours is essential
for maintaining sufficient pressure for sanitation and firefighting.
3.4 Factors Affecting Water Demand

We've already touched upon many factors while discussing per capita demand and
types of demand. Here's a consolidated list of the key factors affecting overall
water demand:

 Population Size and Growth Rate: Larger populations and higher growth
rates lead to increased total demand.
 Standard of Living: Higher living standards generally result in higher per
capita consumption across domestic, commercial, and industrial sectors.
 Climate and Season: Temperature and rainfall patterns influence water use
for irrigation, cooling, and domestic purposes.
 Industrial and Commercial Activities: The type and scale of industries and
commercial establishments significantly impact water demand.
 Public Services and Facilities: The extent and usage of public parks,
swimming pools, and other municipal services affect demand.
 Water Pricing Policy and Metering: The cost of water and whether it is
metered influence consumption patterns.
 Efficiency of the Water Supply System: Leakage and unaccounted-for
water increase the overall demand on the source and treatment plant.
 Pressure in the Distribution System: Higher pressure can lead to increased
consumption if not managed.
 Habits and Customs of the Community: Cultural practices and daily
routines can influence water usage.
 Availability and Quality of Water: Easy access to a reliable and good-
quality supply can affect consumption.
 Firefighting Requirements: The level of fire protection provided influences
the peak demand.
 Urbanization and Land Use: Changes in land use patterns (e.g., conversion
of agricultural land to residential) affect water demand.

Quality of Water

Water quality refers to the physical, chemical, biological, and radiological

characteristics of water. Determining and maintaining acceptable water quality
standards is essential for ensuring safe drinking water and protecting aquatic
ecosystems.

4.1 Types of Impurities and Their Effects

Water in its natural state is rarely pure and contains various types of impurities.
These can be broadly classified into three categories:

 Suspended Impurities: These are relatively large particles that do not

dissolve in water and remain dispersed. They can be visible to the naked
eye.
o Examples: Sand, silt, clay, organic debris, microorganisms (some),
and precipitated chemicals.
o Effects:
 Cause turbidity (cloudiness), making water aesthetically
unappealing.
 Can settle out and accumulate in pipes and storage tanks,
reducing capacity and potentially affecting flow.
 May harbor microorganisms, increasing the risk of waterborne
diseases.
 Can interfere with disinfection processes by shielding
microorganisms from disinfectants.
 Can clog filters in water treatment plants and household
appliances.
 Colloidal Impurities: These are very fine particles (larger than dissolved
molecules but small enough to remain suspended) that do not settle out
due to their small size and electrical charges that cause them to repel each
other. They are usually not visible individually but cause turbidity.
o Examples: Clay particles, finely divided organic matter, some
microorganisms, and certain metallic hydroxides.
o Effects:
 Cause persistent turbidity that is difficult to remove by
sedimentation alone.
 Can impart color to water.
 Can interfere with disinfection and other treatment processes.
 Provide adsorption sites for harmful substances.
 Dissolved Impurities: These are substances that have dissolved in water at
a molecular or ionic level. They are not visible and do not settle out.
o Examples:
 Inorganic: Minerals (calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium,
chloride, sulfate, bicarbonate, nitrate, iron, manganese,
fluoride, arsenic, lead, mercury).
  Organic: Dissolved organic matter (DOM) from decaying
vegetation, industrial chemicals (pesticides, solvents), and
disinfection byproducts (DBPs).
 Gases: Oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, methane.
o Effects:
 Can affect the taste, odor, and color of water.
 Can cause hardness (due to calcium and magnesium), which
leads to scale formation in pipes and appliances and reduces
the effectiveness of soap.
 Some dissolved substances can be toxic to humans and aquatic
life (e.g., arsenic, lead, mercury, pesticides, nitrates in high
concentrations).
 Can contribute to corrosion of pipes (e.g., dissolved oxygen,
low pH).
 Can affect the suitability of water for industrial processes and
irrigation.

4.2 Living Organisms in Water

Water can be a habitat for a wide variety of living organisms, some of which are
beneficial while others can pose health risks.

 Algae: Microscopic photosynthetic organisms that can be found in surface

waters.
o Effects:
 Can cause taste and odor problems in drinking water (earthy,
musty, grassy).
 Can lead to the formation of disinfection byproducts (DBPs)
during chlorination.
 Blooms of certain algae (cyanobacteria or blue-green algae)
can produce toxins harmful to humans and animals.
 Can cause problems in water treatment plants by clogging
filters.
 Can affect the dissolved oxygen levels in water bodies.
 Bacteria: Single-celled microorganisms found in virtually all aquatic
environments.
o Effects:
  Most bacteria in water are harmless and play a role in nutrient
cycling.
 However, some pathogenic bacteria (e.g., E. coli, Salmonella,
Vibrio cholerae) can cause serious waterborne diseases.
 Iron and sulfur bacteria can cause taste, odor, and color
problems, as well as corrosion.
 Viruses: Microscopic infectious agents that can survive in water and cause
illness.
o Effects:
 Viruses (e.g., Hepatitis A and E viruses, Rotavirus, Norovirus)
can be transmitted through contaminated water and cause
various gastrointestinal and other diseases.
 They are generally more resistant to disinfection than bacteria
and require specific treatment methods for inactivation.
 Worms (Helminths): Multicellular parasitic organisms that can contaminate
water sources, particularly in areas with poor sanitation.
o Effects:
 Worm eggs or larvae (e.g., roundworms, tapeworms,
hookworms) can be ingested through contaminated water or
food and cause various intestinal and other parasitic diseases.
 Some aquatic worms (e.g., bloodworms) can be indicators of
water quality conditions.

4.3 Water-Related Diseases

Water plays a significant role in the transmission of various diseases. These are
often categorized based on how water is involved:

 Waterborne Diseases: Caused by pathogenic microorganisms that are

transmitted through contaminated drinking water. The pathogens are
ingested when people consume the water.
o Causes: Bacteria (e.g., cholera, typhoid, dysentery), viruses (e.g.,
hepatitis A, polio, rotavirus), protozoa (e.g., giardiasis,
cryptosporidiosis), and helminths (e.g., ascariasis, tapeworm).
o Effects: Primarily gastrointestinal illnesses (diarrhea, vomiting,
abdominal cramps), but can also include systemic infections, liver
damage, paralysis, and even death.
 o Transmission Routes: Ingestion of contaminated water through
drinking, cooking, or washing food.
o Preventive Measures:
 Primary Barriers: Source water protection (preventing
contamination), water treatment (filtration, disinfection).
 Secondary Barriers: Safe storage and handling of treated
water in households, hygiene education.
 Water-Washed (Water-Scarcity Related) Diseases: Caused by poor hygiene
due to a lack of sufficient water for washing. The pathogens are transmitted
through direct contact or vectors due to inadequate sanitation and hygiene.
o Causes: Bacteria (e.g., trachoma, skin infections), viruses (e.g., skin
and eye infections), and parasites (e.g., scabies).
o Effects: Skin and eye infections, diarrheal diseases due to poor
hygiene.
o Transmission Routes: Person-to-person contact, flies and other
vectors transmitting pathogens due to lack of washing.
o Preventive Measures:
 Primary Barriers: Increasing access to sufficient quantities of
safe water for hygiene, promoting handwashing and sanitation
practices.
 Secondary Barriers: Health education on hygiene.
 Water-Based Diseases: Caused by parasites that spend part of their life
cycle in water and another part in humans or animals. Transmission occurs
through skin penetration or ingestion of aquatic intermediate hosts.
o Causes: Helminths (e.g., schistosomiasis, dracunculiasis (Guinea
worm disease)).
o Effects: Tissue damage, organ damage, anemia, disability.
o Transmission Routes: Skin contact with contaminated water
containing larval stages that penetrate the skin, or ingestion of
infected aquatic intermediate hosts (e.g., snails, copepods).
o Preventive Measures:
 Primary Barriers: Controlling intermediate host populations,
preventing human contact with contaminated water, proper
disposal of human waste.
 Secondary Barriers: Health education, treatment of infected
individuals.
  Water Vector Diseases: Caused by pathogens that are transmitted by insect
vectors (like mosquitoes and flies) that breed or live near water. The
disease is not directly transmitted through the water itself but through the
bite of the vector.
o Causes: Viruses (e.g., dengue, malaria, yellow fever, West Nile virus),
protozoa (e.g., malaria).
o Effects: Fever, chills, body aches, neurological complications, and
potentially death.
o Transmission Routes: Bite of infected mosquitoes or other aquatic-
breeding insects.
o Preventive Measures:
 Primary Barriers: Controlling vector breeding sites (e.g.,
stagnant water), using insecticides, personal protection against
bites (mosquito nets, repellents).
 Secondary Barriers: Early diagnosis and treatment of infected
individuals.

Understanding these categories of water-related diseases is crucial for

implementing effective preventive measures at both the water source and the
community level.

4.4 Physical Water Qualities and Their Significance

Physical water quality parameters are those that can be detected by the senses or
through simple physical tests. They affect the aesthetic acceptability of water and
can also indicate potential problems.

4.4.1 Solids (Suspended and Dissolved)

 Suspended Solids (SS): Particles that are large enough to be separated from
water by filtration.
o Significance: Cause turbidity, can settle and clog pipes, may harbor
microorganisms, interfere with disinfection.
 Dissolved Solids (DS) or Total Dissolved Solids (TDS): Minerals, salts, and
organic matter dissolved in water.
o Significance: Affect taste (e.g., salty, metallic), can cause hardness,
may be corrosive at high concentrations, can affect the suitability of
water for irrigation and industrial uses. High TDS can also indicate
pollution.
4.4.2 Turbidity

 Definition: A measure of the cloudiness or haziness of water caused by

suspended and colloidal particles. It reduces the clarity of water.
 Significance:
o Aesthetically unappealing to consumers.
o Can shield microorganisms from disinfection.
o Can interfere with the effectiveness of other water treatment
processes (e.g., filtration).
o High turbidity can indicate the presence of harmful substances or
excessive erosion in the watershed.
o Measured in Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).

4.4.3 Color

 Definition: The appearance of water to the eye. Color in water can be due
to dissolved organic matter (humic and fulvic acids from decaying
vegetation - often yellowish or brownish), dissolved metals (e.g., iron -
reddish-brown, manganese - blackish), algae (green), or industrial wastes.
 Significance:
o Aesthetically displeasing to consumers.
o Can indicate the presence of organic matter or industrial
contamination.
o Color can interfere with the effectiveness of disinfection and other
treatment processes.
o Measured in True Color Units (TCU) by comparison with standard
color solutions.

4.4.4 Taste and Odor

 Definition: The sensations perceived when water is taken into the mouth
and the smells emanating from water. These can be caused by dissolved
gases (e.g., hydrogen sulfide - rotten egg), organic matter (e.g., decaying
vegetation - earthy, musty), algae (grassy, fishy), industrial chemicals, and
disinfection byproducts (e.g., chlorine).
 Significance:
o Major factors in consumer acceptance of drinking water.
 o Can indicate the presence of potentially harmful substances or
biological activity.
o Specific tastes and odors can help identify the source of
contamination.
o Measured qualitatively using descriptive terms and quantitatively
using a threshold odor number (TON).

4.4.5 Temperature

 Definition: The degree of hotness or coldness of water.

 Significance:
o Affects the taste of water (cooler water is generally more palatable).
o Influences the solubility of gases (e.g., oxygen is more soluble in
colder water).
o Affects the rate of chemical reactions and biological activity in water.
o Can impact the effectiveness of certain water treatment processes
(e.g., disinfection).
o Thermal pollution from industrial discharges can harm aquatic life.
o Measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or Fahrenheit (°F).

4.4.6 Health, Environment, and Engineering Significance (of

Physical Water Qualities)

 Health: High turbidity can shield pathogens from disinfection, increasing

the risk of waterborne diseases. Certain tastes and odors can indicate the
presence of harmful contaminants. Elevated temperatures can promote the
growth of some pathogenic microorganisms.
 Environment: Temperature affects aquatic life and dissolved oxygen levels.
Turbidity can reduce light penetration, impacting aquatic plants. Suspended
solids can smother benthic organisms.
 Engineering: Turbidity and suspended solids can clog filters and pipes,
increasing maintenance costs. Dissolved solids can cause scaling and
corrosion in water distribution systems and industrial equipment.
Temperature affects viscosity and thus pumping costs.

4.5 Chemical Water Qualities

Chemical parameters refer to the concentration of various chemical substances
dissolved or suspended in water. They are crucial for assessing water potability and
suitability for different uses.

4.5.1 Chemistry of Solutions: pH, Solubility, and pH Dependence

 pH: A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water, expressed on a scale of 0

to 14. pH 7 is neutral, pH < 7 is acidic, and pH > 7 is alkaline (basic).
o Significance: Affects the taste of water, influences the solubility and
toxicity of many chemical substances (e.g., metals, ammonia), affects
the effectiveness of disinfection processes (chlorine is most effective
at slightly acidic to neutral pH), and can contribute to corrosion of
pipes (low pH).
 Solubility: The ability of a substance (solute) to dissolve in water (solvent).
Solubility is influenced by factors like temperature, pressure, and the
chemical nature of the solute and solvent.
o Significance: Determines the concentration of dissolved minerals and
other substances in water. Understanding solubility is important in
water treatment (e.g., precipitation of hardness) and in predicting
the fate of pollutants.
 pH Dependence of Solubility: The solubility of many chemical compounds,
especially metal hydroxides, carbonates, and phosphates, is strongly
dependent on the pH of the water. For example, some metals are more
soluble under acidic conditions.
o Significance: Controlling pH is crucial in water treatment to
precipitate out unwanted substances (e.g., heavy metals, hardness-
causing ions) and to prevent the dissolution of toxic substances from
sediments or pipes.

4.5.2 Hardness and Alkalinity (Lime Incrustation in Pipeline and

Customer Meters)

 Hardness: Primarily caused by the presence of divalent cations, mainly

calcium ((Ca^{2+})) and magnesium ((Mg^{2+})) ions. It is usually expressed
as milligrams per liter (mg/L) as calcium carbonate ((CaCO_3)).
o Significance:
 Reduces the lathering ability of soap and detergents, leading to
increased consumption.
  Causes scale formation (lime incrustation) in pipes, boilers,
water heaters, and customer meters, reducing efficiency,
increasing energy consumption, and potentially blocking flow.
 Can affect the taste of water (high hardness can be less
palatable).
 May have some health benefits (e.g., lower risk of
cardiovascular disease at moderate levels).
 Alkalinity: The capacity of water to neutralize acids. It is primarily due to
the presence of bicarbonate ((HCO_3^-)), carbonate ((CO_3^{2-})), and
hydroxide ((OH^-)) ions. It is usually expressed as milligrams per liter (mg/L)
as calcium carbonate ((CaCO_3)).
o Significance:
 Provides buffering capacity to water, helping to resist changes
in pH. This is important for aquatic life and the stability of
water treatment processes.
 High alkalinity can contribute to scale formation in boilers and
pipes.
 Alkalinity is an important parameter in coagulation during
water treatment.
 Lime Incrustation: The deposition of calcium carbonate ((CaCO_3)) and
magnesium carbonate ((MgCO_3)) scale on the inner surfaces of pipes,
water heaters, and meters due to the precipitation of hardness-causing
minerals, often exacerbated by heating.

4.5.3 Metals: Toxic and Non-Toxic Metals

Water can contain various metals, some of which are essential nutrients at low
concentrations but can be toxic at higher levels.

 Non-Toxic Metals (at typical concentrations): Calcium (Ca), Magnesium

(Mg), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K), Iron (Fe) (can cause staining and taste
issues), Manganese (Mn) (can cause staining and taste issues).
 Toxic Metals: Arsenic (As), Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), Cadmium (Cd),
Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu) (can be toxic at high levels), Zinc (Zn) (can be
toxic at high levels).
o Significance of Toxic Metals: These metals can accumulate in the
body over time and cause various health problems, including
neurological damage, kidney damage, cancer, and developmental
 issues, even at low concentrations. Their presence in water often
indicates industrial pollution or leaching from pipes and plumbing
fixtures (e.g., lead).

4.5.4 Pollutants of Emerging Concerns (Emerging Contaminants)

These are synthetic or naturally occurring chemicals and microorganisms that are
not commonly monitored in the environment but have the potential to cause
adverse ecological and human health effects. They 1 are often present at very low
concentrations.

Examples:

 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs): Antibiotics,

hormones, antidepressants, cosmetics, detergents that enter water bodies
through wastewater discharges and agricultural runoff.
 Endocrine Disrupting Compounds (EDCs): Chemicals that can interfere
with the hormonal systems of humans and wildlife (e.g., bisphenol A (BPA),
phthalates, some pesticides).
 Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): Synthetic chemicals used in
various industrial and consumer products (e.g., non-stick cookware,
firefighting foams) that are persistent in the environment and can accumulate
in the human body.
 Microplastics: Small plastic particles that result from the breakdown of
larger plastic debris and can be ingested by aquatic organisms and
potentially humans.
 Nanomaterials: Engineered nanoparticles used in various applications,
whose environmental and health impacts are still being studied.

4.6 Biological Water Qualities (Continued)

4.6.2 Health, Environment, and Engineering Significance

The presence and types of microorganisms in water have significant implications

across various domains:

 Health Significance:
 o Pathogens: As discussed earlier, pathogenic bacteria, viruses,
protozoa, and helminths can cause a wide range of waterborne
diseases in humans, posing serious public health risks.
o Opportunistic Pathogens: Some microorganisms that are generally
harmless to healthy individuals can cause infections in
immunocompromised people.
o Indicator Organisms: The presence of certain non-pathogenic
bacteria (like E. coli) indicates fecal contamination and the potential
presence of other, more harmful pathogens.
 Environmental Significance:
o Ecosystem Balance: Microorganisms are vital for nutrient cycling and
maintaining the balance of aquatic ecosystems. Algae form the base
of many food webs.
o Pollution Indicators: The types and abundance of certain
microorganisms can indicate the level and type of pollution in a
water body (e.g., high levels of certain bacteria can indicate organic
pollution).
o Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs): Overgrowth of certain algae can
deplete oxygen, block sunlight, and produce toxins harmful to
aquatic life and humans.
 Engineering Significance:
o Biofouling: Microorganisms can attach to surfaces in water
treatment plants and distribution systems, forming biofilms that can
reduce flow, increase corrosion, and harbor pathogens.
o Taste and Odor Problems: Certain bacteria and algae can produce
metabolites that cause unpleasant tastes and odors in drinking
water.
o Corrosion: Some bacteria (e.g., sulfate-reducing bacteria, iron
bacteria) can contribute to the corrosion of pipes in water
distribution systems.
o Interference with Treatment Processes: High levels of
microorganisms or organic matter can reduce the effectiveness of
disinfection and other treatment processes.

4.6.3 Pathogen's Indicators and Their Tests

Directly detecting every potential pathogen in water is often impractical and

expensive. Instead, indicator organisms are used to assess the likelihood of fecal
contamination and the potential presence of disease-causing microorganisms. The
ideal indicator organism should:

 Be present in the feces of humans and other warm-blooded animals.

 Be present in large numbers in feces.
 Not be pathogenic itself.
 Survive in water for a similar or longer time than the hardiest pathogens.
 Be relatively easy and inexpensive to detect.
 Its presence should indicate a reasonable probability of fecal
contamination.

Common Indicator Organisms:

 Coliform Bacteria (Total Coliforms): A group of bacteria that are commonly

found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals as well as in soil and
vegetation. Their presence suggests possible fecal contamination.
 Fecal Coliforms (Thermotolerant Coliforms): A subgroup of total coliforms
that are more specifically associated with the feces of warm-blooded
animals. Escherichia coli (E. coli) is the most common fecal coliform and a
more reliable indicator of recent fecal contamination.
 Enterococci (Fecal Streptococci): Another group of bacteria found in the
feces of warm-blooded animals. They are generally more resistant to
environmental stress than coliforms and can be useful for assessing the age
of fecal contamination and in saline waters.

Common Tests for Indicator Organisms:

 Multiple Tube Fermentation (MPN) Test: A statistical method used to

estimate the most probable number of coliform bacteria in a water sample.
It involves inoculating a series of test tubes containing a selective growth
medium with different volumes of the water sample. After incubation, the
number of tubes showing gas production (a sign of coliform fermentation)
is used to estimate the MPN based on statistical tables.
 Membrane Filtration (MF) Technique: A method where a known volume of
water is filtered through a sterile membrane with a pore size small enough
to retain bacteria. The membrane is then placed on a selective growth
medium in a petri dish and incubated. After incubation, the colonies that
grow on the membrane are counted, and the results are expressed as the
number of colony-forming units (CFU) per unit volume of water. This
 method is generally faster and more precise than the MPN test for low
levels of contamination.
 Standard Plate Count (SPC) or Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) Method:
This test measures the total number of culturable aerobic and facultative
anaerobic heterotrophic bacteria in a water sample. It doesn't specifically
target fecal indicators but provides a general indication of the
bacteriological quality of water. High SPC values can indicate excessive
microbial growth or the presence of biodegradable organic matter.
 The Most Probable Number (MPN): As mentioned with the multiple tube
fermentation test, MPN is a statistical estimate of the number of viable
microorganisms (usually coliforms) in a water sample. It is based on the
probability of finding at least one microorganism in a series of diluted
samples.

4.7 Standard Methods of Water Quality Examination

To ensure consistency and comparability of water quality data, standardized

analytical methods are used worldwide. Two prominent organizations that publish
these methods are:

 United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA): The EPA

develops and publishes a wide range of standard methods for the analysis
of water and wastewater. These methods cover physical, chemical, and
biological parameters and are often legally mandated in the United States
for regulatory compliance. The EPA methods are detailed and provide
specific procedures for sample collection, preservation, analysis, and
quality control.
 American Public Health Association (APHA) and American Water Works
Association (AWWA) and Water Environment Federation (WEF): These
organizations jointly publish "Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater," often referred to simply as "Standard Methods."
This comprehensive manual is a widely recognized and used reference
worldwide for water and wastewater analysis. It is regularly updated to
reflect the latest advancements in analytical techniques and includes
detailed protocols for a vast array of water quality parameters.

These standard methods ensure:

  Accuracy and Reliability: The methods are scientifically validated and
provide reliable results.
 Comparability: Using the same methods allows for the comparison of
water quality data across different laboratories and over time.
 Regulatory Compliance: Many regulatory agencies specify the use of these
standard methods for monitoring water quality and ensuring compliance
with drinking water standards.
 Quality Control: The methods often include quality control procedures to
ensure the accuracy and precision of the results.

4.8 Water Quality Standards for Drinking Purposes

Drinking water quality standards are established to protect public health by setting
limits on the concentrations of various contaminants in water intended for human
consumption. These standards are typically based on scientific research on the
potential health effects of different contaminants.

 World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality:

WHO publishes international guidelines that provide a scientific basis for
national standards and regulations to support the development of safe
drinking water supplies. These guidelines are not legally binding but are
widely adopted and adapted by countries around the world. They
recommend guideline values for a wide range of microbiological, chemical,
physical, and radiological contaminants, considering both health-based
targets and aesthetic aspects. The WHO guidelines are regularly updated
based on the latest scientific evidence.
 National Drinking Water Quality Standards (Nepal): Many countries,
including Nepal, develop their own national drinking water quality
standards based on the WHO guidelines and local conditions (e.g.,
prevalent contaminants, economic feasibility, climate). These national
standards are legally binding and specify the maximum permissible levels of
various contaminants in drinking water supplied to consumers. They
typically cover microbiological parameters (e.g., coliforms, E. coli), physical
parameters (e.g., turbidity, color, taste, odor), chemical parameters (e.g.,
arsenic, fluoride, nitrate, heavy metals, pesticides), and sometimes
radiological parameters.

National standards often take into account:

  Health Risks: The primary consideration is the potential for adverse health
effects from consuming water containing specific contaminants.
 Economic Feasibility: The ability of water suppliers to meet the standards
using available treatment technologies and resources.
 Environmental Conditions: Local geological and environmental factors that
may influence the natural occurrence of certain contaminants.
 Socio-cultural Factors: Consumer preferences regarding taste, odor, and
appearance of water.

Intakes

An intake structure is a hydraulic structure constructed at the source of water

supply (river, lake, reservoir, spring, or well) to safely and efficiently withdraw the
required quantity of raw water and convey it to the water treatment plant or a raw
water storage facility. The design and location of the intake are critical for ensuring
a reliable and good-quality raw water supply.

5.1 Types of Intakes and Their Components

Intake structures are designed based on the type of water source. Here are some
common types and their typical components:

1. River Intake: Used to withdraw water from a river or stream.

 Components:
o Inlet Structure: The opening through which water enters the intake.
It is usually protected by screens to prevent the entry of debris, fish,
and other large objects. Inlet structures can be submerged or
partially submerged.
o Screen Chamber: A chamber housing the screens. It allows for the
removal and cleaning of screens. Multiple screens (coarse and fine)
may be used.
o Sump Well (Intake Well): A chamber where the water collects after
passing through the screens. The suction pipes of the raw water
pumps are usually placed in the sump well.
o Pump House (if pumping is required at the intake): Houses the raw
water pumps and associated equipment (motors, controls, valves,
etc.).
 o Gate Valves: Used to control the flow of water into the intake and to
isolate sections for maintenance.
o Trash Racks (Coarse Screens): Widely spaced bars to catch larger
debris like logs, branches, and large stones.
o Fine Screens: Closer spaced mesh or bars to remove smaller debris,
leaves, and fish.
o Intake Pipe (Conduit): The pipe that carries water from the intake
structure to the pump house or directly to the treatment plant (if
gravity flow is possible).
o Protection Works: Measures to protect the intake structure from
erosion, scour (removal of sediment by flowing water), and damage
from floods or ice.

2. Reservoir Intake (Lake Intake): Used to withdraw water from a reservoir or

natural lake.

 Components: Similar to river intakes, but the design may vary depending
on the reservoir's characteristics (depth, stratification, water level
fluctuations).
o Intake Tower (Wet or Dry): A vertical structure built within the
reservoir or near the shore, with multiple inlet ports at different
depths to allow withdrawal of water of the best quality.
 Wet Intake Tower: Water enters the tower through the ports
and fills the tower. Withdrawal is from within the tower.
 Dry Intake Tower: Water enters the ports and flows through
pipes within the tower to a dry well at the base, where pumps
are located.
o Submerged Intake Structure: An intake located entirely underwater,
often used in deeper reservoirs. It consists of an inlet structure with
screens connected to a pipeline laid on the bed of the reservoir
leading to a shore pump station.
o Intake Pipe (Submerged or Laid on Bed): Conveys water from the
intake to the shore.
o Screening Arrangements: Similar to river intakes, screens are used to
remove debris and fish.
o Pump House (Shore-based): Houses the raw water pumps.
o Control Valves and Gates: To regulate flow and isolate sections.
3. Spring Intake: Used to collect water from a natural spring where groundwater
emerges at the surface.

 Components:
o Collection Chamber (Spring Box): A covered structure built around
the spring to protect it from contamination and collect the emerging
water. It may have perforated walls or gravel packing to allow water
to seep in while preventing the entry of soil and debris.
o Overflow Pipe: To discharge excess water when the flow exceeds
demand.
o Outlet Pipe: To convey the collected water to the treatment plant or
distribution system (gravity flow is often possible).
o Sediment Trap (Optional): A small chamber to allow heavier particles
to settle out.
o Screen (at the outlet): To prevent the entry of any remaining debris.
o Ventilation Pipe: To allow gases to escape.
o Access Cover: For inspection and maintenance.

4. Well Intake: Used to extract groundwater from wells (open wells, tube wells,
jack wells).

 Components:
o Well Structure: The drilled or dug opening into the aquifer, lined
with casing to prevent collapse and contamination.
o Well Screen (for tube wells): A filter placed at the bottom of the well
casing to allow water to enter while preventing the entry of sand and
gravel.
o Sump (below the screen): To collect sediment.
o Pump (Submersible or Vertical Turbine): Located within the well or
above it to lift the water to the surface.
o Pumping Unit (Motor, Controls): Located at the surface.
o Discharge Pipe: To convey water from the pump to the treatment
plant or storage.
o Well Head Protection: Measures to prevent surface contamination
from entering the well.
 Jack Well: A specific type of well intake, often near a river, designed to
collect filtered water. Its components are similar to other wells but with a
design that facilitates infiltration from the adjacent water body.
5.2 Factors Considered for Site Selection of an Intake

Choosing the right location for an intake structure is crucial for the success of a
water supply project. Several factors need careful consideration:

 Water Quality at the Source: The intake should be located at a point where
the raw water quality is the best and least susceptible to pollution. For
rivers and lakes, this might involve considering upstream discharges,
agricultural runoff, and the location of potential contamination sources. For
reservoirs, the depth of intake ports is important to avoid stratified layers
with poor water quality.
 Quantity of Water Available: The site must ensure a sufficient and reliable
supply of water throughout the year, even during low flow periods or
droughts. Historical flow data and yield assessments are essential.
 Accessibility: The site should be easily accessible for construction,
operation, maintenance, and repairs. Availability of roads, power supply,
and other infrastructure is important.
 Topography and Hydraulics: The site should be hydraulically favorable for
water withdrawal. For gravity intakes, sufficient head difference between
the source and the treatment plant is needed. The river or lake morphology
should be stable and minimize sedimentation at the intake.
 Foundation Conditions: The soil and geological conditions at the site must
be suitable for the construction of the intake structure and associated
infrastructure. Adequate bearing capacity and stability are required.
 Environmental Impact: The location should minimize negative impacts on
the aquatic ecosystem, fish migration, and the surrounding environment.
Environmental regulations and the need for environmental flow releases
must be considered.
 Protection from Natural Hazards: The site should be safe from floods,
earthquakes, landslides, ice jams, and other natural disasters that could
damage the intake structure and disrupt water supply.
 Navigation and Other Uses: The location should not interfere with
navigation, fishing, recreation, or other existing or planned uses of the
water body.
 Future Development: Potential future urban or industrial development in
the vicinity that could affect water quality or quantity should be
considered.
  Security: The intake site should be secure from vandalism and
unauthorized access.
 Cost: The overall cost of construction, operation, and maintenance at the
chosen site is a significant factor. This includes the cost of the intake
structure, pipelines, pumping (if required), and land acquisition.
 Legal Aspects: Compliance with water rights, environmental regulations,
and land ownership laws is essential.

5.3 Characteristics of Intake (River Intake, Reservoir Intake, Spring Intake,

Well Intake)

Each type of intake has specific characteristics related to its design, operation, and
the nature of the water source:

 River Intake:
o Must be designed to withstand flowing water, sediment transport,
and potential floods.
o Often requires measures to prevent scour around the structure.
o Intake location may need to be adjusted based on river bends and
flow patterns to minimize sediment intake.
o Water quality can fluctuate significantly with river flow and upstream
activities.
o Screens are crucial to remove debris carried by the river.
 Reservoir Intake:
o Allows for the selection of water from different depths to access
better quality water (avoiding thermal stratification or zones with
high algae growth).
o Less susceptible to rapid fluctuations in water level and quality
compared to rivers.
o Design must consider water level variations and potential wave
action.
o Intake towers can be costly to construct but offer operational
flexibility.
 Spring Intake:
o Relies on the natural flow of groundwater emerging at the surface.
o Water quality is generally more consistent and less turbid than
surface water, but mineral content can be higher.
 o Yield is dependent on the characteristics of the aquifer feeding the
spring.
o Protection from surface contamination is paramount.
o Often allows for gravity flow to the treatment plant.
 Well Intake:
o Extracts groundwater from aquifers.
o Yield depends on the aquifer's properties and the well's design and
pumping rate.
o Water quality is generally consistent but can contain dissolved
minerals (e.g., hardness, iron, fluoride, arsenic).
o Requires pumps to lift water to the surface.
o Well head protection is crucial to prevent contamination.

5.4 Design Considerations for Intake

The design of an intake structure involves several key considerations to ensure

efficient and reliable water withdrawal:

 Intake Capacity: The intake must be designed to withdraw the maximum

required flow rate, considering future demand and potential fluctuations.
 Velocity of Intake Water: The velocity of water entering the intake should
be low enough to minimize head loss and prevent the intake of excessive
debris and fish.
 Screen Design: Screens must have appropriate opening sizes to effectively
remove debris without excessive clogging. The screen area should be
sufficient to maintain low intake velocities. Regular cleaning mechanisms
(manual or mechanical) should be considered.
 Structural Stability: The intake structure must be structurally sound to
withstand hydraulic forces, wave action (for lakes and reservoirs), ice
pressure (in cold climates), and seismic loads (in earthquake-prone areas).
 Sediment Exclusion: Design features to minimize the entry of sediment into
the intake, such as locating the intake at a higher elevation in rivers or using
submerged intakes with upward-facing inlets in reservoirs. Sediment
removal facilities (e.g., settling basins) may be needed downstream of the
intake.
 Fish Protection: Measures to prevent fish from entering the intake and
harming them, such as fish screens with appropriate mesh sizes and fish
bypass facilities.
  Accessibility for Maintenance: The design should allow for easy access to
all parts of the intake for inspection, cleaning, maintenance, and repairs.
 Operational Flexibility: For reservoirs, multiple intake ports at different
depths provide flexibility in withdrawing water of the best quality.
 Instrumentation and Control: Provisions for flow measurement, water level
monitoring, and remote operation may be included.
 Materials of Construction: Materials used should be durable and resistant
to corrosion and degradation in the aquatic environment.
 Cost-Effectiveness: The design should aim for the most economical solution
that meets all technical and operational requirements.’

6. Water Treatment

Water treatment involves a sequence of processes designed to remove or reduce

the concentration of physical, chemical, and biological contaminants in raw water,
making it safe and aesthetically acceptable for human consumption and other uses.

6.1 Overview of Drinking Water Treatment Unit Operation and Process

A typical drinking water treatment plant employs a combination of unit operations

(physical processes) and unit processes (chemical and biological processes)
arranged in a specific sequence. The exact treatment train depends on the
characteristics of the raw water source and the desired quality of the treated water.
A common sequence includes:

1. Intake: Withdrawal of raw water from the source.

2. Screening: Removal of large debris.
3. Aeration (Optional): Removal of dissolved gases, oxidation of iron and
manganese.
4. Coagulation and Flocculation: Chemical addition and mixing to destabilize
colloidal particles and form larger, settleable flocs.
5. Sedimentation (Clarification): Gravity settling of the flocs.
6. Filtration: Removal of remaining suspended solids and flocs.
7. Disinfection: Inactivation or killing of pathogenic microorganisms.
8. pH Adjustment (Optional): Stabilization of treated water.
9. Fluoridation/Defluoridation (Optional): Adjustment of fluoride levels for
dental health.
10.Storage and Distribution: Treated water is stored and then distributed to
consumers.
 11.Sludge Management: Handling and disposal of the solids removed during
treatment.

6.2 Objectives of Water Treatment: Treatment Processes and Impurity

Removal

The primary objectives of water treatment are to:

 Produce safe drinking water: Eliminate or inactivate pathogenic

microorganisms and reduce the concentration of harmful chemical
contaminants to levels below regulatory limits.
 Produce aesthetically acceptable water: Remove objectionable turbidity,
color, taste, and odor.
 Prevent corrosion and scaling in the distribution system: Stabilize the
water to minimize reactions with pipes and fixtures.

The various treatment processes target different types of impurities:

Treatment Process Primary Impurity Removal

Physical Treatment
Screening Large debris (leaves, sticks, etc.)
Plain Sedimentation Heavy settleable solids (sand, grit)
Sedimentation (with Flocculated particles (turbidity, color,
coagulation) microorganisms)
Remaining suspended solids, flocs, some
Filtration
microorganisms
Dissolved gases (e.g., hydrogen sulfide), volatile
Aeration organic compounds, oxidation of iron and
manganese
Chemical Treatment
Destabilization and aggregation of colloidal
Coagulation/Flocculation
particles and suspended solids
 Inactivation or killing of pathogenic
Disinfection
microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, protozoa)
Removal of hardness-causing ions (calcium and
Softening
magnesium)
pH Adjustment Correction of water's acidity or alkalinity
Adjustment of fluoride concentration for dental
Fluoridation/Defluoridation
health
Advanced Treatment
Dissolved organic compounds (taste, odor, color,
Activated Carbon Adsorption
synthetic organic chemicals)
Particulate matter, microorganisms, dissolved
Membrane Filtration
salts (depending on pore size)
Advanced Oxidation Processes Persistent organic pollutants, disinfection
(AOPs) byproducts precursors
Removal of specific dissolved ions (e.g., hardness,
Ion Exchange
nitrates, arsenic)
Dissolved salts, heavy metals, organic
Reverse Osmosis
compounds, microorganisms
Export to Sheets

6.3 Physical Treatment: Impurities Removal and Operation Mechanism;

Design Considerations

Physical treatment processes rely on physical forces like gravity and filtration to
separate impurities from water.

6.3.1 Screenings: Types, Head Losses, and Design Steps

 Types of Screens:
o Coarse Screens (Trash Racks): Widely spaced bars (50-150 mm
spacing) to remove large debris like logs, branches, and large solids.
 o Fine Screens: Closer spaced mesh or bars (6-50 mm spacing) to
remove smaller debris, leaves, and fish. They can be stationary or
moving (e.g., traveling screens, vibrating screens).
o Microstrainers: Very fine mesh screens (typically woven stainless
steel with pore sizes ranging from 20 to 100 µm) used to remove
algae and very fine suspended solids.
 Head Losses: As water flows through screens, it experiences a loss of
energy due to obstruction. Head loss depends on:
o Velocity of flow.
o Shape and size of the screen openings.
o Thickness of the screen bars or mesh.
o Angle of inclination of the screen.
o Amount of blockage (degree of clogging).
o Empirical formulas like the Kirchheimer formula or modifications are
often used to estimate head loss: hL=C(2gv2−va2)(b−wb)nwithoutθ
Where:
 (h_L) = Head loss
 (C) = Empirical coefficient (typically 0.7 to 1.5)
 (v) = Velocity through the screen openings
 (v_a) = Approach velocity upstream of the screen
 (g) = Acceleration due to gravity
 (b) = Width of the screen opening
 (w) = Width of the screen bar
 (n) = Empirical exponent (typically 2 to 3)
 (\theta) = Angle of inclination of the screen to the horizontal
 Design Steps:

1. Determine the design flow rate (Q).

2. Select the type of screen based on the raw water characteristics and
the size of debris expected.
3. Assume an approach velocity ((v_a)) (typically 0.6 to 1.2 m/s).
4. Determine the required gross area of the screen (A_g) based on the
design flow and approach velocity: (A_g = Q / v_a).
5. Select the size and spacing of the screen openings (b) and bars (w).
6. Calculate the net open area of the screen (A_n) considering the bar
width: (A_n = A_g \times \frac{b}{b+w}).
7. Calculate the velocity through the screen openings (v): (v = Q / A_n).
 8. Estimate the head loss ((h_L)) using an appropriate formula and
assumed clogging factor.
9. Check if the head loss is within acceptable limits. If not, adjust the
screen area, opening size, or approach velocity.
10. Design the screen structure including the frame, supports, and
cleaning mechanism (if any).

6.3.2 Plain Sedimentation: Principle, Mechanism, and Design

 Principle: Plain sedimentation relies on gravity to remove heavier

suspended solids (like sand and grit) from water as it flows slowly through a
tank.
 Mechanism: When the flow velocity is reduced sufficiently, the
gravitational force acting on the particles overcomes the buoyant and drag
forces, causing them to settle to the bottom of the tank.
 Theory of Particle Settlement:
o Stoke's Law: Describes the settling velocity ((v_s)) of small, spherical
particles in a viscous fluid under laminar flow conditions (Reynolds
number < 1). vs=18mg(Rp−Rin)d2 Where:
 (v_s) = Settling velocity
 (g) = Acceleration due to gravity
 (\rho_p) = Density of the particle
 (\rho_w) = Density of water
 (d) = Diameter of the particle
 (\mu) = Dynamic viscosity of water
o Hazen's Law: An empirical formula for the settling velocity of
flocculated particles, often larger and irregular in shape, where
Stoke's law may not be directly applicable. It often incorporates a
coefficient to account for these factors.
o Newton's Law: Applies to larger particles settling under turbulent
flow conditions (Reynolds number > 1000). The drag force is
proportional to the square of the velocity.
 Temperature Effect on Settling: The viscosity of water ((\mu)) is inversely
proportional to temperature. As temperature increases, viscosity
decreases, leading to a higher settling velocity according to Stoke's Law.
 Ideal Sedimentation Tank: An idealized rectangular tank with uniform
horizontal flow, where particles enter and settle without turbulence or
interference. In such a tank:
 o All particles with a settling velocity ((v_s)) greater than the overflow
rate ((v_o = Q/A_s), where (Q) is the flow rate and (A_s) is the
surface area of the tank) will be completely removed.
o Particles with a settling velocity less than (v_o) will be removed in the
proportion (v_s / v_o).
 Types of Sedimentation Tank:
o Rectangular Tanks: Most common type, providing horizontal flow.
o Circular Tanks (Radial Flow): Water flows radially from the center to
the periphery or vice versa.
o Hopper-Bottom Tanks: Used for sludge collection, especially in
smaller plants or for settling chemically coagulated flocs.
 Design of Sedimentation Tank:

1. Determine the design flow rate (Q).

2. Estimate the settling velocity ((v_s)) of the smallest particle to be
removed (often based on pilot plant studies or empirical data).
3. Calculate the required surface area ((A_s)) of the tank based on the
overflow rate ((v_o)): (A_s = Q / v_o), where (v_o) is typically
designed to be equal to or slightly less than (v_s).
4. Select the shape of the tank (rectangular or circular).
5. Determine the dimensions of the tank:
 Rectangular Tank: Length (L) : Width (W) ratio typically 2:1 to
4:1. Depth (H) usually 3-5 m. (A_s = L \times W).
 Circular Tank: Diameter (D) and depth (H). (A_s = \pi D^2 / 4).
6. Calculate the detention time ((t_d)): (t_d = V / Q), where (V) is the
volume of the tank ((V = A_s \times H)). Detention time is typically 4-
8 hours for plain sedimentation.
7. Check the horizontal flow velocity ((v_h)): (v_h = Q / (W \times H))
for rectangular tanks or (v_h = Q / (\pi D H / 4)) (average) for circular
tanks. It should be low enough to prevent scouring of settled
particles (typically < 0.015 m/s).
8. Design the inlet and outlet structures to ensure uniform flow
distribution and prevent short-circuiting.
9. Design the sludge collection and removal system (manual or
mechanical scrapers).
10. Consider baffling to improve flow distribution and settling efficiency.
6.3.3 Filtration: Operation Mechanism and Design Considerations

 Operation Mechanism: Filtration involves passing water through a porous

medium (filter bed) to remove suspended and colloidal impurities that did
not settle out during sedimentation. Removal occurs through several
mechanisms:
o Straining: Particles larger than the pore spaces are physically
trapped.
o Sedimentation: Fine particles settle within the pore spaces due to
reduced velocity.
o Adsorption: Particles adhere to the surface of the filter media due to
electrostatic and chemical forces.
o Biological Action: In slow sand filters, a biological layer
(schmutzdecke) develops on the surface, which biologically degrades
organic matter and traps pathogens.
 Theory of Filtration: Filtration is a complex process influenced by factors
like filter media size and shape, porosity, flow rate, depth of the filter bed,
and the characteristics of the suspended particles. Mathematical models
can describe particle transport and deposition, but empirical relationships
are often used in design.
 Types of Filters:
o Slow Sand Filters (SSF): Use a fine sand bed (0.15-0.35 mm effective
size) with a low filtration rate (0.1-0.4 m/h). Effective for removing
turbidity, color, taste, odor, and microorganisms through physical
straining and biological action in the schmutzdecke layer. Require
periodic cleaning by scraping off the top layer of sand.
o Rapid Sand Filters (RSF): Use a coarser sand bed (0.35-0.6 mm
effective size) with a higher filtration rate (5-15 m/h). Primarily
remove flocculated particles. Require pre-coagulation and
sedimentation. Cleaned by backwashing (reversing the flow of water
to flush out accumulated solids).
o Pressure Filters: Similar in media and filtration rate to RSF but
enclosed in a pressure vessel, allowing for higher pressures and flow
rates. Used for industrial applications and sometimes for small
municipal supplies.
o Dual Media Filters: Use layers of different filter media (e.g.,
anthracite coal over sand) to provide longer filter runs and better
removal efficiency.
 o Multimedia Filters: Employ three or more layers of media with
varying sizes and densities (e.g., garnet, sand, anthracite).
 Design Considerations:
o Filtration Rate: Determines the required surface area of the filter
bed for a given flow rate.
o Filter Media: Effective size, uniformity coefficient, and depth of the
media layers.
o Head Loss: The pressure drop across the filter bed, which increases
as solids accumulate. The design must account for initial and
maximum allowable head loss before backwashing is required.
o Backwashing System (for RSF and pressure filters): Rate and
duration of backwash, type of backwash (water only or air scour
followed by water).
o Number of Filter Units: Multiple units are needed for continuous
operation during backwashing of one unit.
o Underdrain System: Collects filtered water and distributes backwash
water uniformly.
o Support Media: Layers of gravel below the filter media to support it
and ensure uniform flow.
o Filter Box Dimensions: Length, width, and depth to accommodate
the filter media, support media, and freeboard.
o Inlet and Outlet Arrangements: To distribute influent water and
collect effluent water uniformly.
o Control Systems: Valves and instrumentation to control flow rates,
head loss, and backwashing cycles.

6.3.4 Aeration: Purpose, Mechanism, and Methods

 Purpose: Aeration is a process of bringing water into intimate contact with

air for several reasons:
o Removal of Dissolved Gases: Stripping volatile gases like hydrogen
sulfide (H₂S) which causes rotten egg odor, methane (CH₄), and
carbon dioxide (CO₂).
o Oxidation of Iron and Manganese: Converting soluble ferrous
((Fe^{2+})) and manganous ((Mn^{2+})) ions to insoluble ferric
((Fe^{3+})) and manganic ((Mn^{4+})) forms, which can then be
removed by sedimentation and filtration.
 o Taste and Odor Control: Oxidizing some organic compounds that
cause taste and odor problems.
o Increasing Dissolved Oxygen (DO): For raw waters with low DO,
which can improve taste and reduce corrosion potential.
o Removal of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Stripping some
VOCs from contaminated groundwater.
 Mechanism: Aeration facilitates the transfer of volatile substances between
the water and the air based on their partial pressures (Henry's Law).
Oxidation of iron and manganese occurs through chemical reactions with
dissolved oxygen.
 Methods of Aeration:
o Gravity Aerators: Water is allowed to fall through the air in the form
of sprays, cascades, or over perforated trays.
 Spray Nozzles: Water is sprayed into the air through nozzles,
increasing the surface area for gas exchange.
 Cascade Aerators: Water flows down a series of steps or
inclined surfaces, increasing contact time with air.
 Perforated Trays: Water trickles through a series of trays with
perforations, allowing air to circulate.
o Diffused Air Aeration: Air is pumped through diffusers (porous plates
or tubes) at the bottom of a tank containing water, creating fine
bubbles that rise through the water, facilitating gas transfer.
Commonly used for groundwater treatment.
o Mechanical Aerators: Use impellers or turbines to agitate the water
surface, promoting air-water contact. Used in some industrial and
wastewater treatment applications.
o Packed Tower Aerators: Water flows down through a tower filled
with packing material (e.g., plastic rings or saddles), while air is blown
upwards. Provides a large surface area for gas exchange. Effective for
removing VOCs.

6.4 Chemical Treatment

Chemical treatment involves the addition of chemicals to water to bring about

desired reactions for impurity removal.

... flocculation:
 Coagulation Mechanism: Colloidal particles in water are typically negatively
charged, causing them to repel each other and remain suspended.
Coagulation involves adding chemicals (coagulants) to neutralize these
charges and destabilize the colloids. The primary mechanisms include:
o Charge Neutralization: Positively charged coagulant ions neutralize
the negative surface charges of the colloidal particles.
o Sweep Floc: At higher coagulant doses, insoluble metal hydroxides
precipitate and enmesh the colloidal particles as they settle.
o Bridging: Long-chain polymer coagulants can adsorb onto multiple
colloidal particles, bridging them together.
o Adsorption and Destabilization: Coagulant hydrolysis products can
adsorb onto the surface of colloids, reducing their stability.
 Coagulants (Types and Their Chemical Reactions):
o Aluminum Salts:
 Aluminum Sulfate (Alum) [Al₂(SO₄)₃ · 14H₂O]: The most
common coagulant. In water, it hydrolyzes to form various
aluminum hydroxide species and sulfuric acid, which lowers
the pH. Al3++3H2The⇌Al(OH)3(s)+3H+
 Polyaluminum Chloride (PAC) [Aln(OH)mCl(3n-m)]: Pre-
polymerized aluminum species that can be more effective than
alum in certain conditions, especially at lower temperatures
and with high organic matter. It generally causes less pH
depression.
o Iron Salts:
 Ferric Chloride (FeCl₃): Effective over a wider pH range than
alum and can aid in color removal. It hydrolyzes to form ferric
hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. Fand3++3H2The⇌Fe(OH)3(s)
+3H+
 Ferrous Sulfate (FeSO₄ · 7H₂O) (Copperas): Usually requires
oxidation (e.g., by chlorine or aeration) to the ferric state to be
an effective coagulant. 2Fand2++Cl2+2H2The→2Fand3++2Cl−
+2H+
o Synthetic Polymers (Polyelectrolytes): Long-chain organic molecules
with charged functional groups. They can act as coagulant aids or
primary coagulants, often used in conjunction with metal salts. Types
include cationic, anionic, and nonionic polymers.
 Mixing Devices (Purpose and Types): Rapid and uniform mixing of
coagulants with raw water is essential for effective coagulation.
o Purpose: To quickly disperse the coagulant throughout the water to
promote rapid charge neutralization and initial floc formation.
o Types:
 Static Mixers: Fixed devices in the flow path that create
turbulence (e.g., weirs, baffles, perforated plates, in-line
mixers).
 Mechanical Mixers: Impellers or turbines in a mixing basin that
are rotated at high speeds to create intense mixing (e.g.,
paddle mixers, turbine mixers).
 Jet Injectors: Coagulant solution is injected into the water
stream at high velocity to promote rapid mixing.
 Flocculation Tank and Its Design Considerations: Flocculation is a slow
mixing process that follows coagulation, promoting the aggregation of
destabilized colloidal particles into larger, settleable flocs.
o Design Considerations:
 Tank Volume and Detention Time: Sufficient time (typically
20-60 minutes) is needed for floc growth. Volume is
determined by flow rate and detention time.
 Mixing Intensity (G value): Gentle and tapered mixing is
required to promote floc growth without causing breakup.
Velocity gradient (G) is a measure of mixing intensity (typically
decreasing through the flocculation stages). G=mVP Where:
 (G) = Velocity gradient (s⁻¹)
 (P) = Power input to the mixer (W)
 (\mu) = Dynamic viscosity of water (Pa·s)
 (V) = Volume of the tank (m³)
 Types of Flocculators:
 Mechanical Flocculators: Paddles or turbines rotating at
slow speeds. Can have multiple compartments with
decreasing mixing intensity.
 Baffled Flocculators: Series of over-and-under or
around-baffles in a tank that create gentle mixing as
water flows through.
 Tank Configuration: Can be horizontal flow, vertical flow, or
circular.
  Prevention of Short-Circuiting: Design should ensure plug flow
or minimize dead zones.
 Sludge Recirculation (Optional): Recycling settled floc back to
the flocculation basin can enhance floc formation.
 Clarifiers: These are combination units that integrate flocculation and
sedimentation in a single tank. Common types include:
o Conventional Clarifiers: Separate flocculation basin followed by a
sedimentation basin.
o Solids-Contact Clarifiers (Upflow Clarifiers): Raw water, coagulants,
and recirculated sludge are mixed in a reaction zone, and the flow
then moves upward through a sludge blanket, which acts as a filter.
Settled solids are collected at the bottom.
o Plate Settlers and Tube Settlers: Inclined plates or tubes are installed
in sedimentation tanks to increase the settling surface area and
reduce settling distance, improving efficiency and allowing for
smaller tank sizes.
 Jar Test: A laboratory procedure used to determine the optimal coagulant
dose and pH for water treatment. It involves:

1. Preparing several beakers containing raw water samples.

2. Adding varying doses of coagulant and adjusting pH in each beaker.
3. Rapid mixing to simulate flash mixing.
4. Slow stirring to simulate flocculation.
5. Allowing the flocs to settle.
6. Observing the floc formation, settling characteristics, and clarity of
the supernatant to determine the optimal conditions.

6.4.2 Disinfection: Purposes and Significance of Disinfection;

Physical Methods; Chemical Methods; Chlorination; Kinetics;
Types of Chlorine; Forms of Chlorination; Factors Affecting
Efficiency of Chlorination

 Purposes and Significance of Disinfection: Disinfection is the critical step in

water treatment aimed at inactivating or killing pathogenic microorganisms
(bacteria, viruses, protozoa) that may still be present after other treatment
processes. This is essential to prevent the transmission of waterborne
diseases and ensure public health.
 Physical Methods:
 o Boiling: Heating water to a rolling boil for at least one minute (longer
at high altitudes) effectively kills most pathogenic bacteria and
viruses. Used for emergency disinfection or in individual households.
o Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation: Exposing water to UV light at a specific
wavelength (typically 254 nm) damages the DNA of microorganisms,
preventing them from reproducing. Effective against bacteria and
viruses but less so against some protozoan cysts. Requires clear, low-
turbidity water for effective penetration. No residual disinfectant is
provided.
 Chemical Methods:
o Halogens:
 Chlorine (Cl₂): The most widely used disinfectant due to its
effectiveness, residual disinfecting capability, and relatively
low cost. Discussed in detail below.
 Chlorine Dioxide (ClO₂): A strong disinfectant effective against
a wider range of microorganisms than chlorine, including
Cryptosporidium and Giardia. Produces fewer disinfection
byproducts (DBPs) than chlorine but does not provide a long-
lasting residual.
 Bromine (Br₂): Less commonly used than chlorine, but can be
effective in specific applications.
 Iodine (I₂): Used for emergency disinfection (e.g., in tablets)
but can have taste and health concerns with long-term use.
o Ozone (O₃): A powerful oxidant and disinfectant. Highly effective
against bacteria, viruses, and protozoa, and can also help with taste
and odor control. It decomposes rapidly and does not provide a
persistent residual disinfectant. Generated on-site using UV light or
electrical discharge.
o Potassium Permanganate (KMnO₄): A strong oxidizing agent used for
disinfection of some bacteria and viruses, as well as for iron and
manganese removal and taste and odor control. Can impart a pink
color to water if overdosed.
o Silver (Ag): Silver ions have disinfectant properties and are
sometimes used in point-of-use filters or disinfection devices.
 Chlorination (Theory, Chlorine Demand, Dose, Residual Chlorine, and
Contact Time):
 o Theory: When chlorine is added to water, it hydrolyzes to form
hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite ion (OCl⁻). HOCl is the
more potent disinfectant. The equilibrium between these species is
pH-dependent (HOCl predominates at lower pH). Cl2+H2
The⇌HOCl+H++Cl− HOCl⇌H++OCl−
o Chlorine Demand: The amount of chlorine that is consumed by
reacting with organic matter, inorganic substances (e.g., iron,
manganese, sulfides), and ammonia in the water before a residual
disinfectant is established.
o Chlorine Dose: The total amount of chlorine added to the water.
o Residual Chlorine: The concentration of chlorine remaining in the
water after the chlorine demand has been satisfied and a sufficient
contact time has elapsed. It provides ongoing protection against
recontamination in the distribution system. Can be free chlorine
(HOCl and OCl⁻) or combined chlorine (chloramines).
o Contact Time: The time that chlorine is in contact with the water to
allow for adequate disinfection. Effectiveness depends on chlorine
concentration, pH, temperature, and the susceptibility of the target
microorganisms. Typically specified as a CT value (Concentration ×
Time).
 Kinetics (Chick's Law): Describes the rate of microbial inactivation by a
disinfectant. It states that the rate of kill is proportional to the
concentration of the disinfectant and the number of surviving organisms.
dtdN=−kCN Where: * (N) = Number of surviving microorganisms * (t) =
Contact time * (k) = Specific rate constant (dependent on disinfectant and
microorganism) * (C) = Concentration of the disinfectant
o Integrated form (for a given contact time (T)): ln(N0Nt)=−kCT Where:
 (N_0) = Initial number of microorganisms
 (N_t) = Number of surviving microorganisms after time (T)
 Types of Chlorine:
o Hypochlorites:
 Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl) (Liquid Bleach): A common and
relatively inexpensive form of chlorine, typically available in
solutions.
 Calcium Hypochlorite (Ca(OCl)₂) (Solid Granules or Tablets):
More stable than liquid hypochlorite and often used for
disinfection of swimming pools and smaller water systems.
 o Chloramines (NH₂Cl, NHCl₂, NCl₃): Formed by the reaction of chlorine
with ammonia. They are weaker disinfectants than free chlorine but
provide a more persistent residual and produce fewer DBPs.
Commonly used for maintaining residual in distribution systems.
HOCl+NH3→NH2Cl+H2O (Monochloramine)
o Liquid/Gas Chlorine (Cl₂): Pure chlorine gas is highly concentrated
and requires specialized handling and feeding equipment. Used in
larger water treatment plants. Forms hypochlorous acid when
dissolved in water.
 Forms of Chlorination:
o Plain Chlorination: Application of chlorine to raw water without any
prior treatment (generally not recommended for turbid or organically
rich waters).
o Pre-chlorination: Application of chlorine to raw water before
sedimentation and filtration. Can help with algae control, taste and
odor control, and reducing biofouling in treatment units. May
increase DBP formation if high organic matter is present.
o Post-chlorination: Application of chlorine to filtered water before
distribution to provide disinfection and maintain a residual. This is
the most common point of chlorination.
o Double Chlorination: Application of chlorine at two points in the
treatment process (e.g., pre- and post-chlorination).
o Breakpoint Chlorination: The process of adding chlorine to water
until a point is reached where all reducing substances and ammonia
have been oxidized, and further addition of chlorine results in a free
chlorine residual. This ensures effective disinfection. The breakpoint
curve typically shows increasing combined residual, then a dip as
chloramines are destroyed, followed by an increase in free residual.
o Superchlorination: Applying a high dose of chlorine to achieve rapid
disinfection, followed by dechlorination (removal of excess chlorine)
before distribution. Used for heavily contaminated waters or for
taste and odor control.
 Factors Affecting Efficiency of Chlorination:
o Chlorine Concentration: Higher concentrations lead to faster
inactivation.
o Contact Time: Longer contact times improve disinfection.
 o pH: Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is a more effective disinfectant than
hypochlorite ion (OCl⁻), and HOCl predominates at lower pH.
o Temperature: Higher temperatures generally increase the rate of
disinfection.
o Turbidity and Suspended Solids: Can shield microorganisms from
chlorine. Effective pretreatment (sedimentation and filtration) is
essential.
o Organic Matter: Reacts with chlorine, reducing the available
disinfectant and potentially forming DBPs.
o Type of Microorganism: Different microorganisms have varying
sensitivities to chlorine (e.g., viruses and protozoan cysts are more
resistant than many bacteria).
o Interfering Substances: Reducing agents like sulfides and nitrites can
consume chlorine.

6.4.3 Softening: Purposes; Removal of Temporary Hardness;

Removal of Permanent Hardness; Demineralization and
Deionization Process

 Purposes of Softening: To reduce the concentration of hardness-causing

ions (primarily calcium and magnesium) in water to prevent:
o Scale formation in pipes, boilers, and water heaters.
o Reduced effectiveness of soap and detergents.
o Scum formation in bathtubs and sinks.
o Potential taste issues (very hard water can be less palatable).
 Removal of Temporary Hardness (Carbonate Hardness): Caused by
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. Can be removed by:
o Boiling: Heating water causes the bicarbonates to decompose and
precipitate as insoluble carbonates. Ca(HCOr3)2(aq)DCtoCOr3(s)+H2
O(l)+COr2(g) Mg(HCOr3)2(aq)DMg(OH)2(s)+2COr2(g)
o Lime Treatment (Calcium Hydroxide - Ca(OH)₂): Lime reacts with
calcium bicarbonate to form insoluble calcium carbonate. Ca(HCO3)2
(aq)+Ca(OH)2(s)→2CaCO3(s)+2H2O(l) Magnesium bicarbonate reacts
with lime to form magnesium hydroxide precipitate, requiring more
lime. Mg(HCO3)2(aq)+Ca(OH)2(s)→MgCO3(s)+CaCO3(s)+2H2O(l)
MgCO3(s)+Ca(OH)2(s)→Mg(OH)2(s)+CaCO3(s)
  Removal of Permanent Hardness (Non-Carbonate Hardness): Caused by
sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates of calcium and magnesium. Requires
chemical treatment:
o Lime-Soda Process (Calcium Hydroxide and Sodium Carbonate -
Na₂CO₃): Lime removes carbonate hardness and converts some
magnesium salts to precipitates. Soda ash then reacts with the
remaining calcium and magnesium non-carbonate hardness to form
insoluble carbonates. CaSO4(aq)+Na2CO3(s)→CaCO3(s)+Na2SO4(aq)
MgCl2(aq)+Ca(OH)2(s)→Mg(OH)2(s)+CaCl2(aq) CaCl2(aq)+Na2CO3
(s)→CaCO3(s)+2NaCl(aq)
o Zeolite (Ion Exchange) Process: Water is passed through a bed of
natural or synthetic zeolites (aluminosilicates) that exchange calcium
and magnesium ions for sodium ions. The zeolite bed is periodically
regenerated by passing a concentrated sodium chloride (brine)
solution through it. Na2Ze+Ca2+⇌CaZe+2Na+ Na2
Ze+Mg2+⇌MgZe+2Na+ Regeneration: CtoZand+2Na+→Na2Ze+Ca2+
MgZe+2Na+→Na2Ze+Mg2+
 Demineralization and Deionization Process: These processes aim to
remove virtually all dissolved minerals (both cations and anions), producing
high-purity water for industrial uses (e.g., boiler feed water, electronics
manufacturing).
o Ion Exchange: Uses both cation and anion exchange resins. Cation
exchange resins replace positively charged ions (Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺)
with hydrogen ions (H⁺). Anion exchange resins replace negatively
charged ions (SO₄²⁻, Cl⁻, NO₃⁻, HCO₃⁻) with hydroxide ions (OH⁻). The
H⁺ and OH⁻ ions combine to form pure water (H₂O). Cation Exchange:
(R^-H^+ + M^{n+} \rightleftharpoons R^-M^{n+} + nH^+) Anion
Exchange: (R^+OH^- + A^{n-} \

. (R^+A^{n-} + nOH^-) * Reverse Osmosis (RO): Uses a semi-permeable

membrane and high pressure to force water molecules through while rejecting
dissolved ions and other contaminants. Can remove up to 99% of dissolved salts. *
Electrodialysis (ED) and Electrodialysis Reversal (EDR): Use an electric field
to drive ions through semi-permeable membranes, separating salts from water.
EDR periodically reverses the polarity to reduce membrane fouling.

6.5 Advanced Water Treatment Processes (Brief introduction, impurities

removal, and removal mechanism)
Advanced water treatment processes are used to remove specific contaminants that
are not effectively removed by conventional treatment methods or to achieve
higher water quality standards.

6.5.1 Removal of Heavy Metals (Iron, Arsenic, and Manganese)

 Iron (Fe) and Manganese (Mn):

o Impurities Removed: Dissolved iron and manganese, which can
cause staining (reddish-brown for iron, blackish for manganese),
taste and odor problems, and deposits in distribution systems.
o Removal Mechanism: Oxidation to insoluble forms followed by
precipitation and filtration.
 Aeration: For lower concentrations, oxidation by dissolved
oxygen in air.
 Chemical Oxidation: Using oxidants like chlorine, potassium
permanganate, or chlorine dioxide.
 Ion Exchange: Iron and manganese can be removed by cation
exchange resins.
 Adsorption: Specialized adsorbents can remove iron and
manganese.
 Arsenic (As):
o Impurity Removed: Arsenic, a toxic heavy metal that can occur
naturally in groundwater or due to contamination. Chronic exposure
can cause various health problems, including cancer.
o Removal Mechanism:
 Coagulation and Filtration: Ferric chloride coagulation is often
effective in removing arsenic (especially arsenate As(V)).
 Adsorption: Activated alumina, granular ferric hydroxide
(GFH), and other specialized adsorbents have a high affinity for
arsenic.
 Ion Exchange: Anion exchange resins can remove arsenate.
 Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Nanofiltration (NF): Membrane
processes can effectively remove arsenic.
6.5.2 Removal of Color, Odor, and Taste

 Impurities Removed: Dissolved organic matter (humic substances), algae

metabolites (e.g., geosmin, 2-MIB), industrial chemicals, and disinfection
byproducts precursors.
 Removal Mechanism:
o Adsorption: Activated carbon (powdered or granular) is highly
effective in adsorbing a wide range of organic compounds causing
color, odor, and taste.
o Oxidation: Ozonation and chlorine dioxide can oxidize some organic
compounds, reducing color and odor.
o Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs): Can break down complex
organic molecules responsible for color and odor.
o Membrane Filtration (NF/RO): Can remove larger organic molecules
causing color and some taste/odor compounds.
o Biological Treatment: Biofilters can remove some taste and odor-
causing compounds.

6.5.3 Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs)

 Brief Introduction: AOPs are a set of powerful oxidation processes that

generate highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (•OH) to oxidize and degrade a
wide range of persistent organic pollutants (PPCPs, EDCs, pesticides),
disinfection byproduct precursors, and other micropollutants.
 Impurities Removed: Refractory organic compounds, micropollutants,
some inorganic contaminants.
 Removal Mechanism: Generation of hydroxyl radicals (•OH), a strong non-
selective oxidant that reacts rapidly with most organic compounds through
various pathways (e.g., hydrogen abstraction, addition to double bonds,
electron transfer), leading to their mineralization (conversion to CO₂, H₂O,
and inorganic ions) or transformation into less harmful byproducts.
 Examples:
o O₃/H₂O₂ (Peroxone): Ozone combined with hydrogen peroxide.
o UV/H₂O₂: Ultraviolet radiation combined with hydrogen peroxide.
o UV/O₃: Ultraviolet radiation combined with ozone.
o Fenton's Reagent (Fe²⁺/H₂O₂): Ferrous iron catalyst with hydrogen
peroxide.
 o TiO₂ Photocatalysis (UV/TiO₂): Ultraviolet radiation in the presence
of titanium dioxide catalyst.

6.5.4 Membrane Filters (Ultrafiltration, Nanofiltration, Reverse

Osmosis)

 Brief Introduction: Membrane filtration processes use semi-permeable

membranes to separate contaminants from water based on size exclusion
and/or charge interactions.
 Impurities Removed and Removal Mechanism:
o Ultrafiltration (UF): Pore size 0.01-0.1 µm. Removes suspended
solids, colloidal matter, bacteria, viruses, and some large organic
molecules. Mechanism: Size exclusion (sieving).
o Nanofiltration (NF): Pore size 0.001-0.01 µm. Removes multivalent
ions (hardness, sulfates), some heavy metals, and larger organic
molecules (pesticides, DBPs precursors). Mechanism: Size exclusion
and charge effects.
o Reverse Osmosis (RO): Pore size < 0.001 µm. Removes almost all
dissolved salts, heavy metals, organic compounds, and
microorganisms. Mechanism: Diffusion driven by a pressure gradient
overcoming osmotic pressure.

6.5.5 Desalination and Electrodialysis

 Desalination: Processes used to remove dissolved salts from seawater or

brackish water to produce freshwater.
o Reverse Osmosis (RO): The most common desalination technology,
as described above.
o Thermal Desalination (e.g., Multi-Stage Flash Distillation - MSF,
Multi-Effect Distillation - MED): Involves heating seawater to
produce steam, which is then condensed to form freshwater.
Primarily used in regions with abundant energy resources.
 Electrodialysis (ED) and Electrodialysis Reversal (EDR):
o Brief Introduction: Electrochemical separation processes that use an
electric field to transport ions through semi-permeable ion-exchange
membranes, separating salts from water.
o Impurities Removed: Dissolved salts (fluoride, nitrates, salinity).
 o Removal Mechanism: Selective migration of cations through cation-
exchange membranes and anions through anion-exchange
membranes under the influence of an electric field, resulting in the
concentration of salts in concentrate streams and the production of
desalinated water in dilute streams. EDR periodically reverses the
polarity to reduce membrane fouling.

6.5.6 Ozonation

 Brief Introduction: The use of ozone (O₃), a powerful oxidant, for

disinfection and oxidation of various contaminants.
 Impurities Removed: Pathogenic microorganisms (bacteria, viruses,
protozoa), taste and odor-causing compounds, color, iron, manganese,
some synthetic organic chemicals, disinfection byproduct precursors.
 Removal Mechanism: Ozone is a strong oxidizing agent that disrupts the
cellular processes of microorganisms and reacts with various organic and
inorganic compounds through direct oxidation and the formation of free
radicals.

6.5.7 Adsorption: Activated Carbon

 Brief Introduction: The use of activated carbon, a highly porous material

with a large surface area, to adsorb impurities from water.
 Impurities Removed: Dissolved organic compounds causing taste, odor,
and color, synthetic organic chemicals (pesticides, solvents), disinfection
byproducts (DBPs), and some heavy metals.
 Removal Mechanism: Physical adsorption of contaminants onto the surface
of the activated carbon material due to Van der Waals forces and
hydrophobic interactions. Can be used in powdered activated carbon (PAC)
form, added directly to the water, or in granular activated carbon (GAC)
columns through which water flows.

These advanced treatment processes play an increasingly important role in

addressing emerging contaminants and achieving high-quality drinking water,
especially when conventional treatment is insufficient. The selection of appropriate
advanced treatment depends on the specific contaminants present in the source
water and the desired water quality goals.
Reservoirs and Distribution System

Once water has been treated to meet the required quality standards, it needs to be
stored and then distributed to the consumers through a network of pipes.
Reservoirs play a vital role in storage and system regulation, while the distribution
system ensures efficient delivery.

7.1 Water Supply Systems (Continuous and Intermittent System)

Water supply systems can be broadly classified based on the duration of water
supply:

 Continuous System: Water is supplied to consumers 24 hours a day, 7 days

a week. This is the ideal and most desirable system as it provides
convenience, meets all demands at any time, and reduces the risk of
contamination due to pressure maintenance in the pipes. However, it
requires a reliable source, adequate treatment capacity, sufficient storage,
and a well-designed distribution network.
 Intermittent System: Water is supplied for a limited number of hours per
day (e.g., a few hours in the morning and evening). This system is often
adopted in areas with water scarcity, inadequate infrastructure, or
unreliable power supply. While it conserves water in some ways, it can lead
to several problems:
o Inconvenience to Consumers: Water availability is restricted to
specific times.
o Storage at Consumer End: Households need to store water,
increasing the risk of contamination if storage is improper.
o Negative Pressure and Contamination: When the system is off,
negative pressure can develop in the pipes, leading to the suction of
contaminated groundwater or sewage if leaks exist.
o Unequal Distribution: Consumers at higher elevations or at the end
of the network may receive less or no water.
o Higher Peak Demand: Consumers tend to draw large quantities of
water during supply hours, leading to higher peak demands on the
system.

7.2 Clear Water Reservoir

A clear water reservoir (CWR), also known as a treated water reservoir, is a
storage tank located after the water treatment plant and before the distribution
system.

 Purpose:
o Equalizing Storage: It helps to balance the fluctuating demand of the
consumers with the relatively constant rate of water supply from the
treatment plant. Water is stored during periods of low demand (e.g.,
night) and supplied during periods of high demand (e.g., morning and
evening).
o Emergency Storage: It provides a reserve of treated water to meet
demands during emergencies such as power failures at the treatment
plant, breakdowns in the treatment process, or short-term source
failures.
o Operational Storage: It provides the necessary head for gravity flow
into the distribution system and ensures adequate pressure.
o Contact Time for Disinfection: In some cases, it provides additional
contact time for the disinfectant to ensure complete inactivation of
pathogens.
 Location: Ideally located close to the treatment plant and at a sufficient
elevation to provide gravity flow to the service reservoirs or the distribution
network.
 Construction: Typically constructed from reinforced concrete (RCC) or steel.
They are usually covered to prevent contamination and algal growth.
 Components:
o Inlet Pipe: To receive treated water from the treatment plant.
o Outlet Pipe: To supply water to the distribution system or service
reservoirs.
o Overflow Pipe: To discharge excess water and prevent overfilling.
o Drain Pipe: To empty the reservoir for cleaning and maintenance.
o Ventilation Pipe: To allow air circulation and prevent pressure
buildup.
o Access Manhole: For inspection and cleaning.
o Water Level Indicator: To monitor the water level in the reservoir.

7.3 Service Reservoir (Purpose, Construction, Types, and Design

Consideration)
Service reservoirs (SRs), also known as distribution reservoirs or elevated storage
tanks (ESTs) if elevated, are storage tanks located within the distribution system,
closer to the consumption areas.

 Purpose:
o Equalizing Storage: Similar to CWR, they help meet fluctuations in
demand within their service zones.
o Pressure Regulation: They maintain adequate and relatively uniform
pressure in the distribution network within their service area,
especially in hilly terrains or areas with significant elevation
differences.
o Emergency Storage: They provide a local reserve of water for
emergencies like fires or temporary disruptions in the supply from
the CWR.
o Improved System Operation: They can help optimize pumping
schedules and reduce energy costs by allowing pumps to operate at
more constant rates.
 Construction: Similar materials as CWR (RCC or steel). Elevated storage
tanks are supported by towers or structures. Ground-level service
reservoirs are built at strategic locations.
 Types:
o Ground-Level Reservoirs: Located at ground level or slightly below,
often used in relatively flat areas or as terminal storage. Rely on
pumping for distribution pressure.
o Elevated Storage Tanks (ESTs) or Overhead Tanks: Supported on
towers at a sufficient height to provide the required pressure by
gravity to the service area. Particularly useful in hilly areas or for
maintaining pressure in large distribution networks.
o Hydro-pneumatic Tanks: Use compressed air to maintain pressure in
smaller systems or for boosting pressure. Less common for large
municipal supplies.
 Design Considerations:
o Storage Capacity: Determined based on factors like:
 Equalizing Storage: To balance hourly demand variations.
Typically calculated based on peak hour demand and average
daily demand.
 Fire Reserve: Volume required to meet firefighting demand for
a specified duration.
  Emergency Reserve: Volume to cover supply interruptions
(e.g., a few hours of average demand).
 Total Capacity = Equalizing Storage + Fire Reserve +
Emergency Reserve.
o Location: Strategically located to serve the intended population,
maintain adequate pressure, and minimize head losses in the
distribution network. Consider topography, land availability, and
future expansion.
o Elevation: Sufficient height (for ESTs) or ground elevation (for
ground-level SRs) to provide the required pressure in the service
area. Pressure should be within acceptable limits (typically 15-60 psi
or 100-400 kPa).
o Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL): The elevation to which water would rise
in a piezometer connected to the distribution system. The SR's water
level determines the HGL in its service area.
o Inlet and Outlet Arrangements: Designed to ensure proper mixing
and prevent short-circuiting. Often a single pipe serves as both inlet
and outlet with appropriate controls. Separate inlet and outlet pipes
can also be used.
o Materials of Construction: Durable and non-corrosive materials
suitable for potable water.
o Structural Design: Safe and stable design to withstand water
pressure, wind loads (for ESTs), seismic forces, and soil pressure (for
ground-level SRs).
o Appurtenances: Similar to CWR (overflow, drain, vent, access, level
indicator).
o Security: Protection against vandalism and contamination.

7.4 Types of Distribution System and Layout

The distribution system is the network of pipes that carries treated water from the
reservoirs to the consumers. The layout of this network significantly affects the
efficiency, reliability, and pressure regulation of the system. Common layouts
include:

 Tree System (Dead-End System): A main supply line runs through the area,
with smaller branch lines extending from it to serve individual streets or
blocks.
 o Advantages: Simpler design and calculation, relatively less expensive
initially.
o Disadvantages: Dead ends can lead to stagnation of water, sediment
accumulation, and increased risk of contamination. Pressure can be
low at the ends of branches. Water supply disruption in the main line
affects the entire downstream area. Fire flow availability may be
limited.
 Grid System (Interconnected System or Reticulation System): The
distribution network consists of interconnected pipes forming a grid or
mesh. Multiple pathways exist for water to reach any point.
o Advantages: More reliable as water can reach any point from
multiple directions. Better pressure distribution, reduced stagnation,
and better fire flow availability. Easier maintenance as sections can
be isolated without disrupting the entire supply.
o Disadvantages: More complex design and analysis, higher initial cost
due to more piping and valves.
 Ring System (Circular System): A main loop or ring of pipes encircles the
service area, with branch lines extending inwards to supply water. It's a
variation of the grid system.
o Advantages: Similar to the grid system, providing better pressure
distribution and reliability compared to the tree system. Easier to
analyze than a fully gridded system.
o Disadvantages: Higher cost than the tree system.
 Radial System: The service area is divided into zones, and water is supplied
to each zone from a central distribution reservoir or pumping station
through a series of radial pipes.
o Advantages: Simple design and calculation for each zone. Efficient
water delivery to the zones.
o Disadvantages: Failure of the main supply line to a zone can isolate
that zone. Pressure can drop significantly at the periphery of the
radial network.

The choice of layout depends on factors like the topography of the area, the pattern
of development, population density, and economic considerations. Modern urban
areas often employ a combination of grid and ring systems to maximize reliability
and efficiency.
7.5 Smart Water Distribution: Concept of District Metering Areas (DMAs)
and Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

Modern water distribution systems are increasingly incorporating smart

technologies for better management and efficiency. Two key concepts are:

 District Metering Areas (DMAs): A DMA is a discrete zone within a water

distribution network that is hydraulically isolated from other zones. The
flow of water into and out of the DMA is monitored using strategically
placed flow meters.
o Benefits:
 Leakage Detection and Management: By monitoring the
inflow and outflow in a DMA, unaccounted-for water (UAW)
due to leaks can be identified and quantified more easily. This
allows for targeted leak detection and repair efforts.
 Pressure Management: Pressure can be optimized within each
DMA to reduce leakage and energy consumption.
 Improved Hydraulic Modeling: DMAs provide valuable data
for calibrating and improving the accuracy of hydraulic models
of the distribution network.
 Enhanced Operational Control: Easier to isolate and manage
pressure and flow during maintenance or emergencies within a
specific DMA.
 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA): A computer-based
system used to monitor and control the various components of a water
supply system, including sources, treatment plants, reservoirs, pumping
stations, and the distribution network.
o Components:
 Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) or Programmable Logic
Controllers (PLCs): Installed at remote locations to collect data
from sensors and control equipment.
 Communication Network: Transmits data between the
RTUs/PLCs and the central control station.
 Master Station (Central Control Room): A computer system
with software that displays real-time data, allows operators to
monitor system performance, and issue control commands.
o Benefits:
  Real-time Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of water levels,
flows, pressures, pump status, and water quality parameters.
 Remote Control: Ability to start/stop pumps, open/close
valves, and adjust treatment processes from a central location.
 Data Logging and Analysis: Collection and storage of
operational data for analysis, reporting, and optimization.
 Alarm Management: Automatic detection and notification of
system anomalies or failures.
 Improved Efficiency and Reduced Costs: Optimization of
pumping schedules, early detection of leaks, and better
management of resources.
 Enhanced Reliability and Security: Faster response to
emergencies and improved overall system stability.

7.6 Design of Distribution System (Pipe Hydraulics for Branched and Looped
Networks, Design Criteria, and Design Steps)

Designing a water distribution system involves determining the appropriate pipe

sizes to deliver the required flow rates at adequate pressures throughout the
network. This requires understanding pipe hydraulics and applying design criteria.

 Pipe Hydraulics: The flow of water in pipes is governed by hydraulic

principles that relate flow rate, pipe diameter, length, roughness, and head
loss. Key equations include:
o Continuity Equation: (Q = AV), where (Q) is the flow rate, (A) is the
cross-sectional area of the pipe, and (V) is the velocity of flow.
o Head Loss Equations: These equations estimate the energy loss
(head loss) due to friction as water flows through a pipe. Common
equations include:
 Hazen-Williams Equation: Empirically derived and widely used
for water distribution system design. hf
=C1.85⋅D4.8710.67⋅L⋅Q1.85 Where:
 (h_f) = Head loss due to friction (m)
 (L) = Length of the pipe (m)
 (Q) = Flow rate (m³/s)
 (C) = Hazen-Williams roughness coefficient (depends on
pipe material and age)
 (D) = Diameter of the pipe (m)
  Darcy-Weisbach Equation: More theoretically based and
considered more accurate over a wider range of flow
conditions and fluids. Requires the determination of the
friction factor (f), which depends on the Reynolds number and
the relative roughness of the pipe. hf=f⋅DL⋅2gV2 Where:
 (f) = Darcy-Weisbach friction factor (dimensionless)
 (g) = Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)
o Energy Equation (Bernoulli's Equation): Considers the conservation
of energy in a fluid flow, relating pressure head, velocity head, and
elevation head.

 Design Criteria:
o Demand Requirements: The system must be able to meet the peak
water demand in all parts of the service area.
o Pressure Requirements: Adequate pressure must be maintained at
all consumer connections, especially during peak demand and fire
flow conditions. Minimum pressures are typically specified (e.g., 15-
20 psi under peak demand, higher during fire flow). Maximum
pressures should also be limited to prevent excessive leakage and
damage to plumbing fixtures (e.g., 60-80 psi).
o Velocity Limits: Flow velocities in pipes should be within acceptable
ranges to minimize head loss, prevent erosion, and avoid water
hammer (sudden pressure surges). Typical velocities are between 0.6
to 3 m/s.
o Fire Flow Requirements: The system must be capable of delivering
the required fire flow rate at adequate pressure for firefighting
purposes, as specified by local fire codes.
o Reliability and Redundancy: Looped or gridded systems are
preferred for increased reliability.
o Water Quality: Design should minimize stagnation and prevent
contamination.
o Cost-Effectiveness: Balancing the cost of pipes and pumping with the
need to meet hydraulic requirements.
o Future Expansion: The design should consider future population
growth and expansion of the service area.

 Design Steps:
 1. Determine the service area and population distribution.
2. Estimate the water demand (average and peak) for different zones.
3. Develop a layout of the distribution network (tree, grid, ring, or
radial).
4. Identify critical points in the network (high elevations, far ends).
5. Assume initial pipe diameters.
6. Analyze the flow and pressure in the network under various
demand scenarios (e.g., peak hour, fire flow).
 Branched Networks (Tree System): Can be analyzed using
straightforward hydraulic calculations based on flow continuity
and head loss along each branch.
 Looped Networks (Grid and Ring Systems): Require more
complex analysis techniques to determine the flow distribution
in the loops. Common methods include:
 Hardy Cross Method: An iterative method that adjusts
assumed flows in the loops until head loss around each
loop sums to zero.
 Newton-Raphson Method: A more advanced iterative
method used in computer software.
 Linear Programming: Optimization techniques can be
used for large networks.
7. Check if the pressure and velocity criteria are met at all points in
the network.
8. Adjust pipe diameters as necessary to satisfy the design criteria and
optimize costs. Larger diameters reduce head loss but increase cost.
9. Consider the location and sizing of pumps (if needed) and service
reservoirs.
10. Design appurtenances such as valves, hydrants, and air release
valves.
11. Prepare detailed plans and specifications for construction.

7.7 Water Supply Systems for Buildings (Hydraulic Considerations)

Water supply systems within buildings involve distributing water from the
municipal main or a local source to various fixtures and appliances. Hydraulic
considerations include:
  Demand Estimation: Determining the water demand for different fixtures
(e.g., faucets, showers, toilets, washing machines) based on usage patterns
and flow rates. Peak demand within the building needs to be estimated.
 Pressure Requirements: Ensuring adequate pressure at each fixture to
provide satisfactory flow rates. Minimum pressures are typically specified in
plumbing codes.
 Head Loss in Pipes and Fittings: Calculating head losses due to friction in
pipes (using Hazen-Williams or Darcy-Weisbach) and minor losses due to
fittings (elbows, tees, valves).
 Pipe Sizing: Selecting appropriate pipe diameters within the building to
deliver the required flows at adequate pressures while minimizing head
loss and noise. Plumbing codes often provide guidelines based on fixture
units or flow rates.
 Pumping Systems (if needed): For tall buildings or situations with
insufficient pressure from the main supply, booster pumps may be required
to lift water to upper floors and maintain adequate pressure.
 Storage Tanks (Overhead or Underground): May be used to provide
storage within the building, especially in intermittent supply areas or for
fire suppression systems.
 Water Hammer: Designing the system to minimize the effects of sudden
valve closures or pump shutdowns that can cause pressure surges. Air
chambers or surge arrestors may be needed.
 Backflow Prevention: Implementing measures (e.g., check valves, air gaps)
to prevent contaminated water from

 EPANET: Developed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA),

EPANET is a free, public domain software widely used for modeling water
distribution systems.

 Key Features:
o Performs extended-period simulation of hydraulic and water quality
behavior in pressurized pipe networks.
o Models pipes, nodes (junctions), pumps, valves, storage tanks, and
reservoirs.
o Tracks flow, pressure, water level in tanks, and concentration of
chemical species over time.
o Simulates water age and source tracing.
o Calculates head losses using Hazen-Williams, Darcy-Weisbach, and
Chezy-Manning equations.
 o Models various types of pumps and valves.
o Allows for time-varying demands and complex control rules.
o Water quality modeling capabilities include simulating the movement
and reaction of constituents, water age, and source tracing.
o User-friendly graphical interface for network creation and analysis.
o Output visualization tools like color-coded maps, graphs, and tables.
o EPANET's input file format (.inp) is widely supported by other
commercial software.
 Limitations: The software has not been significantly updated since 2008,
and it lacks direct GIS integration and advanced optimization tools found in
commercial alternatives.

 WaterGEMS: Developed by Bentley Systems, WaterGEMS is a commercial

software for hydraulic and water quality modeling. It builds upon the capabilities
of EPANET and offers advanced features for comprehensive water distribution
system analysis and optimization.

 Key Features (in addition to EPANET's):

o Seamless integration with GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and
CAD (Computer-Aided Design) platforms like ArcGIS and
MicroStation.
o Advanced model-building tools for efficient network creation from
various data sources.
o Sophisticated demand allocation tools (e.g., LoadBuilder, TRex).
o Built-in optimization engines (e.g., Darwin Calibrator for automated
model calibration, Darwin Designer for optimal design and
rehabilitation, Darwin Scheduler for pump scheduling).
o Real-time simulation capabilities through SCADA (Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition) integration.
o Advanced scenario management for evaluating various operational
and design alternatives.
o Tools for energy cost analysis and management.
o Leakage detection and management tools.
o Pipe criticality assessment and flushing analysis.
o Comprehensive reporting and visualization options.

 WaterCAD: Also developed by Bentley Systems, WaterCAD is another

commercial software focused on hydraulic modeling of water distribution
systems. It shares many features with WaterGEMS but is often positioned as a
more streamlined and user-friendly option for core hydraulic analysis tasks.
  Key Features (similar to WaterGEMS but may have differences in
advanced optimization and integration capabilities):
o Intuitive interface for model building and analysis.
o Hydraulic analysis including steady-state, extended-period simulation,
and fire flow analysis.
o Water quality analysis (constituent, water age, source tracing).
o Scenario management for comparing different operating conditions.
o Integration with CAD platforms (e.g., AutoCAD, MicroStation) and
GIS.
o Tools for energy management and pump analysis.
o Fire flow analysis navigator.

 WaterCAOs: This term might be a more general reference to Computer-Aided

Operations software for water networks. It could encompass a broader range of
tools that go beyond just design and hydraulic modeling to include operational
aspects like scheduling, control, and management. Software like WaterGEMS with
its SCADA integration and optimization tools could fall under this category. There
might not be a single specific software widely known as "WaterCAOs" but rather a
category of software addressing operational needs.

8. Conveyance of Water

The conveyance of water involves transporting large quantities of treated water

over significant distances from the source or treatment plant to the distribution
system or service reservoirs. The mode of conveyance and the materials used for
pipes are critical for efficiency, reliability, and water quality maintenance.

8.1 Mode of Conveyance: Open Channel and Pressure Flow

Water can be conveyed through two primary modes:

 Open Channel Flow: Water flows under the influence of gravity with a free
surface exposed to the atmosphere.
o Examples: Canals, aqueducts (if not covered and under gravity flow).
o Characteristics:
 Flow is driven by the slope of the channel bed.
 Pressure at any point on the free surface is atmospheric.
 Design involves open channel hydraulics (Manning's equation,
Chezy's formula).
  Susceptible to evaporation, contamination, and algal growth if
not covered.
 Generally used for conveying large quantities of raw water
over long distances, especially where topography allows for
gravity flow. Less common for treated water due to
contamination risks.
 Pressure Flow (Pipe Flow): Water flows through closed conduits (pipes)
under pressure greater than atmospheric.
o Examples: Pipelines made of various materials (CI, GI, steel, plastic,
DI).
o Characteristics:
 Flow is driven by a pressure gradient.
 The entire cross-section of the pipe is filled with water.
 Design involves pipe hydraulics (Hazen-Williams, Darcy-
Weisbach equations).
 Protects water quality from contamination and evaporation.
 Can follow undulating terrain and requires pumping if gravity
head is insufficient.
 The primary mode of conveyance for treated water
distribution and transmission mains.

For treated water, pressure flow through pipelines is the dominant mode of
conveyance due to the need to maintain water quality and pressure for distribution.

8.2 Pipe Materials

The selection of pipe material is a critical decision that affects the lifespan, cost,
maintenance requirements, and water quality in the conveyance system.

8.2.1 Requirements of Good Pipe Material

A good pipe material for water conveyance should possess the following
characteristics:

 Strength and Durability: Must be able to withstand internal pressure,

external loads (soil pressure, traffic loads), and resist damage during
handling and installation. Should have a long service life.
  Corrosion Resistance: Should resist corrosion from the water being
conveyed and the surrounding soil environment to maintain structural
integrity and water quality.
 Water Quality Compatibility: Must be inert and not leach harmful
substances into the water, affecting its taste, odor, color, or safety. Should
not promote microbial growth.
 Hydraulic Efficiency: Should have a smooth internal surface to minimize
frictional head loss and maximize flow capacity. The roughness coefficient
(e.g., 'C' in Hazen-Williams) should remain relatively constant over time.
 Ease of Installation and Maintenance: Should be easy to handle, transport,
cut, join, and repair. Joints should be strong and leak-proof.
 Cost-Effectiveness: Should have a reasonable initial cost, considering its
lifespan, installation costs, and maintenance requirements.
 Availability and Sustainability: The material should be readily available and
preferably environmentally sustainable in terms of production and disposal.

8.2.2 Pipe Corrosion: Corrosion Mechanism and Protection

Corrosion is the deterioration of pipe material (usually metal) due to

electrochemical reactions with its environment (water or soil).

 Corrosion Mechanism:
o Electrochemical Process: Corrosion typically involves the formation
of anodic (where metal loss occurs) and cathodic (where reduction
reactions occur) areas on the pipe surface, creating an
electrochemical cell.
o Factors Influencing Corrosion:
 Water Quality: pH, dissolved oxygen, dissolved salts (chlorides,
sulfates), alkalinity, temperature, and the presence of
corrosive gases (e.g., CO₂, H₂S) can significantly affect
corrosion rates. Low pH (acidic water) is generally more
corrosive to metals. Dissolved oxygen can act as a cathodic
reactant.
 Pipe Material Properties: The type of metal, its purity, and any
protective coatings influence its susceptibility to corrosion.
 Soil Conditions: Soil resistivity, pH, moisture content, and the
presence of aggressive ions (e.g., chlorides, sulfates) affect
 external corrosion. Stray electrical currents in the ground can
also cause electrolytic corrosion.
 Biological Activity: Microorganisms (e.g., sulfate-reducing
bacteria, iron bacteria) can contribute to biocorrosion.
 Protection Methods:
o Protective Coatings: Applying inert barrier materials to the internal
and external surfaces of pipes to isolate the metal from the corrosive
environment. Examples include:
 Cement-Mortar Lining (CML): Commonly used for cast iron
and ductile iron pipes, providing both a physical barrier and
alkalinity that passivates the metal surface.
 Epoxy Coatings: Used internally and externally, offering
excellent chemical resistance.
 Polyurethane Coatings: Durable external coatings for
protection against soil corrosion.
 Polyethylene Encasement: Loose plastic wrapping around
buried pipes to create a protective barrier against soil
corrosion.
o Cathodic Protection (CP): An electrochemical technique to prevent
corrosion by making the entire metal surface cathodic. This can be
achieved by:
 Sacrificial Anodes: Connecting a more active metal (e.g.,
magnesium, zinc, aluminum) to the pipeline. These anodes
corrode preferentially, protecting the pipeline.
 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP): Using an
external DC power source to supply current to the pipeline,
making it cathodic relative to inert groundbeds.
o Material Selection: Choosing inherently corrosion-resistant materials
like plastics (PE, HDPE, PVC, PPR) or ductile iron with appropriate
coatings.
o Water Quality Control: Adjusting water pH, alkalinity, and dissolved
oxygen levels to reduce corrosivity. Adding corrosion inhibitors (e.g.,
phosphates, silicates) that form protective films on pipe surfaces.
o Proper Installation: Avoiding damage to coatings during installation
and ensuring proper bedding and backfilling of buried pipes.
 o Regular Inspection and Maintenance: Monitoring corrosion rates
and repairing damaged coatings or implementing additional
protection measures as needed.

8.2.3 Types of Pipe Material

A variety of materials are used for water conveyance pipes, each with its own
advantages and disadvantages:

 Cast Iron (CI):

o Characteristics: Historically used, strong and durable, but susceptible
to corrosion (internal tuberculation and external graphitization).
Heavy and brittle.
o Usage: Largely replaced by ductile iron for new installations but still
found in older systems. Often lined with cement mortar for
protection.
 Galvanized Iron (GI):
o Characteristics: Steel pipes coated with a layer of zinc for corrosion
protection. Relatively inexpensive and easy to work with.
o Usage: Commonly used for smaller diameter pipes in building
plumbing and sometimes for distribution lines in smaller
communities. Susceptible to internal corrosion over time, especially
with aggressive water.
 Steel:
o Characteristics: High strength and ductility, can withstand high
pressures. Susceptible to corrosion.
o Usage: Used for large diameter transmission mains, especially where
high pressures are involved. Requires effective internal and external
corrosion protection (coatings, cathodic protection). Can be joined by
welding or flanges.
 Polyethylene (PE):
o Characteristics: Flexible, lightweight, corrosion-resistant, good
hydraulic characteristics. Can be joined by heat fusion.
o Usage: Increasingly used for distribution lines, especially smaller
diameters. Resistant to many chemicals and soil conditions.
 High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE):
o Characteristics: Similar to PE but with higher density, strength, and
chemical resistance. More rigid than LDPE.
 o Usage: Widely used for water and gas pipelines, including larger
diameter transmission mains. Excellent corrosion resistance and long
lifespan.
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC):
o Characteristics: Rigid, lightweight, corrosion-resistant, relatively
inexpensive.
o Usage: Common for distribution lines, especially in smaller
diameters. Can be joined by solvent welding (gluing) or rubber
gasketed joints. Susceptible to UV degradation if not buried.
 Polypropylene Random Copolymer (PPR):
o Characteristics: Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, good thermal
properties, can be joined by heat fusion.
o Usage: Primarily used for hot and cold water plumbing inside
buildings. Less common for large distribution mains.
 Ductile Iron (DI):
o Characteristics: Combines the strength and pressure rating of steel
with the corrosion resistance of cast iron (especially with cement
mortar lining). More ductile and less brittle than traditional cast iron.
o Usage: The preferred material for many water distribution and
transmission mains due to its strength, durability, and corrosion
resistance when properly protected.

The choice of pipe material depends on factors such as:

 Diameter of the pipe: Larger diameters often favor steel or ductile iron for
strength.
 Operating pressure: Higher pressures require stronger materials like steel
or ductile iron.
 Water quality: Corrosive water may necessitate plastic or internally lined
metal pipes.
 Soil conditions: Aggressive soils require corrosion-resistant external
coatings or plastic pipes.
 Cost: Initial material cost, installation cost, and expected lifespan.
 Availability and local standards.

8.3 Pipe Joints: Purposes and Types

Pipe joints are used to connect individual pipe sections to form a continuous
pipeline. They must be strong, leak-proof, and able to withstand the internal
pressure and external loads.

 Purposes:
o To join pipe lengths together.
o To connect pipes to fittings (bends, tees, reducers) and valves.
o To allow for expansion and contraction due to temperature changes
or ground movement.
o To facilitate disassembly for maintenance or repairs.
 Types:
o Socket and Spigot Joints: One end of the pipe has a widened socket,
and the other end has a spigot that fits into the socket. A sealant
(e.g., rubber gasket, jointing compound) is used to create a leak-
proof seal. Common for CI, DI, and some PVC pipes.
o Flanged Joints: Consist of flat discs (flanges) attached to the ends of
two pipes, which are then bolted together with a gasket in between
to create a seal. Used for larger diameter pipes, at connections to
pumps and valves, and where disassembly may be required.
o Collar Joints (Sleeve Joints): A sleeve or collar fits over the ends of
two pipes and is sealed using gaskets or jointing compounds. Used
for some types of pipes and repairs.
o Screwed Socket Joints (Threaded Joints): Pipe ends are threaded and
screwed into a threaded socket fitting. Primarily used for smaller
diameter GI and steel pipes in building plumbing and some
distribution lines. Can be prone to leakage over time.
o Butt Fusion Joints (for PE and HDPE pipes): The ends of two pipes
are heated and then pressed together under controlled pressure to
create a strong, permanent joint. Provides excellent strength and
leak-tightness.
o Electrofusion Joints (for PE and HDPE pipes): A fitting with
embedded electrical heating elements is placed over the ends of two
pipes. When current is applied, the fitting and pipe surfaces melt and
fuse together, forming a strong, permanent joint. Useful in confined
spaces or for larger diameters.

The choice of joint type depends on the pipe material, diameter, operating pressure,
installation conditions, and the need for future disassembly.
8.4 Laying of Pipes: Construction, Operation, and Maintenance
Considerations

Proper laying of pipes is crucial for the long-term performance and reliability of
the water conveyance system.

 Construction Considerations:
o Trench Excavation: Excavating trenches of appropriate width and
depth, considering pipe diameter, soil conditions, and frost
penetration depth (in cold climates). Proper shoring and safety
measures are essential.
o Bedding and Backfilling: Providing a stable and uniform bed for the
pipe (often using sand or gravel) to support it and prevent stress.
Backfilling should be done in layers, with proper compaction to avoid
damage to the pipe.
o Pipe Handling and Installation: Carefully handling pipes to avoid
damage. Ensuring proper alignment and joining according to the
manufacturer's instructions and relevant standards.
o Testing: Conducting pressure tests after installation of sections of the
pipeline to check for leaks before backfilling.
o Coordination with Other Utilities: Avoiding interference with
existing underground utilities (sewer, gas, electricity,
telecommunications).
o Environmental Considerations: Managing excavated material and
minimizing disturbance to the surrounding environment.
 Operation Considerations:
o Flow Control: Operating valves to regulate flow and pressure in the
system.
o Pressure Monitoring: Regularly monitoring pressure at various points
to ensure adequate supply and detect anomalies.
o Energy Management (for pumped systems): Optimizing pump
operation to minimize energy consumption.
o Water Quality Monitoring: Ensuring water quality is maintained
throughout the conveyance system.
 Maintenance Considerations:
o Leak Detection and Repair: Implementing programs for detecting
and repairing leaks promptly to minimize water loss and prevent
contamination.
 o Valve Maintenance: Regularly inspecting and exercising valves to
ensure they are operational.
o Pipeline Inspection: Periodically inspecting pipelines for signs of
corrosion, damage, or deterioration.
o Cleaning: Removing sediment or tuberculation buildup inside pipes
to maintain hydraulic capacity and water quality. This can involve
flushing or mechanical cleaning.
o Repair and Replacement: Repairing damaged sections of pipe or
replacing aging pipelines to maintain system integrity.
o Record Keeping: Maintaining accurate records of pipe locations,
materials, joint types, installation details, and maintenance activities.

Pipe Appurtenances, Operation, and Maintenance

Pipe appurtenances are auxiliary devices installed in a water supply system to

control flow, pressure, prevent backflow, release air, drain water, and facilitate
maintenance. Proper operation and regular maintenance are crucial for the efficient
and reliable functioning of the entire system.

9.1 Valves: Purposes and Types

Valves are mechanical devices used to control the flow of water in pipelines. They
can start, stop, regulate, or prevent reverse flow.

 Purposes:
o Control Flow Rate: To adjust the quantity of water flowing through a
pipe.
o Start and Stop Flow: To isolate sections of the system for
maintenance, repair, or in case of emergencies.
o Prevent Backflow: To ensure water flows in one direction only.
o Release Air: To remove accumulated air that can impede flow and
cause pressure fluctuations.
o Relieve Pressure: To protect the system from excessive pressure that
could damage pipes or equipment.
o Sustain Pressure: To maintain a minimum upstream pressure for
proper operation.

 Types of Valves:
o Sluice Valve (Gate Valve):
  Purpose: Primarily for starting and stopping flow. Not ideal for
throttling (regulating flow) as it can cause vibration and wear
when partially open.
 Mechanism: A wedge-shaped gate moves perpendicularly
across the flow path to obstruct or allow flow.
 Schematic Diagram: Typically shows a body with inlet and
outlet ports, a gate that moves vertically via a stem connected
to a handwheel or actuator, and a bonnet to seal the stem.
Accessories include the handwheel or actuator, stem, packing
gland to prevent leakage around the stem, and sometimes a
position indicator.
o Reflux Valve (Check Valve, Non-Return Valve):
 Purpose: To prevent backflow of water in the pipeline.
 Mechanism: Operates automatically by the flow of water.
When flow stops or reverses, the valve closes due to gravity or
back pressure. Common types include swing check, lift check,
and ball check valves.
 Schematic Diagram: Shows a body with inlet and outlet, and a
hinged disc (swing check), a liftable disc (lift check), or a ball
that seats against an opening to allow forward flow and
prevent reverse flow.
o Safety Valve (Pressure Relief Valve):
 Purpose: To automatically release excess pressure in a system
to prevent damage.
 Mechanism: A spring-loaded valve that opens when the
pressure exceeds a preset limit and closes when the pressure
drops back to a safe level.
 Schematic Diagram: Depicts a body with inlet and outlet, a
spring mechanism that holds a disc or plug closed against a
seat, and an adjustment mechanism to set the relief pressure.
o Air Valves (Air Release Valves, Air Inlet Valves, Vacuum Breaker
Valves):
 Purpose: To release accumulated air pockets in pipelines
(which can reduce capacity and cause pressure surges) and to
allow air to enter the pipe during draining to prevent vacuum
formation and collapse.
  Mechanism: Float-operated valves that open to release air
when it accumulates at the top of the valve chamber and close
when water rises. Vacuum breakers open to allow air in when
the internal pressure drops below atmospheric. Combination
air valves perform both functions.
 Schematic Diagram: Shows a body with a connection to the
pipeline, a float mechanism that actuates a valve opening for
air release or inlet, and a vent to the atmosphere.
o Pressure Relief Valves (PRVs):
 Purpose: To reduce high pressure in a pipeline to a lower,
more manageable pressure downstream. Often used in
distribution networks serving areas with significant elevation
differences.
 Mechanism: A pilot-operated valve that senses the
downstream pressure and automatically adjusts its opening to
maintain the desired outlet pressure.
 Schematic Diagram: Shows a main valve with a diaphragm or
piston actuator controlled by a pilot valve, sensing lines for
upstream and/or downstream pressure, and an adjustment
mechanism for the outlet pressure setting.
o Pressure Sustaining Valves (PSVs):
 Purpose: To maintain a minimum upstream pressure, ensuring
adequate supply to critical areas or preventing pressure drops
below a certain level.
 Mechanism: A pilot-operated valve that senses the upstream
pressure and closes if it falls below the set point, maintaining
the required upstream pressure.
 Schematic Diagram: Similar to PRVs but sensing upstream
pressure and designed to close on low upstream pressure.
o Butterfly Valves:
 Purpose: For flow regulation and shut-off, especially in larger
diameter pipes. Relatively lightweight and compact.
 Mechanism: A disc rotates within the valve body,
perpendicular to the flow, to control or block the passage of
water.
  Schematic Diagram: Shows a body with a disc pivoted on a
stem, which is rotated by an actuator or handwheel. Seals are
located around the disc to provide shut-off.
o Gate Valves: (Same as Sluice Valve, often used interchangeably)
o Drain Valves (Blow-off Valves, Scour Valves):
 Purpose: To allow for the draining of water from pipelines or
reservoirs for maintenance, repair, or to remove sediment
accumulation.
 Mechanism: Simple on/off valves located at low points in the
system.
 Schematic Diagram: Typically a simple valve (gate, globe, or
ball valve) connected to the bottom of a pipe or reservoir with
an outlet for drainage.

Typical Schematic Diagram of a Valve (with all accessories required): A

general schematic would show the valve body with inlet and outlet ports.
Depending on the type, it would include the closure element (gate, disc,
ball, etc.), the actuating mechanism (handwheel, lever, actuator -
pneumatic, electric, hydraulic), a stem connecting the actuator to the closure
element, a bonnet or cover to seal the internal parts, packing glands to
prevent leakage around the stem, gaskets for sealing joints, and sometimes
position indicators to show the degree of valve opening. For pilot-operated
valves (PRVs, PSVs), the pilot valve and sensing lines would also be
shown.

9.2 Fittings: Purpose and Types

Fittings are components used to join pipes, change direction, reduce or increase
pipe size, or connect to other appurtenances.

 Purpose:
o To connect pipe sections.
o To change the direction of flow (bends, elbows).
o To reduce or increase pipe diameter (reducers).
o To branch off flow (tees, wyes).
o To provide flexibility or allow for movement (expansion joints).
o To facilitate disassembly for maintenance (dismantling joints).
o To provide a point of control at the consumer end (stop cocks, water
taps).
  Types of Fittings:
o Bends (Elbows): Used to change the direction of a pipeline (e.g., 45°,
90°). Can be short radius or long radius.
o Reducers: Used to connect pipes of different diameters. Can be
concentric (centered) or eccentric (offset).
o Tees: Used to branch off a pipeline at a 90° angle. Can be equal (all
branches same size) or reducing (branch size smaller).
o Mechanical Couplings: Used to join pipes, often with flexibility to
accommodate misalignment or movement. Examples include Dresser
couplings, Victaulic couplings.
o Expansion Joints: Designed to absorb thermal expansion and
contraction of pipelines, preventing stress on the pipes and joints.
Can be rubber bellows, metallic bellows, or slip-type.
o Dismantling Joints: Special couplings that allow for easy disassembly
of flanged joints, often used around valves or pumps to facilitate
maintenance.
o Stop Cocks (Service Valves): Small shut-off valves located on service
lines to individual properties, allowing the water supply to be turned
off. Often ball or gate valves.
o Water Taps (Faucets): Control the flow of water at the point of use
(sinks, showers, etc.). Various designs exist (globe, gate, ball, ceramic
disc).

9.3 Flushing Arrangements

Flushing is the process of cleaning water mains by allowing water to flow at a high
velocity to remove sediment, scale, biofilm, and stagnant water.

 Purposes:
o To improve water quality (remove taste, odor, color issues caused by
accumulated material).
o To remove sediment and debris that can reduce hydraulic capacity
and harbor microorganisms.
o To remove biofilm that can contribute to corrosion and microbial
contamination.
o To remove stagnant water that can lead to disinfectant residual loss
and the formation of disinfection byproducts.
  Flushing Arrangements:
o Reservoirs: Drain pipes located at the lowest point of the reservoir
are opened to allow sediment-laden water to be discharged. The
reservoir may need to be partially or fully emptied and then refilled.
Regular cleaning schedules are important.
o Transmission Mains: Blow-off valves (drain valves) are strategically
located along the transmission main at low points and at the ends of
dead-end sections. Opening these valves allows high-velocity flow to
scour the pipe and remove accumulated material. Flushing should
proceed from the source towards the ends.
o Distribution Lines: Fire hydrants are commonly used as flushing
points in distribution networks. Opening hydrants allows for high-
velocity flow through the pipes. Flushing should be planned to move
water systematically through the network, considering flow
directions and potential accumulation points. Dead-end lines and
areas with low flow are particularly important to flush.

Effective flushing requires planning to ensure adequate flow velocities

(typically > 2.5 ft/s or 0.76 m/s) and proper disposal of the flushed water. It's
important to consider environmental regulations and avoid causing flooding
or erosion.

9.4 Propose and Construction of Break Pressure Tank

A break pressure tank (BPT) is a small reservoir constructed in a water supply

system to reduce excessive static pressure caused by significant elevation
differences.

 Purpose:
o To prevent damage to pipelines and appurtenances in lower
elevation zones due to high pressure.
o To maintain manageable pressure in the distribution network,
preventing excessive leakage and wear on plumbing fixtures.
o To allow for gravity flow in stages, optimizing the hydraulic design.

 Proposal and Construction:

 1. Identify Areas of High Pressure: Analyze the topography of the
service area and identify zones where static pressure exceeds the
allowable limit (typically around 60-80 psi or 400-550 kPa).
2. Determine Location and Capacity: Propose suitable locations for
BPTs at intermediate elevations to break the head. The capacity
should be sufficient to handle flow fluctuations and provide a small
amount of storage.
3. Design: The BPT typically consists of an inlet pipe from the upper
zone, a storage tank (usually concrete or steel), an outlet pipe to the
lower zone, a float-controlled valve on the inlet to regulate water
level, an overflow pipe, a drain pipe, and a vent. The inlet flow is
stopped by the float valve when the water level in the tank reaches a
certain point, thus limiting the pressure in the downstream zone.
4. Construction: Similar to small service reservoirs, involving
excavation, foundation work, tank construction (RCC or steel),
installation of pipes and appurtenances (valves, level indicator, etc.),
and testing. The BPT is usually covered to prevent contamination.

9.5 Public Stand Post (Purposes, Location, Flows, and Construction)

A public stand post is a communal water supply point, typically consisting of one
or more taps connected to the distribution network, used in areas where individual
household connections are not feasible or affordable.

 Purposes:
o To provide access to safe drinking water for communities without
individual connections.
o To serve low-income populations or temporary settlements.
o To act as an emergency water source.

 Location: Strategically located to be easily accessible to the target

population, considering population density, distance to households, and
safety. Often placed in public areas like marketplaces, community centers, or
along main pathways.
 Flows: The design should ensure adequate flow rates to allow users to
collect water efficiently. The number of taps should be sufficient to
minimize waiting times during peak usage. Flow rates depend on the pipe
size and pressure in the distribution main.
 Construction:
 o A riser pipe connected to the underground distribution main.
o One or more taps (usually robust, vandal-resistant types).
o A concrete or masonry base for stability and to prevent erosion
around the tap.
o Sometimes a small drainage area to manage spilled water.
o May include a protective enclosure or fencing in some cases.
o Proper connection to the distribution main with a shut-off valve for
maintenance.

9.6 Pumps: Type of Pumps, Purpose and Uses; Layouts of Pumps;

Introduction to Pump Curves

Pumps are mechanical devices used to add energy to water, increasing its pressure
and allowing it to flow against gravity or overcome frictional losses in pipelines.

 Type of Pumps, Purpose and Uses:

o Centrifugal Pumps: The most common type for water supply. Use a
rotating impeller to impart kinetic energy to the water, which is then
converted to pressure energy. Used for lifting water from sources,
boosting pressure in pipelines, and distributing water to elevated
areas.
o Positive Displacement Pumps (e.g., Reciprocating, Rotary): Deliver a
fixed volume of water per revolution or stroke. Used for pumping
viscous fluids or when a constant flow rate is required against varying
pressures. Less common for general water distribution of large
volumes.
o Submersible Pumps: Centrifugal pumps designed to be submerged in
the water source (well, reservoir). Used for lifting groundwater or
raw water intake.
o Vertical Turbine Pumps: Multi-stage centrifugal pumps with the
pump head submerged and the motor above ground. Used for
pumping from wells or surface water intakes.
o Booster Pumps: Used to increase pressure in specific zones of the
distribution system or to supply water to tall buildings.

 Layouts of Pumps:
 o Pumps in Series: Used to increase the total head (pressure) when the
flow rate requirement is relatively constant. The discharge from one
pump goes into the suction of the next.
o Pumps in Parallel: Used to increase the total flow rate when the
head requirement is relatively constant. All pumps draw from a
common suction and discharge into a common header.
o The choice of layout depends on the system's head and flow
requirements and the operating conditions.

 Introduction to Pump Curves: A pump curve is a graphical representation

of a pump's performance characteristics, typically showing the relationship
between: 1

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o Head (H): The pressure head developed by the pump (usually in

meters or feet).
o Flow Rate (Q): The volume of water delivered by the pump per unit
time (e.g., m³/s, gpm).
o Efficiency (η): The ratio of the hydraulic power output to the shaft
power input (%).
o Power Required (P): The power needed to drive the pump (usually in
kW or hp).

The pump curve is provided by the manufacturer and is specific to a

particular pump operating at a given speed. System head curves, which
represent the head loss in the pipeline as a function of flow rate, are often
plotted on the same graph. The intersection of the pump curve and the
system head curve is the operating point of the pump in that system.
Understanding pump curves is essential for selecting the right pump for a
 given application and for analyzing its performance under different
operating conditions.

9.7 Operation of Water Supply System

The operation of a water supply system involves the day-to-day management and
control of all its components, from the source to the consumers. Key aspects
include:

 Source Management: Monitoring water levels, flow rates, and quality at

the source. Managing withdrawals to ensure sustainability.
 Treatment Plant Operation: Controlling the various treatment processes to
produce water that meets quality standards. Monitoring chemical dosages,
filter performance, and disinfection effectiveness.
 Pumping Station Operation: Starting, stopping, and regulating pumps to
meet demand and maintain pressure in the system. Monitoring pump
performance and energy consumption.
 Reservoir Management: Monitoring water levels in clear water and service
reservoirs. Controlling inflow and outflow to balance supply and demand.
 Distribution Network Management: Monitoring pressures and flows
throughout the network. Operating valves to control flow and isolate
sections. Managing DMAs (if implemented).
 Water Quality Monitoring: Regularly sampling and analyzing water quality
at various points in the system to ensure it meets standards.
 Demand Management: Implementing strategies to reduce water
consumption and manage peak demands.
 Emergency Response: Having procedures in place to deal with system
failures, contamination events, and other emergencies.
 SCADA System Operation (if applicable): Using the SCADA system to
monitor and control the system remotely, collect data, and generate
alarms.

Effective operation requires trained personnel, clear operational procedures, and

regular monitoring of system performance.

9.8 Maintenance: Necessity, Types (Regular, Preventive, and Emergency

Maintenance)
Maintenance is essential to ensure the long-term reliability, efficiency, and safety
of the water supply system.

 Necessity:
o To prevent breakdowns and ensure continuous water supply.
o To maintain the efficiency of components (pumps, pipes, valves).
o To prolong the lifespan of infrastructure.
o To ensure water quality is not compromised due to deterioration of
the system.
o To minimize water losses due to leaks.
o To ensure the safety of operating personnel and the public.

 Types of Maintenance:
o Regular Maintenance (Routine Maintenance): Scheduled tasks
performed at regular intervals (daily, weekly, monthly) to keep the
system in good working order. Examples include:
 Visual inspections of pumps, valves, and pipelines.
 Lubrication of moving parts.

 Cleaning of screens and filters.

  Monitoring

Preventive Maintenance: Scheduled maintenance activities aimed at preventing

failures and ensuring the continued efficient operation of the system. Examples
include: * Regular inspection and lubrication of pumps and valves. * Cleaning and
backwashing of filters. * Checking and calibrating instruments and controls. *
Testing and exercising emergency equipment (e.g., backup generators, fire
hydrants). * Corrosion control measures (e.g., inspecting coatings, cathodic
protection systems). * Scheduled replacement of wear-prone parts before they fail.
* Emergency Maintenance (Corrective Maintenance): Unscheduled repairs
required to restore the system to normal operation after a failure or emergency
event (e.g., pipe burst, pump failure, power outage, contamination incident). This
often involves: * Rapid response to identify and isolate the problem. * Repairing or
replacing damaged equipment or infrastructure. * Disinfection and flushing of
affected areas. * Restoring water supply as quickly and safely as possible. *
Analyzing the cause of the failure to prevent future occurrences.
Effective maintenance programs typically involve a combination of all three types
of maintenance, with a strong emphasis on preventive maintenance to minimize
costly emergency repairs and ensure reliable service.

9.9 Roles and Responsibilities of Different Organizations in Water Supply

Management (Federal, Provincial, Local Government, and User's Committee)

Water supply management is a multi-level responsibility involving various

organizations with distinct roles:

 Federal Government:
o Sets national policies, standards, and regulations for water quality and
environmental protection.
o Provides funding and technical assistance for large water
infrastructure projects.
o Conducts research and development in water resources management
and treatment technologies.
o Oversees inter-state or national water resources.
o May have a role in emergency response during large-scale water
crises.
 Provincial (or State) Government:
o Develops and implements provincial water policies and regulations,
often aligned with national standards.
o Manages water resources within the province, including allocation
and licensing.
o Provides technical guidance and support to local governments and
water utilities.
o May be responsible for the planning and funding of major regional
water supply infrastructure.
o Plays a significant role in monitoring water quality and enforcing
regulations.
 Local Government (Municipalities, Water Districts):
o Primarily responsible for the direct provision of water supply services
to consumers within their jurisdiction.
o Plans, designs, constructs, operates, and maintains water treatment
and distribution systems.
o Sets local water tariffs and manages finances for the water utility.
o Enforces local regulations related to water use and connections.
o Responds to local water supply emergencies.
o Engages with the community on water-related issues.
  User's Committee (Community-Based Organizations):
o In some decentralized or community-managed systems, user's
committees play a significant role in the management of water supply.
o Participate in decision-making regarding water tariffs, service levels,
and infrastructure development.
o May be involved in the operation and maintenance of the local water
system, especially in rural areas.
o Promote water conservation and responsible water use within the
community.
o Act as a link between the water service provider and the consumers,
providing feedback and addressing grievances.

Effective water supply management requires coordination and collaboration among

these different levels of organizations to ensure sustainable, equitable, and safe
water services for all. The specific roles and responsibilities can vary depending on
the country's governance structure and the model of water service delivery.