GENERAL SCIENCE–এর Toppers Group WBCS–এর

র র হল র র র রর র ল Civil
Service Servant হ র ল । Civil Servant Aspirant– র
র ল র র WBCS হ র র
র লর র হ । WBCS Prelims এ WBCS Mains
Exam–এর । এ SCIENCE–এর
র র হ । র র র র
র Common ।
–
Toppers Group

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 CONTENTS

PHYSICS:
SL. NO. TOPIC NAME PAGE NO.
1. Units and Measurements 6–7
2. Kinematics 8 – 13
3. Work, Energy and Power 14 – 16
4. Gravitation 17 – 19
5. Pressure 20 – 23
6. Flotation 24 – 25
7. Surface Tension 26 – 29
8. Elasticity 30 – 33
9. Simple Harmonic Motion 34 – 38
10. Waves 39 – 43
11. Heat 44 – 46
12. Light 47 – 57
13. Static Electricity 58 – 62
14. Current Electricity 63 – 73
15. Magnetism 74 – 77
16. Atomic and Nuclear Physics 78 – 83
17. Electronics 84 – 88
18. Scientific Instruments 89 – 91

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CHEMISTRY:
SL NO. TOPICS NAME PAGE NO.
1. States of Matter 93 – 108
2. Acid Base and Salt 109 – 127
3. Oxidation and Reduction 128 – 129
4. Atomic Structure 130 – 143
5. Periodic Table 144 – 150
6. Polymer 151 – 153
7. Fuel 154 – 158
8. Organic Chemistry 159 – 163
9. Nuclear Chemistry 164 – 168
10. Chemistry in Daily Life 169 – 170
11. Chemical Bonding 171 – 177
12. Metal and Its Ores & Compounds 178 – 195
13. Previous Year PSC, UPSC Questions 195 – 217

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SL. NO. TOPICS NAME PAGE NO.

BIOLOGY

Chapter-1 Important Terminology 219 - 221

Chapter-2 Classification of Organism 222 - 223
Chapter-3 Study of Cell 224 - 239
Chapter-4 Genetics 240 - 245

BOTANY
Chapter-1 Classification of Plant 246 - 251
Chapter-2 Plant Morphology 252 - 258
Chapter-3 Plant Tissue System 259 - 265
Chapter-4 Photosynthesis 266 - 269
Chapter-5 Plant Hormones 270 - 273

ZOOLOGY
Chapter-1 Classification of Animal Kingdom 274 - 288
Chapter-2 Animal Tissue 289 - 293
Chapter-3 Human Blood 294 - 300
Chapter-4 Locomotion and Movement 301 - 304
Chapter-5 System of the Human Body 305 - 349
 Human Digestive System 305 - 311
 Human Circulatory System 312 - 318
 Human Excretory System 319 - 323
 Human Nervous System 324 - 333
 Human Skeletal System 334 - 338
 Human Endocrine and Exocrine System 339 - 345
 Human Respiratory System 346 - 349
Chapter-6 Nutrition 350 - 354
Chapter-7 Human Diseases 355 - 359

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PHYSICS

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Physical Quantity-A quantity which can be measured is called a physical quantity.

Types of physical quantity- Fundamental and Derived.

In SI Units, there are seven fundamental units given in the following table:
Physical quantity SI Unit Symbol
Length Meter M
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second S
Electric Current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela Cd

Amount of Substance Mole Mol

Some important Derived Units:

Physical Quantity Cgs unit SI unit Relation

5
Force Dyne newton 1 newton =10 dyne
7
Work Erg joule 1 joule = 10 erg

Some important Practical Units:

Astronomical Unit (AU): 1 AU is a unit of length, roughly the distance from earth
to the sun and equal to about 150 million kilometres.
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1 A.U.= 1.496 × 10 m

Light Year: It is the distance travelled by the light in vacuum in one year.

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 15
1ly = 9.46 × 10 m

Parsec: It is a unit of length used to measure the large distance to astronomical

objects outside the solar system.
16
1 Parsec = 3.26 ly = 3.08 × 10 m

Note:Every measured quantity (its magnitude) comprises of a number and a unit.

Scalar Quantities: Physical quantities which have magnitude only and no direction
are called scalar quantities.
Example: Mass, Speed, Volume, Work, Time, Power, Energy.

Vector Quantities: Physical quantities which have magnitude and direction both
and obey triangle law are called vector quantities.
Example: Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, Force, Momentum.

Note:(Electric Current, though has a direction, is a scalar quantity, because it does

not obey triangle law.)

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

KINEMATICS

Branch of mechanics concerned with the motion of objects without reference to

the forces which cause the motion.
 Motion in 1 Dimension or Rectilinear motion-One dimensional
motion describes objects moving in straight lines.
 Motion in 2 Dimensional-Two-dimensional (2D) motion means motion that
takes place in two different directions (or coordinates) at the same time.
Example- Circular motion, Projectile motion.
 Motion in 3 Dimensional-3-dimensional motions are motions that occur in
three dimensions.
Example- Gaseous molecule motion.
Variables of Kinematics:
There are a variety of quantities associated with the motion of objects
1. Distance
2. Displacement
3. Speed
4. Velocity
5. Acceleration

Distance:
Distance is the total length of a path through which a body moves. The distance
travelled by a body depends on the path followed by the body
Displacement:
Displacement is the shortest distance from the initial to the final position of the
body. The length between the two points is the magnitude of displacement and its
direction is from the initial position to the final position.

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*Note: Distance ≥ Displacement+
 Speed - the rate of distance travelled by a moving object over time.
 Velocity - the rate of displacement of a moving object over time.
 Speed and velocity both measure an object’s rate of motion. However, speed isa
scalar quantity, which means that it can be described with a numerical value.
 Velocity is a vector quantity, which depends on direction as well as magnitude.
 There are three units to measure speed:
 m/s - meters per second (used by The International System of Units and
Measurements)
 kph - kilometres per hour (used by countries that use the metric system)
 mph - miles per hour (used in the United States)

Acceleration:
Acceleration (a) is the change in velocity (Δv) over the change in time (Δt),
represented by the equation a = Δv/Δt.
Note: If velocity decreases with time, then acceleration is negative and is called
Retardation.

 In the case of uniform acceleration, there are three equations of motion which
are also known as the laws of constant acceleration.
 Hence, these equations are used to derive the components like
displacement(s), velocity (initial and final), time(t) and acceleration(a).
 Therefore, they can only be applied when acceleration is constant and motion
is a straight line. The three equations are
v = u + at
v² = u² + 2as

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s = ut + ½at²
1. Newton’s First Law of Motion:
Force -
It is defined as a push or pulls on an object that produces an acceleration in the
body on which it acts. A force can change the speed, direction, and shape of the
body on which it acts.
Mathematically, it is defined as the product of mass (m) and acceleration (a) as:
F=ma
The S.I. unit of force is Newton (N).

Mainly, there are two types of forces:

1. Balanced Forces.
2. Unbalanced Forces.

1. Balanced Forces-
The forces are said to be balanced forces if they nullify one another and their
resultant force is equivalent to zero.

2. Unbalanced Forces-
When two opposite forces acting on a body, move a body in the direction of the
greater force or forces which bring a motion in a body are called unbalanced
forces.

Inertia:
The natural tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of rest or of
uniform motion is called inertia.

Newton’s Laws of Motion:

Sir Isaac Newton gave the three laws of motion in the 17th century. These laws
are widely used in the field of classical mechanics. They are valid almost
everywhere. The laws are briefly stated below.

Newton’s 1st law: states that a body at rest or uniform motion will continue to be
at rest or uniform motion until and unless a net external force acts on it.

Newton’s 2nd law: states that the acceleration of an object as produced by a net
force is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force, in the same
direction as the net force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

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Newton’s 3rd law: states that for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction.

A) Newton’s 1st Law of Motion:

“A body at rest will remain at rest, and a body in motion will continue in motion in
a straight line with a uniform speed, unless it is compelled by an external force to
change its state of rest or a uniform motion”.
Force is a vector quantity having magnitude as well as direction.
The first law of motion states that a body continues to be in the state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external unbalanced
force. It is also called the Law of Inertia.

The first law of motion depends on the following two conditions:

Objects at rest-
 If an object is in the state of rest, its velocity and acceleration are having zero
magnitude. This enables the object to stay in rest.

Objects in motion-
 If an object is in motion, its velocity is not equal to zero whereas acceleration
is equal to zero. Therefore, the object will continue to be in uniform motion.

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How Newton’s first law of motion applicable in everyday life?
 When the brakes of a vehicle are applied quickly, the passenger will be thrown
forward due to the presence of inertia. Inertia tries to keep the passenger
moving. This is the reason why it is recommended to wear seat belts while
traveling by vehicles.
 A roller coaster uses the principle of inertia. It continues to move in the same
direction at a constant speed until the tracks act as external force that changes
its direction.
 A marathon runner continues to run several meters beyond the finish line due
to the inertia.
 If pulled quickly, a tablecloth can be removed from underneath the dishes. The
dishes remain still unless the friction from the movement of the tablecloth is
not too high in magnitude.
 Men in space find it more difficult to stop moving because of a lack of gravity
acting against them.

B) Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

“The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied
force, and takes place in the in direction in which the force acts”.

Force

Newton’s second law describes precisely how much an object will accelerate for a
given net force.

Mathematically, we express the second law of motion as follows:

f dP/dt⇒f (mv−mu)/t ⇒ f m(v−u)/t ⇒ f ma⇒ f= k.ma

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In the equation, k is the constant of proportionality, and it is equal to 1 when the
values are taken in the SI unit. Hence, the final expression will be, F= ma.

C) Newton’s Third Law of Motion:

“For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction”.

 According to Newton’s third law, when two bodies engage, they apply forces
to each other that are equal in magnitude and opposing in direction.
 The third law is also known as the action-reaction law.
 This law is useful in assessing static equilibrium issues in which all forces are
balanced, but it also applies to things in constant or accelerated motion.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

A) Work -
 Work is said to be done if a force is applied on an object & it displaces in the
direction of force applied.
 S.I. unit: - Joule (J)
 It is a scalar quantity.
 Work done = Force x displacement (W = FS)
 1 Joule
 The work done on an object is said to be 1 joule when a force of 1 N displaces
it by 1 m along the line of action of the force.

Positive, Negative and Zero Work Done:

 W = F S Cos θ

B) Energy -
 The capacity of doing work is called energy.
 S.I. unit: Joule (J)

1. Kinetic Energy:
 The energy possessed by an object by virtue of its motion is known as kinetic
energy.
 Example-Energy in moving fan.

Expression of Kinetic Energy:

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 Consider an object having mass ‘m’ moving with uniform acceleration ‘a’. Let
its initial velocity be ‘u’ & final velocity be ‘v’.
 From 2nd law of motion, F = ma
 W = FS
 or, W = ma(v2-u2)/2a [Since, v2-u2 = 2aS So, S = (v2-u2)/2a]
 or, W = m(v2-u2)/2 = ½ m(v2-u2)
 If u = 0 then, W = ½ m(v2-02) = ½ mv2
 So, Ek = ½ mv2
 Work done= Change in kinetic energy
 or, W = Ekf -Eki
 or, W = ½ mv2 – ½ mu2

2. Potential Energy:
 The energy possessed by an object by virtue of its position or configuration is
known as its potential energy.
 Example- Water stored in a dam.
 Expression of potential energy
 Consider an object having mass ‘m’ at a height ‘h’.
 From 2nd law of motion,
 F = ma = mg (Where, g is acceleration due to gravity.)
 Now, W = FS
 or, W = mgh [here, S = h]
 So, Ep= mgh

Law of Conservation Of Energy:

“The total energy of an isolated system is constant. Energy in neither created or
nor destroyed. It can only be transformed from one form to another or
transformed from one system to another”.
Energy may change form, but the total amount remains the same.

Some equipment’s used to transform energy:

1. Dynamo Mechanical energy into electrical energy.
2. Candle Chemical energy into light and heat
energy.
3. Microphone Sound energy into electrical energy.
4. Loud Speaker Electrical energy into sound energy.
5. Solar Cell Solar energy into electrical energy.

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6. Tube Light Electrical energy into light energy.
7. Electrical Bulb Electrical energy into light and heat
energy.
8. Battery Chemical energy into electrical energy.
9. Electric motor Electrical energy into mechanical energy.
10. Sitar Mechanical energy into sound energy.
11. Photo Cell Light energy into electrical energy

C) Power -
 The rate of doing work is called power.
 Power= work/time (P=W/t)
 S.I. unit: J/S or Watt (W)
 1 watt of power - The power of an agent is said to be 1 watt if it does 1 J work
in 1 sec.
 1 kW = 1000 W = 1000 J/s
 Commercial Unit Of Energy: kilowatt hour (kW h)
 Conversion of commercial unit of energy to S.I. unit of energy.
 1 kwh = 1000 W x 3600 sec = 3.6 x106 W sec = 3.6 x106 J
 or, 1 unit = 1 kwh = 3.6 x 106 J
 Horse power is a practical unit of power.
 1H.P. = 746 Watt.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

GRAVITATION

 Gravitation or just gravity is the force of attraction between any two bodies.
All the objects in the universe attract each other with a certain amount of
force, but in most of the cases, the force is too weak to be observed due to the
very large distance of separation. Besides, gravity’s range is infinite but the
effect becomes weaker as objects move away.
 This force of attraction was first observed by Sir Isaac Newton and was
presented as Newton’s law of gravitation in the year 1680.

The Universal Law of Gravitation or Newton's Law of Gravitation:

 “Every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force directed
along the line of centres for the two objects that is proportionalto the product
of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the separation
between the two objects”.

Consider two mass m1andm2 objects separated by a distancer.

The gravitational force F is proportional to the product of the masses, according to
Newton's law.
F m1m2 ...... (1)

and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the masses
F r2 ...... (2)

Combining equation (1)and equation (2), we get

F

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F G ….......... (3)

Where “G” is a proportionality constant known as the universal

gravitationalconstant.
“G” is known as the universal constant because its value remains constant
throughout the cosmos and is unaffected by object masses.

The apparent weight of a person in a lift:

1.When the lift moves upward with acceleration a. Then the net upward force
on the person is:
R - mg = ma
Apparent weight, R = mg + ma = m (g + a)
So, when a lift accelerates upwards, the apparent weight of the person inside it
increases.

2.When the lift moves downwards with acceleration a. Then the net downward
force on the person is:
Mg - R = ma
Apparent weight, R = mg - ma = m (g - a)
So, when a lift accelerates downwards, the apparent weight of the person inside it
decreases.

3.When the lift is at rest or moving with uniform velocity v downward/upward.

The acceleration a = 0 then the net force on the person is:
R - mg = m x
R = mg
Apparent weight = Actual weight.

4. When the lift falls freely. If the supporting cable of the lift breaks, the lift falls
freely under gravity. Then a = g. The net downward force on the person is:
R = m(g - g) = 0.
 Thus, the apparent weight of the man becomes zero. This is because both the
man and the lift are moving downwards with the same acceleration 'g'and so
there are no forces of action and reaction between the person and the lift.
 Hence a person develops a feeling of weightlessness when he falls freely
undergravity.

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Explanation:
 When the lift goes down the weight of the body decreases because when the
lift goes down there is a force called pseudo force which pushes lift upward
and results in a decrease in weight. So, option 2 is correct.
 When the lift goes up the weight of the body increases.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

PRESSURE

Pressure:
 Pressure is defined as the force per unit of area over the surface of a body.
 Pressure (P) = =
 SI unit of pressure is N/m2.
 Pressure is a scalar quantity.

NOTE -
Lesser the area, more the pressure
More the area, less the pressure
Example: It is easier to hammer a sharp pin than to hammer a blunt pin. This is
because the area at the end of the sharp pin is smaller than the area at the end of a
blunt pin. This leads to an increase in pressure leading to hammer the sharp pin
easily.

Types of Pressure:
1. Atmospheric Pressure
2. Absolute Pressure
3. Gauge Pressure
4. Vacuum Pressure

1. Atmospheric Pressure-
 Atmospheric pressure is that pressure which is exerted by a mercury column
of 76 cm length at 00C at 450 latitudes at the sea-level. It is equal to weight of
76 cm column of mercury of cross-sectional area 1 cm2.
 It is measured in bar. 1bar = 105 N/m2
 Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted on the Earth’s surface by the
column of air above the Earth. Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight
of air above the Earth’s surface.
 Atmospheric pressure varies with altitude as the density of air decreases as
we rise up and the air becomes rarer.
 Atmospheric pressure decreases with increases in altitude.

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 As we know that the density of air becomes heavier near the surface of the
earth (due to gravity) and begins to lighten as we go to higher altitudes and
eventually leads to empty space, i.e., outside the atmosphere of the earth.
 Thus, the atmospheric pressure is high at lower altitudes, the density being
higher. The atmospheric pressure is low at higher altitudes, the density being
lower.

** A barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure,

also called barometric pressure.
 Sudden fall in barometric reading is the indication of storm.
 Slow fall in barometric reading is the indication of rain.
 Slow rise in the barometric reading is the indication of clear weather.

Fluid Pressure -
 Fluid pressure is a measurement of the force per unit area. Fluid pressure can
be caused by gravity, acceleration, or forces in a closed container. Since a fluid
has no definite shape, its pressure applies in all directions. Fluid pressure can
also be amplified through hydraulic mechanisms and changes with the velocity
of the fluid.
 In a fluid column, as the depth increases, the pressure increases as well.
Pressure (P) increases because as you go deeper, fluid at a lower depth has to
support fluid above it as well. Therefore, to define fluid pressure, we can say
that it is the pressure at a point within a fluid arising due to the weight of the
fluid.
 Pressure in liquids is equally divided in all directions, therefore if a force is
applied to one point of the liquid, it will be transmitted to all other points
within the liquid.

The pressure in fluids can be calculated using the following relation:

 P = hρg (Pressure = Height or Depth of the liquid × Density of the liquid ×
Gravitational pull (9.81m/s)).

 Pressure is a scalar quantity. The SI Unit (International System of Unit) of

pressure is the Pascal, or Newton per meter squared (N/m2).
 Points along the same depth will have the same pressure, while points at
different depths will have different pressure.
 An object that is partly, or completely submerged in a fluid experiences a
greater pressure on its bottom surface than on its top surface. This causes a

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 resultant force upwards. This force is called up thrust, and is also known
as buoyancy.

Pascal’s Law For Pressure Of Fluid:

“The external static pressure applied on a confined liquid is distributed or
transmitted evenly throughout the liquid in all directions”.

Application of Pascal Law -

Pascal law states Pressure applied at any point of a liquid enclosed in a
container is transmitted without loss to all other parts of the liquid (when
gravitational attraction is negligible, and in equilibrium condition). Hydraulic
press, Hydraulic jack system, brake system are few applications of Pascal law.

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2. Absolute Pressure -
 It is the type of pressure which takes vacuum or air-free space as the
reference. This type of pressure changes as the location changes since there is
a change in the atmospheric pressure differences.

3. Gauge Pressure -
 Gauge pressure is the difference between absolute pressure and atmospheric
pressure. Gauge pressure is also known as relative pressure. The measured
pressure is compared to the standard atmospheric pressure at the sea level.
Gauge pressure lets you take the reference of the atmospheric pressure as per
the location where it is installed.

4. Sealed or Vacuum Pressure -

 The vacuum is a space where the absolute pressure is zero. Perfect vacuum
condition is difficult to achieve practically and is only a theoretical value. When
the pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure vacuum is created.
Practically, the vacuum will only be partially achieved and is known as the
partial vacuum. A high vacuum means that the absolute pressure is very low.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

FLOTATION

Law of Floatation:
 When a body floats in a liquid, the weight of the liquid displaced by its
immersed part is equal to the total weight of the body. This is the law of
floatation, i.e., while floating the weight of the floating body = Weight of the
liquid displaced by its immersed part.

Archimedes Principle -
 “The upward buoyant force that is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid,
whether partially or fully submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that
the body displaces and acts in the upward direction at the centre of mass of
the displaced fluid”.
 Archimedes’ principle is used in designing ships and submarines.
 Instruments like lactometers and hydrometers are based on this principle.

Relative Density:
 Relative density is defined as the ratio of the density (mass of a unit volume)
of a substance to the density of a given reference material. The relative
density of a substance with reference to water is generally known as specific
gravity.
 If the relative density of a substance is then it is less dense than the
reference;
 If the relative density then it is denser than the reference.
 If the relative density is =1 then the densities are equal.
Example-
 If the reference material is water, then a substance (A paper boat) with a
relative density (or specific gravity) will float in water.
 A substance with a relative density will sink. (A stone for example will sink
in water).
Density = Its SI unit is kg/m3

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Relative density =

 Since relative density is a ratio, it is unit less.

 Relative density is measured by Hydrometer.
 The density of sea water is more than that of normal water that why it is
easier to swim in sea water.
 When ice floats in water, its 1/10 the part remain outside the water.
 If ice floating in water in a vessel melt, the level of water in the vessel does not
change.
Buoyant Force:
 When an object is
partially or wholly
immersed in a fluid, an
upward force acts on it,
which is called up thrust or
buoyant force.
 The magnitude of buoyant
force depends on:
 The volume of the object
immersed in the liquid.
 The density of the liquid.

Why objects float or sink when placed on the surface of a fluid?

1. Objects having density less than that of the liquid in which they are immersed,
float on the surface of the liquid.
A piece of cork floats on the surface of water.
The up thrust of water on the cork is greater than the weight of the cork.

2. Objects having density greater than that of the liquid in which they are
immersed, sink in the liquid.

An iron nail sinks in the beaker of water.

The weight of the iron nail is greater than the up thrust of water on the nail.
Illustration of Archimedes’ principle of buoyancy
Here a 6-kg object immersed in water is shown being acted upon by a buoyant
(upward) force of 2 kg, which is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the
immersed object. The buoyant force reduces the object’s apparent weight by 2 kg
– that is, from 6 kg to 4kg.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
SURFACE TENSION

Adhesion:
The tendency of two or more different molecules to bond with each other is
known as Adhesion. The adhesion forces can be one of the results of electrostatic
forces which are exerted on different substances.

Cohesion:
The force of attraction between the same molecules is known as Cohesion.The
cohesive forces are associated with Van der Waals forces and hydrogen
bonding that cause liquids such as water to withstand the separation.
When a glass surface is poured with water, both adhesive and the cohesive forces
act on the surface of the water. A strong adhesive force tends the liquid to spread
over the surface whereas a strong cohesive force is responsible for the formation
of water droplets on the water surface.
Cohesion allows for the development of surface tension which causes the surface
of liquid to contract to the smallest possible surface area.It helps plants to take up
water at their root.

In mercury the cohesive forces are stronger than the adhesive forces to
glass.

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Differences between Adhesion and Cohesion:

Adhesion Cohesion

Adhesion happens between two When two similar substances or

dissimilar molecules or substances. molecules face the force of attraction this
force is known as cohesion force.

Adhesion is generally the force of Cohesion force is rampant among water

attraction present between the water molecules.
molecules and the walls of xylem
vessels.

Capillary action and meniscus (the Surface tension, meniscus and capillary
curved surface which is formed by any action are the effects of cohesion.
liquid in a cylinder) are the effects of
adhesion.

Adhesion is caused by electrostatic or Cohesion is caused by hydrogen bonding

mechanical forces that exist among and Van der Waals forces.
two kinds of different substances.

A strong adhesion force causes the A strong force of cohesion forms water
liquid to spread all over the surface. droplets on any surface.

Surface Tension-
“Surface tension is the tension of the surface film of a liquid caused by the
attraction of the particles in the surface layer by the bulk of the liquid, which
tends to minimise surface area”.

Properties of Surface Tension:

 Surface tension not only depends upon the forces of attraction between the
particles within the given liquid but also on the forces of attraction of solid,
liquid or gas in contact with it.

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 The energy responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension may be
thought of as approximately equivalent to the work or energy required to
remove the surface layer of molecules in a unit area.
 Surface tension is typically measured in dynes/cm, the force in dynes is
required to break a film of length 1 cm.

Capillary Tube -
 Tubes with small diameters are known as capillary. These tubes will show rise
or fall of liquid when it dipped in a liquid. This is known as capillarity and it will
occur due to the cohesive force between the molecules of liquid and adhesive
force between the surface of the tube and the liquid.

Examples for capillary action:

1. Water moving up in straw or glass tube against gravity.
2. Tears moving through tear ducts.
3. Water moving through a cloth towel against gravity.

Why the sponge absorbs water against gravity?

When we take a sponge and place it in a shallow plate of water where
the water level is lower than sponge height. The sponge collects water until
it is wet, including a part of the sponge that is above water
level due to the capillary action.

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Applications of Capillarity -
(a) The oil in the wick of a lamp rises due to the capillary action of threads in the
wick.
(b) The action of a towel in soaking up moisture from the body is due to the
capillary action of cotton in the towel.
(c) Water is retained in a piece of sponge on account of capillarity.
(d) A blotting paper soaks ink by the capillary action of the pores in the blotting
paper.
(e) The root-hairs of plants draw water from the soil through capillary action.

Capillary Action in Everyday Life

1.If you drop a paper towel in water, you’ll see it climb up the towel
spontaneously apparently ignoringthe gravity. In reality, you see capillary moveme
nt, and it is about right that the water molecules crawl up the towel and pull-
on other water molecules.
2.Without capillary action plants and trees will not be able to survive. Plants
hold roots in the soil that can bring water from the soil up into the plant.
3. Nutrients dissolved in thewater get into the roots and starts to climb up the
surface of the plant. Capillary activity helps deliver water to the roots.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
ELASTICITY

 Elasticity is that property of the object by virtue of which it regains its original
configuration after the removal of the deforming force.

Elastic Limit -
Elastic limit is the upper limit of deforming force up to which, if deforming force is
removed, the body regains its original form completely and beyond which if deforming
force is increased the body loses its property of elasticity and get permanently deformed.

1. Perfectly Elastic Bodies -

Those bodies which regain its original configuration immediately and completely
after the removal of deforming force are called perfectly elastic bodies.
Examples- quartz, phosphor, bronze etc.

2. Perfectly Plastic Bodies -

Those bodies which does not regain its original configuration at all on the removal of
deforming force are called perfectly plastic bodies.
Examples- putty, paraffin, wax etc.

Stress -
The internal restoring force acting per unit area of a deformed body is called
stress.
Stress = Restoring force / Area.
Its unit is N/m2 or Pascal and dimensional formula is [ML-12T-2].
Stress is a tensor quantity.

Types of Stress:
1. Normal Stress-
 If deforming force is applied normal to the area, then the stress is called
normal stress.
 If there is an increase in length, then stress is called tensile stress.
 If there is a decrease in length, then stress is called compression stress.

2. Tangential Stress -
 If deforming force is applied tangentially, then the stress is called tangential stress.
The fractional change in configuration is called strain.

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Strain =
It has no unit and it is a dimensionless quantity.

According to the change in configuration, the strain is of three types:

(1) Longitudinal strain=
(2) Volumetric strain =
(3) Shearing strain = Angular displacement of the plane perpendicular to the fixed
surface.

Hooke’s Law-
Under elastic limit, stress is proportional to strain.
Stress Strain or = E (Constant)
where, E is the modulus of elasticity of the material of the body.
SI unit is Nm-2 also called pascal.

Elastic Constant is of three types:

1. Young’s Modulus of Elasticity (Y) =

2. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity (K) =

( )
3. Modulus of Rigidity (η) =

Relation between Y, K, η and ς

(i) Y = 3K (1 – 2σ)
(ii) Y = 2 η (1 + σ)
(iii) σ = 3K – 2η / 2η + 6K
(iv) 9 / Y = 1 / K + 3 / η or Y = 9K η / η + 3K

Compressibility -
 Compressibility of a material is the reciprocal of its bulk modulus of elasticity.
 Compressibility (C) = 1 / k
 Its SI unit is N-1m2 and CGS unit is dyne-1 cm2.
 Steel is more elastic than rubber. Solids are more elastic and gases are least
elastic.

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 For liquids modulus of rigidity is zero.
Young’s modulus (Y) and modulus of rigidity (η) are possessed by solid
materials only.

Limit of Elasticity -
 The maximum value of deforming force for which elasticity is present in the
body is called its limit of elasticity.

Breaking Stress -
 The minimum value of stress required to break a wire, is called breaking stress.
 Breaking stress is fixed for a material but breaking force varies with area of
cross-section of the wire.
 Safety factor = Breaking stress / Working stress.

Elastic Relaxation Time -

 The time delay in restoring the original configuration after removal of
deforming force is called elastic relaxation time.
 For quartz and phosphor bronze this time is negligible.

Elastic after Effect -

 The temporary delay in regaining the original configuration by the elastic body
after the removal of deforming force, is called elastic after effect.

Elastic Fatigue -
 The property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour becomes less
elastic under the action of repeated alternating deforming force is called
elastic fatigue.

Ductile Materials -
 The materials which show large plastic range beyond elastic limit are called
ductile materials.
 Examples- copper, silver, iron, aluminium, etc.
 Ductile materials are used for making springs and sheets.

Brittle Materials -
 The materials which show very small plastic range beyond elastic limit are
called brittle materials.
 Examples- glass, cast iron, etc.

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Elastomers -
 The materials for which strain produced is much larger than the stress applied,
with in the limit of elasticity are called elastomers.
 Examples-rubber, the elastic tissue of aorta, the large vessel carrying blood
from heart. etc.
 Elastomers have no plastic range.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Periodic Motion -
 A motion repeats itself after an equal interval of time.
 Example- uniform circular motion.
 There is no equilibrium position.
 There is no restoring force.
 There is no stable equilibrium position.

Oscillation Motion -
 To and fro motion of a particle about a mean position is called an oscillatory
motion in which a particle moves on either side of equilibrium (or) mean
position is an oscillatory motion.
 It is a kind of periodic motion bounded between two extreme points.
 For example, Oscillation of Simple Pendulum, Spring-Mass System.
 The object will keep on moving between two extreme points about a fixed
point is called mean position (or) equilibrium position along any path. (The
path is not a constraint).
 There will be a restoring force directed towards equilibrium position (or)
mean position.
 In an oscillatory motion, the net force on the particle is zero at the mean
position.
 The mean position is a stable equilibrium position.

Simple Harmonic Motion or SHM -

 It is a special case of oscillation along with straight line between the two
extreme points (the path of SHM is a constraint).
 Path of the object needs to be a straight line.
 There will be a restoring force directed towards equilibrium position (or) mean
position.
 Mean position in Simple harmonic motion is a stable equilibrium.
Concepts of Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M)–
1. Amplitude:

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 The maximum displacement of a particle from its equilibrium position or mean
position is its amplitude, and its direction is always away from the mean or
equilibrium position.
 Its S.I. unit is the meter, and the dimensions are [L1M0 T0].

2. Period:
 The time taken by a particle to complete one oscillation is its period. Therefore,
the period of S.H.M. is the least time after which the motion will repeat itself.
Thus, the motion will repeat itself after nT, where, n is an integer.

3. Frequency:
 Frequency of S.H.M. is the number of oscillations that a particle performs per
unit time.
 The S.I. unit of frequency is hertz or r.p.s (rotations per second), and its
dimensions are [L0M0T-1].

4. Phase:
 Phase of S.H.M. is its state of oscillation, and the magnitude and direction of
displacement of particles represent the phase. Epoch(α) is the phase at the
beginning of the motion.

Difference between Periodic motion and Simple Harmonic motion:

Periodic Motion Simple Harmonic Motion

In the periodic motion, the In the simple harmonic motion, the
displacement of the object may or may displacement of the object is always in
not be in the direction of the restoring the opposite direction of the restoring
force. force.

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The periodic motion may or may not be Simple Harmonic Motion is always
oscillatory. oscillatory.

Periodic motion examples are the Simple harmonic motion examples: the
motion of the hands of a clock, the motionof a pendulum, motion of a
motion of the wheels of a car, etc. spring, etc.

Simple Pendulum-
 A pendulum is a device that is found in wall clocks. It consists of a weight (bob)
suspended from a pivot by a string or a very light rod so that it can swing
freely.
 When displaced to an initial angle and released, the pendulum will swing back
and forth with a periodic motion.
 By applying Newton’s second law of motion for rotational systems, the
equation of motion for the pendulum may be obtained.

Terms Related to the Simple Harmonic Motion -

1. Length (L) -
 Distance between the point of suspension to the centre of the bob
 Time period (T): Time taken by the pendulum to finish one full oscillation

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2. Displacement (x) -
 Distance travelled by the pendulum bob from the equilibrium position to one
side. The angle described by the pendulum with an imaginary axis at the
equilibrium position is called the angular displacement (θ).

3. Amplitude (xmax) -
 Maximum distance travelled by the pendulum from the equilibrium position to one
side before changing its direction. For angle, it is denoted by θmax.

How to Derive the Formula for Time Period?

According to Newton’s second law,
F = ma
Or, mL = – mg sin θ
2 2
Or, d θ/dt + g/L sin θ = 0
If the amplitude of displacement is small, then small-angle approximation holds,
i.e., sin θ ~ θ.
d2θ/dt2 + (g/L) θ = 0
Or, d2θ/dt2 + ω2θ = 0

 This equation represents a simple harmonic motion. Thus, the motion of a

simple pendulum is a simple harmonic motion with an angular frequency, ω =
(g/L)1/2 and linear frequency, f = (1/2π) (g/L)1/2. The time period is given by,
 T = 1/f = 2π(L/g)1/2.
 Starting with the right-hand side, the dimension analysis of the time period
gives the unit of time.
 [L/LT-2]1/2 = [T]
 The principle of a simple pendulum can be understood as follows. The
restoring force of the pendulum from the above is, F = -mgL θ.
 This force is responsible for restoring the pendulum to its equilibrium position.
However, due to the inertia of motion, the pendulum passes the equilibrium
position and swings to the other side.
 This motion is periodic and can be solved using differential equation analysis.
 After solving the differential equation, the angular displacement is given by
 θ = θmax sin (ωt)
 Sometimes, a phase φ is added to the above equation depending upon the
initial conditions of the pendulum. Then, the equation can be written as
 θ = θmax sin (ωt + φ)

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 A simple pendulum is a typical laboratory experiment in many academic
curricula. Students are often asked to evaluate the value of the acceleration
due to gravity, g, using the equation for the time period of a pendulum.
Rearranging the time period equation,
 g = 4π2L/T2
 Note that the component mg cos θ is balanced by the tension T of the string,
i.e., T = mg cos θ.
 Laws of Simple Pendulum
 Law of mass: The time period is independent of the mass of the bob.
 Law of length: The time period is directly proportional to the square root of
the length.
 Law of gravity: The time period is inversely proportional to the square root of
the acceleration due to gravity at that place.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
WAVES

 A wave transmits information or energy from one point to another in the form
of signals, but no material object makes this journey. The frequency of a wave
is obtained by including a factor of time in the mix. We are completely
dependent on waves for all of our wireless communications.

Types of Waves:
Different types of waves have a different set of characteristics. Based on the
orientation of particle motion and direction of energy, there are threecategories:
1. Mechanical Waves:
 A mechanical wave is a wave that is not capable of transmitting its energy
through a vacuum. Mechanical waves require a medium (solid, liquid or gas)
for their propagation. Example-sound wave.

2. Electromagnetic Waves:
 Electromagnetic waves are waves that are created as a result of vibrations
between an electric field and a magnetic field. In other words, waves do not
require medium for their propagation.

3. Matter Waves:
 In quantum mechanics, a branch of physics, a matter wave is when you think
of matter as a wave. The concept of matter waves was first introduced by
Louis de Broglie. Matter waves are hard to visualize, because we are used to
thinking of matter as a physical object.

There are two types of mechanical waves:

a) Longitudinal waves – In this type of wave, the movement of the particle are
parallel to the motion of the energy i.e., the displacement of the medium is in the
same direction to which the wave is moving. Example – Sound Waves, Pressure
Waves.
b) Transverse Waves –When the movement of the particles is at right angles or
perpendicular to the motion of the energy, then this type of wave is known as
Transverse wave. Light is an example of a transverse wave. Example- Light, Heat.

39 | P a g e
Wave length range of electromagnetic wave is 10-14 to 104 m.

Electromagnetic Wave (concept was introduced by Maxwell) -

 Electromagnetic waves are created by a fusion of electric and magnetic fields.
The light you see, the colours around you are visible because
of electromagnetic wave.
 One interesting property here is that unlike mechanical waves,
electromagnetic waves do not need a medium to travel.

Following are the different types of electromagnetic waves:

a) Microwaves
b) X-ray
c) Radio waves
d) Ultraviolet waves
e) Infra-red rays

Following waves are not electromagnetic:

a) Cathode rays
b) Canal rays
c) α rays
d) β rays
e) Sound wave
f) Ultrasonic wave

40 | P a g e
Amplitude: It is defined as the maximum displacement produced in the vibrating
particle on either side of the mean position. It is denoted by A. Its SI unit is metre.

Wavelength:It is defined as the distance travelled by a wave during the time a

particle of the medium completes one vibration. It is denoted by λ. Its SI unit is
metre.

Frequency:It is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time.

Its SI unit is Hertz (Hz).

Relation between wavelength, frequency and velocity:

The velocity of a wave is v, time period T, frequency n and wavelength λ.
By the definition of wavelength,
Wavelength = Distance travelled by the wave in one time period, i.e., in T second.
Or, wavelength = Wave velocity x Time period
Or, λ = v x T
Or, λ = v x 1/n * T = 1/n+
Therefore, v = nλ
Therefore, Wave velocity = Frequency x wavelength

Sound wave:A sound wave is called a longitudinal mechanical wave because

compressions and rarefactions in the air produce it. The air particles vibrate
parallel to the direction of propagation.

Differentiate between audible, ultrasonic and infra-sonic frequency range and give
examples

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Sound waves are divided into three categories that cover different frequency
ranges. They are as follows:

(1) Audible Waves are waves that lie within the range of sensitivity of the human
ear. They can be generated in a variety of ways, such as by musical instruments,
human vocal cords, and loudspeakers. The human ear responds to sounds with
frequencies in the range from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. This is called the audible range
of the human ear.

(2) Infrasonic Waves are waves having frequencies below the audible range.
Elephants can use infrasonic waves to communicate with each other, even when
separated by many kilometres. Audible sound waves whose frequencies are less
than 20 Hz are in the infrasonic range.

(3) Ultrasonic Waves are waves having frequencies above the audible
range. Ultrasonic waves are used in medical imaging. Frequencies above 20,000
Hz are in the ultrasonic range. The audible range of dogs, cats,bat, moths and
mice extends into ultrasound frequencies. They can hear very high frequencies
that humans cannot.

Factors Affecting the Speed of Sound -

Density and temperature of the medium in which the sound wave travels affect
the speed of sound.
Density of the Medium:When the medium is dense, the molecules in the medium
are closely packed, which means that the sound travels faster. Therefore, the
speed of sound increases as the density of the medium increases.

Temperature of the Medium:The speed of sound is directly proportional to the

temperature. Therefore, as the temperature increases, the speed of sound
increases.

Doppler’s Effect:
The Doppler effect is observed because the distance between the source of sound
and the observer is changing. If the source and the observer are approaching, then
the distance is decreasing and if the source and the observer are receding, then
the distance is increasing.

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Mach Number -
The Mach number is the ratio of flow velocity after a certain limit of the sounds
speed. In simple words, it is the ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of sound
in the surrounding medium.
 If mach number> 1, body is called supersonic.
 If mach number> 5, body is called hypersonic.
 If mach number< 1, the body is called subsonic.

Shock Waves:Shock waves are produced if the aircraft moves faster than the
speed of sound. If a moving source of sound moves faster than sound, the source
will always be ahead of the waves that it produces.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
HEAT

 Heat is defined as the flow of energy from a warm to a cooler object.

 Every matter has heat energy.
 The result of the movement of minute particles known as atoms, molecules, or
ions in liquids, solids, and gases is nothing but heat energy.
 Heat energy can be transferred by one substance to another and the flow
because of the temperature difference between two objects is known as heat.

Units of Heat:
 C.G.S unit: Calorie It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of 1g of pure water through 10 C.
 International calorie: It is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 g of pure water from 14.50C to 15.50C.
 F.P.S. unit: B.T.U (British Thermal Unit) It is the amount of heat required to
raise the temp. of 1 pound of pure water through 10F.
 1 Calorie = 4.186 joule.

Ways of Transferring Heat Energy -

 Convection transfers heat energy via air and liquids. The particles move apart
and become less dense as the air heats up and hence causes air to rise. While
cooler air moves in from below and heats up.
 Radiation warms the air using heat waves that radiate out of the hot object in
all directions until absorbed by other objects. Heat transfer by radiation takes
place at the speed of light and travels great distances.
 Conduction transfers heat through one object to another when in direct
contact. The traveling molecules of a warm object can increase the energy of
the molecules in a cooler object. Solids conduct heat better than gases and
liquids since particles are close together.
 Temperature is the measure of hotness or coldness expressed in terms of any
of several scales, including Fahrenheit and Celsius. Temperature indicates the
direction in which heat energy will spontaneously flow—i.e., from a hotter
body (one at a higher temperature) to a colder body (one at a lower
temperature).

44 | P a g e
Temperature Scales -
Thermometers measure temperature according to well-defined scales of
measurement. The three most common temperature scales are the Fahrenheit,
Celsius, and Kelvin scales.
Conversion Equation

Celsius to Fahrenheit TF0 = TC0 + 32

Fahrenheit to Celsius TC0 = TF0 _

32

Celsius to Kelvin TK = TC0 + 273.15

Example: Converting different temperature scales

The room temperature is generally defined to be 25ºC. What is the room
temperature in ºF? What is the room temperature in K?
Solution: To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit,
we use the equation:TF0 = TC0 +32
Substituting the values in the equation, we get TF0 = T250C+ 32 = 770F
Solution for 2: To convert from Celsius to Kelvin,
we use the equation:TK = TC0 + 273.15
Substituting the values in the equation, we getTK = T250C+ 273.15 = 298K

Specific Heat:
 The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a
substance by one Celsius degree.
 The units of specific heat are usually calories or joules per gram per Celsius
degree. For example, the specific heat of water is 1 calorie (or 4.186 joules)
per gram per Celsius degree.

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Latent Heat:Latent heat is the energy required to change the state of substance
from solid to liquid and vice-versa as well as from liquid to gas and vice-versa, and
from the solid state to the gaseous state and vice-versa without changing the
temperature of the substance.

Types:There are three types of latent heat based on the three states in which a
substance can exist, i.e., solid, liquid and gas therefore the latent heat accordingly
are:
Latent heat of fusion: The heat or energy required to change the substance from
solid to liquid state or back from liquid to solid state.
Latent heat of vaporization: The heat required to convert the substance from
liquid to gas and vice-versa.
Latent heat of sublimation: The amount of heat or energy needed to transform a
solid substance to its gaseous state and back to its original state.

What are the values of latent heat of fusion of ice and the latent heat of
vaporization of water?
The latent heat of fusion of ice is 334 j/kg at 00C and the latent heat of water is
22.5 ×105 j/kg.

Some practical examples of latent heat:

A glass of hot water can be cooled faster by adding cold water or ice into it.
During roasting meat, the interiors never exceed temperatures higher than the
boiling point of water. If that happens then there would be no water left in the
meat which would make it have a leathery

46 | P a g e
 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

LIGHT

 Light is a form of energy that enables us to see things. Light starts from a
source and bounces off objects which are perceived by our eyes and our brain
processes this signal, which eventually enables us to see.
 Nature of Light- Light behaves as a:
 Ray (reflection)
 Wave (diffraction)
 Particle (photoelectric effect)
 Laws of Reflection
 Light incident on another medium
 When light travels from one medium to another medium it either:
 Gets absorbed (absorption)
 Bounces back (reflection)
 Passes through or bends (refraction)
 When light is incident on a plane mirror, most of it gets reflected, and some of
it gets absorbed in the medium.

Characteristics of light
 Speed of light c=λ×μ, where λ is its wavelength and μ is its frequency.
 Speed of light is a constant which is approximately 3×108 m/s.

47 | P a g e
 Reflection of light by other media
 A medium that is polished well without any irregularities on its surface will
cause regular reflection of light. For example, a plane mirror. But even then,
some light gets absorbed by the surface.
 Laws of Reflection
 The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie in the same plane. Angle
of incidence = Angle of reflection [∠i=∠r]

Reflection -
 Reflection of Light- The phenomenon of bouncing back of light into the same
medium by the smooth surface is called reflection.
 Incident light- Light which falls on the surface is called incident light.
 Reflected light- Light which goes back after reflection is called reflected light.
 The angle of incidence- The angle between the incident ray and the normal.
 An angle of reflection- The angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

 Mirror- The surface which can reflect the light is a mirror.

 Plane Mirror- If the reflecting surface is a plane, then the mirror is plane.
 Spherical Mirror- If the reflecting surface is part of the hollow sphere, then the
mirror is a spherical mirror.

The spherical mirror is of two types:

1. Convex mirror- In this mirror reflecting surface is convex. It diverges the light so
it is also called a diverging mirror.
Use of Convex Mirror- Convex mirror used as rear-view mirror in vehicles, as shop
security mirrors, etc.

2. Concave mirror- In this mirror reflecting surface is concave. It converges the

light so it is also called converging mirror.

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Use of Concave Mirror- It is used as a makeup mirror, the reflector in torches, in
headlights of cars and searchlights, doctor’s head-mirrors, solar furnace, etc.

Refraction -
 Refraction of Light- The bending of light at the interface of two different
mediums is called Refraction of light.
 If the velocity of light in medium is more, then medium is called optical rarer.
Example, air or vacuum is more optical rarer.
 If the velocity of light in medium is less, then medium is called optical denser.
Example, glass is denser than air.
 Refractive Index: It represents the amount or extent of bending of light when
it passes from one medium to another.
There are two types of refractive index
 Relative refractive index and
 Absolute refractive index.
 Refractive index of medium with respect to another medium is called Relative
Refractive Index.

Refractive index of =

 Refractive index of medium with respect to air or vacuum is called Absolute

Refractive Index.
( )
Absolute refractive index of medium (m) = ( )

 Refracted ray- It is an outgoing ray from the refracting surface.

 An angle of incidence (i)- It is the angle between incident rays and
perpendicular line (normal) at the point of incidence.
 An angle of refraction (r)- It is the angle between refracted rays and
perpendicular line (normal) at the point of incidence.
 Law of Refraction- According to this law
 “The incident ray, refracted ray and normal at the point of incidence all lie in
the same plane.”
 “The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is constant.”
= constant (µ)

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Examples of refraction of light:
 Twinkling of stars in a clear sky.
 Pool of water appears to be less deep than what it actually is.
 Rainbow formation in the sky.
 Camera lenses.
 Glasses.

Critical angle
The critical angle of a medium can be defined as the angle of incidence of a light
ray in the denser medium which is such that the angle of refraction obtained is
equal to 90∘.

Total internal Reflection -

 Total internal reflection is the phenomenon of bouncing back of light in the
same medium after striking the boundary of a rarer medium. This happens
when the angle of refraction exceeds 90∘In such a case Snell's law becomes
invalid and reflection takes place instead of refraction.

 Examples of Total Internal Reflection –

Diamond -
When the incident ray falls on every face of the diamond such that the angle
formed, the ray is greater than the critical angle. The critical value of the diamond

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is 23°. This condition is responsible for the total internal reflection in a diamond
which makes it shine.

Mirage -
It is an optical illusion that is responsible for the appearance of the water layer at
short distances in a desert or on the road. Mirage is an example of total internal
reflection which occurs due to atmospheric refraction.

Optical Fibre -
When the incident ray falls on the cladding, it suffers total internal reflection as
the angle formed by the ray is greater than the critical angle. Optical fibres have
revolutionised the speed with which signals are transferred, not only across cities
but across countries and continents making telecommunication one of the fastest
modes of information transfer.
Refraction of Light through lens:

Lens-The transparent refracting medium bounded by two surfaces in which at

least one surface is curved is called lens.
Lenses are mainly two type:
1. Convex lens
2. Concave lens

Special Rays for Image Formation by Lens:

 An incident ray, parallel to the principal axis, after refraction passes through
(or appears to come from), second focus of the lens.
 An incident ray, passing through the optical centre of the lens, goes
undeviated from the lens.

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 An incident ray, passing through the (first) principal focus of the lens, or
directed toward it, becomes parallel to the principal axis after refraction
through lens.
 Use of Lens: In photographic cameras, magnifying glass, microscope,
telescope, the human eye.
 Real image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, actually
meet at a point, then the image formed by these rays is said to be real. Real
images can be obtained on a screen.
 Virtual image: When the rays of light, after reflection from a mirror, appear to
meet at a point, then the image formed by these rays is said to be virtual.
Virtual images can’t be obtained on a screen.
 The following rays are used while drawing ray diagrams to find the position of
an image:
 A ray of light parallel to the principal axis after reflection passes through the
focus. (1)
 A ray of light passing through the focus after reflection becomes parallel to the
principal axis. (2)
 A ray of light incident on the centre of curvature retraces its path after
reflection form the mirror. (3)

The position of the image for various positions of the object for a concave mirror
is as shown in the table below:

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The position of the image for various positions of the object for a convex mirror is
as shown in the table below:

Dispersion of light:
 The separation of visible light into its different colours is known as dispersion.
It was mentioned in the Light and Colour unit that each colour is characteristic
of a distinct wave frequency; and different frequencies of light waves will bend
varying amounts upon passage through a prism.

Rainbow:
A rainbow is produced by dispersion and internal reflection of light in water
droplets in the atmosphere. White light from the sun enters a spherical raindrop.

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The different colours are refracted through different angles, reflected off the back
of the drop, and then refracted again when they emerge from the drop.

How is a rainbow formed by dispersion of light?

When light meets a water droplet, it is refracted at the boundary of air and water,
and enters the droplet, where the light is dispersed into the seven colours. The
rainbow effect occurs because the light is then reflected inside the droplet and
finally refracted out again into the air.

Colour Theory -
Colour theory is the collection of rules and guidelines which designers use to
communicate with users through appealing colour schemes in visual interfaces.
Primary colours –
 The most basic colours on the colour wheel, red, yellow and blue. These
colours cannot be made by mixing.
 The three additive primary colours are red, green, and blue; this means that,
by additively mixing the colours red, green, and blue in varying amounts,
almost all other colours can be produced.
 When the three primaries are added together in equal amounts, white is
produced.

Secondary colours –
 Colours that are made by mixing two primary colours together.
 These are colour combinations created by the equal mixture of two primary
colours. On the colour wheel, secondary colours are located between primary
colours. According to the traditional colour wheel, red and yellow make
orange, red and blue make purple, and blue and yellow make green.

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Complementary colours-
 Complementary colours are pairs of colours which, when combined or mixed,
cancel each other out by producing a grayscale colour like white or black.
When placed next to each other, they create the strongest contrast for those
two colours. Complementary colours may also be called "opposite colours".

Scattering of Light-
When light passes from one medium to any other medium say air, a glass of water
then a part of the light is absorbed by particles of the medium preceded by its
subsequent radiation in a particular direction. This phenomenon is termed as a
scattering of light.

Applications of Scattering in our daily life:

 Blue colour of the sky.
 Red sky and sun on the time of Sunset or Sunrise.
 White colour of clouds.

Interference of light -
Interference of light is the phenomena of multiple light waves interfering with one
another under certain circumstances, causing the combined amplitudes of the
waves to either increase or decrease.

Types of Interference:
Interference of light waves can be either constructive interference or destructive
interference.
1. Constructive interference- Constructive interference takes place when the
crest of one wave falls on the crest of another wave such that the amplitude is
maximum. These waves will have the same displacement and are in the same
phase.

2. Destructive interference- In destructive interference the crest of one wave

falls on the trough of another wave such that the amplitude is minimum. The
displacement and phase of these waves are not the same.
Diffraction Of Light -
 Diffraction of light is defined as the bending of light around corners such that
it spreads out and illuminates areas where a shadow is expected. In general, it
is hard to separate diffraction from interference since both occur
simultaneously.

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 Example- The silver lining which we witness in the sky is caused due to
diffraction of light. When the sunlight passes through or encounters the cloud,
a silver lining is seen in the sky.

Diffraction effects in wide gap and Narrow gap

Polarisation of light

 Polarisation of light is a property shown by transverse waves. The light waves

which travel only in a single plane are known as polarized light waves. The
process of transforming unpolarized light waves to polarized light waves is
called the polarisation of light.
 Polarization Applications
 Polarization is used in sunglasses to reduce the glare.
 Polaroid filters are used in plastic industries for performing stress analysis
tests.
 Three-dimensional movies are produced and shown with the help of
polarization.
 Polarization is used for differentiating between transverse and longitudinal
waves.
 Infrared spectroscopy uses polarization.
 It is used in seismology to study earthquakes.

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In Chemistry, the chirality of organic compounds is tested using polarization
techniques.
Defects of human eye and the remedies:
1. Myopia -
Myopia is one of the eye disorders, where the affected person can see the close
object clearly. Myopia is also known as near-sightedness and short-sightedness. As
the name indicates, short-sighted where the people can see the nearby objects
very clearly.Causes-
1. Elongation of eye ball along the axis.
2. Shortening of focal length of eye lens.
3. Over stretching of ciliary muscles beyond the elastic limit.
Remedy- Diverging lens is used.
2. Hypermetropia or long-sightedness -
A person suffering from hypermetropia can see the distant objects clearly but not
near objects.
Causes- 1. Shortening of eye ball along the axis.
2. Increase in the focal length of eye lens.
3. Stiffening of ciliary muscles.
Remedy- Converging lens is used.
3. Presbyopia -
Presbyopia is caused by a hardening of the lens of your eye, which occurs with
aging. As your lens becomes less flexible, it can no longer change shape to focus
on close-up images. As a result, these images appear out of focus.
Treatment options include wearing corrective eyeglasses (spectacle lenses) or
contact lenses, undergoing refractive surgery, or getting lens implants for
presbyopia.
4. Astigmatism -
Astigmatism may be present from birth, or it may develop after an eye injury,
disease or surgery. Astigmatism isn't caused or made worse by reading in poor
light, sitting too close to the television or squinting. The most common treatments
for astigmatism are eyeglasses eye-glasses or contact lenses.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

STATIC ELECTRICITY

 Static electricity is a familiar electric phenomenon in which charged particles

are transferred from one body to another.
 For example, if two objects are rubbed together, especially if the objects are
insulators and the surrounding air is dry, the objects acquire equal and
opposite charge.
 Moreover, when two objects like wool and wax are in contact with each other,
one releases the electrons. This results in positive charging of the object while
the other receives the electrons to create a negative energy build-up. This
produces static electricity causing the wool to stick to the wax. We also
observe this similar phenomenon when we rub glassware with a piece of silk
cloth.
 As electrons are very loosely placed in an object, they can be exchanged very
easily. A slight touch or rub is sufficient to transfer the negatively charged
particles and thus causing an electrical current discharge.
 Properties and Characteristics of Static Electricity
 Static Electricity produces due to the imbalance in the positive and negative
charge of an object.
 We can see it in both conductors and insulators. The perfect example being
Lightning or even sticking of the hair to the wool of the hat.
 Moisture prevents the transfer of electrons which is why this phenomenon is
more common during the dry season.
 There is no production of continued electric current in Static Electricity.
Charges which produce during this phenomenon hold together in a static or
constant state through the force field preventing in the movement of the
energy being discharged.

Conductors-
 Copper is considered to be a conductor because its “conducts” the electron
current or flow of electrons fairly easily. Most metals are considered to be
good conductors of electrical current. Copper is just one of the more popular
materials that is used for conductors.
 Other materials that are sometimes used as conductors are silver, gold, and
aluminium. Copper is still the most popular material used for wires because it

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 is a very good conductor of electrical current and it is fairly inexpensive when
compared to gold and silver. Aluminium and most other metals do not
conduct electricity quite as good as copper.

Insulators-
 Insulators are materials that have just the opposite effect on the flow of
electrons that conductors do. They do not let electrons flow very easily from
one atom to another. Insulators are materials whose atoms have tightly bound
electrons. These electrons are not free to roam around and be shared by
neighbouring atoms.
 Some common insulator materials are glass, plastic, rubber, air, and wood.

Coulomb’s Law in static electricity-

Coulomb's law states that the electrical force between two charged objects is
directly proportional to the product of the quantity of charge on the objects and
inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance between the two
objects.

F=

Where, F is the electric force, directed on a line between the two charged bodies.
K is a constant of proportionality that relates the left side of the equation
(newtons) to the right side (coulombs and meters). It is needed to make the
answer come out right when we do a real experiment.
q1, q2 represent the amount of charge on each body, in units of coulombs (the SI
unit for charge).
r is the distance between the charged bodies.

Difference Between electric field and electric field density:

 Electric field is the electric strength at the point due to charge (q). Electric flux
is the imaginary field lines produced from +q and terminated at -q charges.
Electric flux density is the field lines produced across the unit encircled area.
 Electrostatics of hollow conductors
 Inside a conductor, electric field is zero.
 The interior of a conductor can have no excess charge in static situation.
 Electric field just outside a charged conductor is perpendicular to the surface
at every point.

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 In a hollow sphere, with the charge on the surface of spheres, there is no
charge enclosed within the sphere, since all the charges are in surface. Hence
there is no electric field within the sphere.

Electrochemical Cell-
 An electrochemical cell is a device that can generate electrical energy from the
chemical reactions occurring in it, or use the electrical energy supplied to it to
facilitate chemical reactions in it. These devices are capable of converting
chemical energy into electrical energy, or vice versa.
 A common example of an electrochemical cell is a standard 1.5-volt cell which
is used to power many electrical appliances such as TV remotes and clocks.
 Such cells capable of generating an electric current from the chemical
reactions occurring in them care called Galvanic cells or Voltaic cells.
 Alternatively, the cells which cause chemical reactions to occur in them when
an electric current is passed through them are called electrolytic cells.

In Figure: Electrochemical Cell

Cells are basically two types:

 Primary cells are basically use-and-throw galvanic cells. The electrochemical
reactions that take place in these cells are irreversible in nature. Hence, the

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 reactants areconsumed for the generation of electrical energy and the cell
stops producing an electric current once the reactants are completely
depleted.
 Secondary cells (also known as rechargeable batteries) are electrochemical
cells in which the cell has a reversible reaction, i.e., the cell can function as a
Galvanic cell as well as an Electrolytic cell.
 Most of the primary batteries (multiple cells connected in series, parallel, or a
combination of the two) are considered wasteful and environmentally harmful
devices. This is because they require about 50 times the energy, they contain
in their manufacturing process. They also contain many toxic metals and are
considered to be hazardous waste.

Types of Electrochemical Cells-

The two primary types of electrochemical cells are-
1. Galvanic cells (also known as Voltaic cells)
2. Electrolytic cells

Difference between Voltaic cells and electrolytic cells:

Voltaic or Galvanic Cells Electrolytic Cells

Converts chemical energy to electrical Converts electrical energy into chemical
energy energy
Produces electricity from a chemical Induces chemical reaction from electrical
reaction energy
Redox reaction is spontaneous Redox reaction is induced from an external
electrical energy source
Anode is the negative electrode Anode is the positive electrode
Cathode is the positive electrode Cathode is the negative electrode

Applications of Electrochemical Cells:

 Electrolytic cells are used in the electro refining of many non-ferrous metals.
They are also used in the electro winning of these metals.
 The production of high-purity lead, zinc, aluminium, and copper involves the
use of electrolytic cells.
 Metallic sodium can be extracted from molten sodium chloride by placing it in
an electrolytic cell and passing an electric current through it.
 Many commercially important batteries (such as the lead-acid battery) are
made up of Galvanic cells.

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 Fuel cells are an important class of electrochemical cells that serve as a source
of clean energy in several remote locations.
 Usability of Static Electricity in Modern Science-
 Though Static Electricity is of not much importance in electric current
production. However, it plays an important role in various sections of applied
physics like:
 Super capacitors
 Piezoelectric Materials
 Laser Printers
 Photocopiers
 Crystal Microphones
 Electrostatic spray paints and precipitators

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

 An electric current is a stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions,

moving through an electrical conductor or space. It is measured as the net rate
of flow of electric charge through a surface or into a control volume.
 The SI unit of electric current is Ampere. It is a Scalar quantity.
 Ampere is defined as one coulomb of charge moving past a point in one
second. If there are 6.241 x 1018 electrons flowing through our frame in one
second then the electrical current flowing through it is ‘One Ampere.’

Types of Current Electricity -

There are two types of current electricity as follows:
1. Direct Current (DC)
2. Alternating Current (AC)

1. Direct Current (DC) -

The current electricity whose direction remains the same is known as direct
current. Direct current is defined by the constant flow of electrons from a region
of high electron density to a region of low electron density.
DC is used in many household appliances and applications that involve a battery.

2. Alternating Current (AC) -

The current electricity that is bidirectional and keeps changing the direction of the
charge flow is known as alternating current. The directionality is caused by a
sinusoidally varying current and voltage that reverses directions, creating a
periodic back and forth motion for the current.
The electrical outlets at our home and industries are supplied with alternating
current.

Resistance -
Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit.
Resistance is measured in ohms, symbolized by (Ω). Ohms are named after Ohm a
German physicist who studied the relationship between voltage, current and
resistance. He is credited for formulating Ohm's Law.

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All materials resist current flow to some degree. They fall into one of two broad
categories:
Conductors- Materials that offer very little resistance where electrons can move
easily. Examples: silver, copper, aluminium.
Insulators- Materials that present high resistance and restrict the flow of
electrons. Examples: Rubber, paper, glass, wood, plastic.

Resistance Measurements -
 The higher the resistance, the lower the current flow. If abnormally high, one
possible cause (among many) could be damaged conductors due to burning or
corrosion. All conductors give off some degree of heat, so overheating is an
issue often associated with resistance.
 The lower the resistance, the higher the current flow. Possible causes:
insulators damaged by moisture or overheating.
 Many components, such as heating elements and resistors, have a fixed-
resistance value. These values are often printed on the components'
nameplates or in manuals for reference.
 "Resistance" may sound negative, but in electricity it can be used beneficially.
 Examples: Current must struggle to flow through the small coils of a toaster,
enough to generate heat that browns bread. Old-style incandescent light bulbs
force current to flow through filaments so thin that light is generated.
 Resistance-
 Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical
circuit. It arises due to collisions of drifting electrons with the core ions.
 Its SI unit is ohm.

Ohm's law-
 Ohm's Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the potential difference applied across its ends, provided the
temperature and other physical conditions remain unchanged. Current is
directly proportional to voltage difference through a resistor.
 If V is the potential difference across the ends of a conductor and I is the
current through it, then according to ohm’s law V I or V= IR.
 Where R is a constant called resistance of conductor.
 Ohmicvs Non-Ohmic Conductors
 The main difference between Ohmic and Non-Ohmic conductors is that the
ohmic conductors are the ones that follow Ohm’s law, that is, they have a

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 constant resistance when the current across them is increased or the voltage
in them is varied.
 Example- Resistance of manganin wire.
 While non-ohmic conductors are those that do not follow ohm’s law, that us,
their resistance varies with varying conditions of current, voltage
and temperature.
 Example- Resistance of a diode valve, resistance of triode valve.

Conductance-
 Reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called its conductance.
 Conductance = 1/ resistance. It is denoted by G and (G=1/R).
 Its SI unit is ohm-1 (also called mho or Siemen).
 The resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and
inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area. i.e., if l and A are respectively
length and cross-sectional area of a conductor and R is its resistance then R
or R = 𝛒. .
 Where is a constant of material of conductor called specific resistance.
 Its SI unit ohm meter.

Combination of Resistance- Various resistances can be combined to form a

network mainly in two ways-
1. Series combination
2. Parallel combination.

Resistance in series-
A number of resistances are said to be connected in series if they are joined end
to end and the same current flows through each one of them, when a potential
difference is applied across the combination.

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R1, R2, R3 – Resistances in series.
V – Total potential difference across XY.
V1, V2, V3 – Potential difference across R1, R2, R3 respectively.
I – Current flowing through combination.
So, V = V1 + V2 + V3 ... (i) [Potential difference gets divided among resistances
joined in series]

According to Ohm's Law:

V1 = IR1 ... (ii)
V2 = IR2 ... (iii)
V3 = IR3 ... (iv)
Let R is the resultant or equivalent resistance of the combination. Then
V = IR ... (v)
From (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v) we get that:
IR = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
IR = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
∴ R = R1 + R2 + R3

Things to Remember in Series Connection:

(a) When a number of resistances are connected in series, the equivalent or
resultant resistance is equal to the sum of individual resistances and resultant
resistance is greater than any individual resistance.
(b) If n resistances each of value R are connected in series, the equivalent
resistance Re is given by:
Re = R + R + R .......... n times
Re = n R
Re = Number of resistors × resistance of each resistor

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(c) Equal current flows through each resistance and it is also equal to the total
current in the circuit. This is because there is no other path along which the
current can flow.
(d) The potential difference across the ends of the combination is distributed
across the ends of each of the resistances. The potential difference across any one
of the resistances is directly proportional to its resistance.
(e) The equivalent resistance when used in place of the combination of resistances
produces the same current with the same potential difference applied across its
ends.
(f) When two or more resistances are joined in series, the result is the same as
increasing the length of the conductor. In both cases the resultant resistance is
higher.
(g) In a series combination, the equivalent resistance is greater than the greatest
resistance in the combination.

Resistance in Parallel:
A number of resistors are said to be in a parallel connection if one end of each
resistance is connected to one point and the other is connected to another point.
The potential difference across each resistor is the same and is equal to the
applied potential difference between the two points.

R1, R2, R3 – Three resistances in parallel connection.

V – Potential difference across A and B.
I – Total current flowing between A and B.
I1, I2, I3 – Current flowing through R1, R2, R3 respectively.
I = I1 + I2 + I3 ... (i) [In parallel connection, the current gets divided among the
resistances]

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The potential difference across R1, R2 and R3 is same, therefore, according to
Ohm's law:

... (ii)
Let Re be the equivalent resistance. Thus

... (iii)
From equation (i), (ii) and (iii) we get

Things to Remember in Parallel Connection:

(a) When a number of resistances are connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the
equivalent or resultant resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocals of the
individual resistances and is always smaller than the individual resistances. This is
because there are a number of paths for the flow of electrons.
(b) If there are n resistances connected in parallel and each resistance has a value
of R.

times

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(c) The potential difference across each resistance is the same and is equal to the
total potential difference across the combination.
(d) The total current divides itself and different current flows through each
resistor. The maximum current flows through the resistor having minimum
resistance and vice versa.
(e) If an equivalent resistance Re is connected in place of combination, it produces
the same current for the same potential difference applied across its ends.
(f) In a parallel combination, the equivalent resistance is lesser than the least of all
the resistances.
(g) If two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in parallel then

(h) If there are n resistors each of resistance R – Let RS be the resultant resistance
of series combination and Rp be the resultant resistance of parallel combination.
Then, RS = n R

Rp =

Electric Power-
 Electric power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed into
an electrical circuit. It is a measure of how much energy is used in a span of
time.
 Electric Power (P) = I2 R = V2/R.
 SI unit is watt.
 Kilowatt hour-
 The kilowatt-hour is a unit of energy equal to one kilowatt of power sustained
for one hour and is commonly used as a measure of electrical energy.
 1 kilowatt-hour is equal to 3600 kilojoules or 3.6 × 106 joule.
 1kWh is also called board of trade unit.

Ammeter-
 The ammeter is used from measuring small amount of current and the result is
displayed in milliamperes when it is kept in series with the circuit to be
measured so that the entire current in the circuit is passing through it.

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 Voltmeter-
 Voltmeter is parallelly connected with the electric circuit in order to measure
the potential. Both the devices have same connection polarity which is the
negative potential is joined with the negative polarity and positive terminal is
joined with the positive polarity of the supply.

Difference Between Ammeter and Voltmeter

Ammeter Voltmeter

It is used to measure current It is used to measure voltage across two

points

Resistance is low Resistance is high

It is connected in series with the It is connected in parallel with the

circuit and its accuracy is more circuit and its accuracy is less

Changing of range is not possible Changing of range is possible

For ideal ammeter, the value of For ideal voltmeter, the value of
resistance is 0 resistance is approximately infinity

It is denoted by a symbol A It is denoted by a symbol V

Electric fuse-
 An electrical fuse is a low melting point copper or other metal wire that breaks
due to heat caused by overvoltage or high load to avoid short circuit or failure
to the device.
 Functions of fuses
 In the field of electrical engineering, a fuse is a service that delivers usable
electrical circuit over-current safety. Some of the main fuse functions.
 Acts as a barrier between both the human body and the electric circuit
 Inhibits system failure due to defective operation of circuits

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 Fuse avoids short-circuits
 Inhibits blackouts & overloading
 Prevents harm caused by mismatched loads.

Galvanometer-
A galvanometer is a device that is used to detect small electric current or measure
its magnitude. The current and its intensity is usually indicated by a magnetic
needle’s movement or that of a coil in a magnetic field that is an important part of
a galvanometer.

Applications of Galvanometer
The moving coil galvanometer is a highly sensitive instrument due to which it can
be used to detect the presence of current in any given circuit. If a galvanometer is
a connected in a Wheatstone’s bridge circuit, the pointer in the galvanometer
shows null deflection, i.e., no current flows through the device. The pointer
deflects to the left or right depending on the direction of the current.
The galvanometer can be used to measure:
The value of current in the circuit by connecting it in parallel to low resistance.
The voltage by connecting it in series with high resistance.

Shunt-
 A resistor having a very low value of resistance connected in parallel with
another resistor is caused shunt. The range of ammeter reading can be
extended by connecting a shunt resistance to it. The shunt is used in the
galvanometer for measuring the large current. It is used as diodes also.
 A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by connecting a shunt
parallel to it.
 A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by connecting a very high
resistance in its series.

Electromagnetic Induction-
 Electromagnetic Induction is a process in which a conductor is put in a
particular position and magnetic field keeps varying or magnetic field is
stationary and a conductor is moving. This produces a Voltage or EMF
(Electromotive Force) across the electrical conductor.
 This law of electromagnetic induction was found by Michael Faraday. He
organized a leading wire according to the setup given underneath, connected
to a gadget to gauge the voltage over the circuit.

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 So, when a bar magnet passes through the snaking, the voltage is measured in
the circuit.
 The importance of this is a way of producing electrical energy in a circuit by
using magnetic fields and not just batteries anymore.
 The machines like generators, transformers also the motors work on the
principle of electromagnetic induction.

Faraday’s law of Electromagnetic Induction-

First law: Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, EMF induces
and this emf is called an induced emf and if the conductor is a closed circuit than
the induced current flows through it.

Second law: The magnitude of the induced EMF is equal to the rate of change of
flux linkages.
Based on his experiments we now have Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
according to which the amount of voltage induced in a coil is proportional to the
number of turns and the changing magnetic field of the coil.

So now, the induced voltage is as follows:

e = N × dΦdt
Where- e is the induced voltage
N is the number of turns in the coil
Φ is the magnetic flux
t is the time

Lenz’s law of Electromagnetic Induction-

Lenz law of electromagnetic induction states that, when an emf induces according
to Faraday’s law, the polarity (direction) of that induced emf is such that it
opposes the cause of its production.

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According to Lenz’s law
E = -N (dΦ/ dt) (volts)

Applications of Electromagnetic Induction:

Electromagnetic induction in AC generator
Electrical Transformers
Magnetic Flow Meter

Transformer-
Transformer is a device which converts low voltage A.C into high voltage A.C. and
high voltage A.C into low voltage A.C.
It is based on electromagnetic induction and can be used only in case of
alternating current.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

MAGNETISM

 Magnetism, phenomenon associated with magnetic fields, which arise from

the motion of electric charges. This motion can take many forms. It can be
an electric current in a conductor or charged particles moving through space,
or it can be the motion of an electron in an atomic orbital.

List of Properties of Magnet -

 Magnets have certain important properties. They are:
 Attractive Property- Magnet attracts ferromagnetic materials like iron, cobalt,
and nickel.
 Repulsive Properties- Like magnetic poles repel each other and unlike
magnetic poles attract each other.
 Directive Property- A freely suspended magnet always points in a north-south
direction.
 Attractive Property of Magnet
 Magnets attract other magnetic substances. This property can be
demonstrated with the help of a simple activity.
 Materials needed- A bar magnet, iron filings.
 Method- Place the bar magnet in the heap of iron filings.

Observation- Iron filings cling to the magnet. Also, the maximum amount of iron
filings cling at the two ends of the bar magnet. These are the poles of the magnet.

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The Magnetic property of poles is more than the rest of the magnet. Poles of the
magnet are those regions where the magnetic property is the maximum.

Repulsive Properties of Magnet -

 Like magnetic poles repel each other and unlike magnetic poles attract each
other. Property of attraction and repulsion exists between two magnets. It can
be demonstrated with the help of a simple activity.
 Materials needed- Two bar magnets
 Method- Take two bar magnets. Try to bring them close to each other in such
a way that both the like poles come closer. Now bring North Pole of one
magnet close to the south pole of another.

Observation- If the two poles you are trying to bring closer are the same i.e. both
are North poles or both are south poles, then the two poles will repel each other.
If you are trying to bring the opposite poles together there will be a force of
attraction between the two magnets.

Directive Property of the Magnet:

 A freely suspended magnet always points in north-south direction this can be
demonstrated with the help of a simple activity.
 Materials needed- A bar magnet, a string, a stand
 Method- Take a bar magnet. Tie it with a string from the centre and hang it on
the wooden stand in such a way that it can move freely.

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Observation- The freely suspended magnet points in the north-south direction.
Our planet earth also shows magnetism. The Earth is actually a giant bar magnet
with its magnetic north pole towards the Geographic South Pole and the magnetic
South Pole towards the Geographic North Pole.

Types of Magnets -
Permanent magnets- emit a magnetic field without the need for any external
source of magnetism or electrical power. Example- Samarium Cobalt (SmCo),
Neodymium Iron Boron (NIB)

Temporary magnets-behave as magnets while attached to or close to something

that emits a magnetic field, but lose this characteristic when the source of the
magnetic field is removed. Example- Iron nails, paper-clips.

Electro-magnets-require electricity in order to behave as a magnet.

Electromagnets are very widely used in electric and electromechanical devices.
Example- Motors and generators, Transformers, Electric bells and buzzers,
Loudspeakers and headphones. MRI machines.

 Magnetic field strength or field intensity (H) is the amount of magnetising

force.
 Magnetic flux density (B) is the amount of magnetic force induced on the given
body due to the magnetising force H.
 The relation between B and H is, B = μ H (Where, μ is the relative permeability)
 Permeability is the measure of the ability of a metal to support the formation
of a magnetic field within itself. It is the degree of magnetization that a
material obtains in response to an applied magnetic field.

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 It is a constant of Proportionality that exist between magnetic flux density and
magnetic field intensity.

Uses of Magnets -
Magnets are used for constructing magnetic needles and mariner’s compass.
Permanent magnets find applications in generators, electric accelerators, and
electric motors.
Electromagnets find application in speakers, electric bells, and electric cranes.
Magnets are used for the separation of iron filling from other solid mixture.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

ATOMIC AND NUCLEAR PHYSICS

 Atomic physics concerns itself with the entire atom and how the electronic
configuration of electrons can change. When an atom loses an electron, it
becomes positively charged (cations) and when it gains an electron it becomes
negatively charged (anions).
 Atom is the smallest part of matter which takes part in chemical reactions.
Atom consists of three fundamental particles electron, proton and neutron. All
the proton and neutrons are present in the central core of atom called
nucleus.
 Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the constituents of
matter (protons and neutrons) and interactions between them. Modern
nuclear physics contains especially particle physics, which is taught in close
association with nuclear physics.

Components of Atom

Properties of Fundamental Particles:

Particle Mass Charge Discoverer

(Coulomb)
Proton 1.672×10-27 +1.6×10-19 Rutherford
Neutron 1.675×10-27 0 Chadwick
Electron 9.108×10-31 -1.6×10-19 J.J. Thomson
Cathode Rays -

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 A cathode ray is a beam of electrons in a vacuum tube traveling from the
negatively charged electrode (cathode) at one end to the positively charged
electrode (anode) at the other, across a voltage difference between the
electrodes. They are also called electron beams.
 Important Properties of Cathode Rays
 Cathode rays travel in a straight line and can cast sharp shadows.
 Cathode rays are negatively charged.
 Electric field and magnetic field deflect cathode rays.
 They are produced at the cathode (negatively charged electrode) and travel
towards the anode (positively charged electrode) in a vacuum tube.
 The properties of the cathode rays do not depend on the electrodes and the
gas used in the vacuum tube.
 Speed of cathode rays is slower than light.
 The objects hit by cathode rays get heated.
 They can penetrate through thin metal plates.
 Phosphors glow when cathode rays fall on them.
 Gas gets ionized by cathode rays.
 Cathode rays are 1800 times lighter than hydrogen, the lightest element.
 J.J Thomson was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for discovered a new
subatomic constituent of cathode rays.

Canal Rays -
 Canal rays (anode rays) are streams of positively charged particles which move
towards the negative electrode (cathode) in a discharge tube when high
voltage electricity is passed through a gas at very low pressure taken in the
discharge tube.
 Goldstein was the first person to discover this in 1886.
 Properties of Canal rays
 They are the streams of positive ions of the gas enclosed in the discharge tube.
The mass of each ion is nearly equal to the mass of the atom.
 They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields. Their deflection is opposite
to that of cathode rays.
 They travel in straight lines.
 The velocity of canal rays is much smaller than the velocity of cathode rays.
 They affect photographic plates.
 These rays can produce fluorescence.
 They ionize the gas through which they pass.

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Radioactivity -
 Radioactivity is a nuclear process that occurs due to the decay of the nucleus.
Radioactivity is based on the law of conservation of charge. External
parameters such as temperature and pressure do not affect the rate of decay.
 The daughter nuclei will have unique physical and chemical properties (that is
different from parent nuclei). The decay rate of any radioactive material is
directly proportional to the number of atoms present at that instant.
 For his discovery of spontaneous radioactivity Becquerel was awarded half of
the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1903, the other half being given to Pierre and
Marie Curie for their study of the Becquerel radiation.
Types of Radiation:
There are three types of radiation given off by radioactive atoms:
1. Alpha particles
2. Beta particles
3. Gamma rays

Alpha Rays:
Alpha particles are the positively charged particles. A highly energetic helium
nucleus which contains two protons and two neutrons is called the alpha-particle.
Alpha particles have the least penetration power but the greatest ionization
power. They cannot penetrate the skin but this does not mean that they are not
dangerous. Since they have a great ionization power, so if they get into the body,
they can cause serious damage.

Beta Rays:
Beta particles are highly energetic electrons which are released from inside of a
nucleus. They are negatively charged and have a negligible mass. On the emission
of a beta particle, a neutron in the nucleus divides into a proton and an electron.

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Beta particles have a greater penetration power than the alpha particles and can
easily travel through the skin. Though beta particles have less ionization power
than the alpha particles but still they are dangerous.

Gamma Rays -
The waves from the high frequency end of the electromagneticspectrum which do
not have any mass are called the gamma rays. They have greatest power of
penetration. They are the least ionizing but most penetrating and it is extremely
difficult to stop them from entering the body. These rays carry huge amount of
energy and can even travel through thin lead and thick concrete.

Properties of 𝛂, 𝛃 and 𝛄 Particles:

Properties 𝛂 𝛃
Nature +ve Charged -ve Charged Neutral
Mass 6.6 × 10-27 kg 9.1 × 10-31 kg Zero
Charge +2e -e Zero
Ionising Power Maximum In between two Minimum
Penetrating power Minimum In between Two Maximum
Effect on electric Deflected Deflected No effect
and magnetic field

Note:
 With the emission an𝛂- Particle, atomic number is decreased by 2 and mass
number is decreased by 4.
 With the emission of a 𝛃- Particle atomic number is increased by 1 and mass
number does not change.

Nuclear Fission:-
The process in nuclear physics in which the nucleus of an atom splits into two
daughter nuclei. The energy released in the nuclear fission is called Nuclear
Energy.

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When Uranium-235 atom is bombarded with a neutron, it splits into two lighter
nuclei Barium and Krypton.

An example of nuclear fission is the splitting of Uranium-235.

The atomic bomb is mainly based on the principle of the Nuclear Fission reaction.

Nuclear Fusion:-
Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to
form one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles. The difference
in mass between the reactants and products is manifested as either the release or
the absorption of energy.

When deuterium and tritium fuse together, their components are recombined to
form a helium atom and a fast neutron. As the two heavy isotopes are
recombined into a helium atom and a neutron, the leftover’s extra mass is
transformed into kinetic energy.
A hydrogen bomb is based on the Principle of Nuclear Fusion.

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Hydrogen bomb is 1000 times more powerful than Atom Bomb.

Nuclear Chain Reaction:-

A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released in fission produce
an additional fission in at least one further nucleus. This nucleus in turn produces
neutrons, and the process repeats. The process may be controlled (nuclear power)
or uncontrolled (nuclear weapons).

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

ELECTRONICS

A branch of physics that deals with the emission, behaviour, and effects of
electrons (as in electron tubes and transistors) and with electronic devices.

Electron Emission -
 The electron emission is possible only if sufficient energy (equal to the work
function of the metal) is supplied to the metal in the form of heat energy, light
energy, etc. Depending on the source of energy, electron emission can be of
the following types:
 Thermionic Emission: The metal is heated to a sufficient temperature to
enable the free electrons to come out of its surface.
 Field or Cold Emission: A very strong electric field is applied to the metal which
pulls the electrons out of the surface due to the attraction of the positive field.
 Photoelectric Emission: The light of a certain frequency is made to fall on the
metal surface which leads to the emission of electrons.

Diode -
 A diode is a semiconductor device that essentially acts as a one-way switch for
current. It allows current to flow easily in one direction, but severely restricts
current from flowing in the opposite direction.

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 Diodes are also known as rectifiers because they change alternating current
(ac) into direct current (dc). Diodes are rated according to their type, voltage,
and current capacity.
 Diodes have polarity, determined by an anode (positive lead)
and cathode (negative lead). Most diodes allow current to flow only when
positive voltage is applied to the anode.
 When a diode allows current flow, it is forward-biased. When a diode
is reverse-biased, it acts as an insulator and does not permit current to flow.

Types of Diodes -
1. Light Emitting Diode (LED):
 light is generated when a sufficient amount of forwarding current passes
through it. This light generated is not visible as they are frequency levels that
do not allow visibility.

2. Laser diode:
 It is a different type of diode as it produces coherent light. It is highly used in
CD drives, DVDs and laser devices. These are costly when compared to LEDs.

3. P-N junction diode:

 The P-N junction diode is also known as rectifier diodes. These diodes are used
for the rectification process and are made up of semiconductor material.
 P-N junction diode includes two layers of semiconductors. One layer of the
semiconductor material is doped with P-type material and the other layer with
N-type material.
 The combination of these both P and N-type layers form a junction known as
the P-N junction.

Note: P-N junction diode allows the current to flow in the forward direction and blocks
the flow of current in the reverse direction.

Triode Valve:
 The triode valve or triode vacuum tube uses three electrodes, the cathode and
anode as in the diode and a third electrode called a grid placed between the
anode and the cathode.
 The addition of the third electrode in the triode vacuum tube opens up its
operation making it a considerably more functional device.
 Triode Valve Can be used as Amplifier, Oscillator, Transmitter and Detector.

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Semi-Conductor:
 Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between
conductors (generally metals) and non-conductors or insulators (such as
ceramics).
 Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the most commonly
used semiconductors. Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication and
gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diodes, etc.
Types of Semiconductors -
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor

1. Intrinsic Semiconductor:
An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is made to be very pure chemically. It
is made up of only a single type of element.

In Figure: (a) In absence of electric field (b) In presence of electric Field

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Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the most common type of intrinsic
semiconductor elements. They have four valence electrons (tetravalent). They are
bound to the atom by covalent bond at absolute zero temperature.

2. Extrinsic Semi-Conductor:
If a measured and small amount of chemical impurity is added to intrinsic semi-
conductor, it is called Extrinsic or doped semi-conductor.
As a result of doping there is large increase in its conductivity.

An extrinsic semiconductor can be further classified into:

a) N-type Semiconductor
b) P-type Semiconductor

a) N-Type Semiconductor (Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes):

 When a pure semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) is doped by pentavalent
impurity (P, As, Sb, Bi) then, four electrons out of five valence electrons bonds
with the four electrons of Ge or Si.
 The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus, the impurity atom donates a
free electron for conduction in the lattice and is called Donor.
 Since the number of free electrons increases by the addition of an impurity,
the negative charge carriers increase. Hence, it is called n-type semiconductor.

b) P-Type Semiconductor (Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons) :

 When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga)
then, the three valence electrons of the impurity bonds with three of the four
valence electrons of the semiconductor.

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 This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity atoms
which are ready to accept bonded electrons are called Acceptors.
 With the increase in the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge
carriers) are increased. Hence, it is called p-type semiconductor.

Uses of Semiconductors in Everyday life -

 Temperature sensors are made with semiconductor devices.
 They are used in 3D printing machines
 Used in microchips and self-driving cars
 Used in calculators, solar plates, computers and other electronic devices.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

Important Scientific Instruments and their Usage:

INSTRUMENT USES
ACCUMULATOR It is used to store electrical energy
ALTIMETER It measures altitudes and is used in aircraft.
AMMETER It measures the strength of electric current (in
amperes).
ANEMOMETER It measures the force and velocity of the wind.
AUDIOMETER It measures the intensity of sound.
AUDIPHONES It is used for improving the imperfect sense of hearing.
BAROGRAPH It is used for continuous recording of atmospheric
pressure.
BAROMETER It measures atmospheric pressure.
BINOCULAR It is used to view distant objects
BOLOMETER It measures heat radiation
CALORIMETER It measures the quantity of heat.
CARBURETTOR It is used in an internal combustion engine for charging
the air with petrol vapor.
CARDIOGRAM It traces movements of the heart, recorded on a
cardiograph.
CHRONOMETER It determines the longitude of a place in a ship.
CINEMATOGRAPHY It is an instrument used in cinema making to throw on
screen and enlarged image of the photograph.
COLORIMETER An instrument for comparing intensities of colour.
COMMUTATOR An instrument to change or remove the direction of an
electric current, in dynamo used to convert alternating
current into direct current.
CRESCO GRAPH It measures the growth in plants.
CYCLOTRON A charged particle accelerator which can accelerate
charged particles to high energies.
DYNAMO It converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
DYNAMOMETER It measures force, torque, and power
ELECTROSCOPE It detects the presence of an electric charge.

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ENDOSCOPE It examines the internal parts of the body.
EUDIOMETER A glass tube for measuring volume changes in chemical
reactions between gases.
FATHOMETER It measures the depth of the ocean.
GALVANOMETER It measures the electric current of low magnitude.
HYDROMETER It measures the specific gravity of liquids.
HYDROPHONE It measures sound under water.
HYGROMETER It measures humidity in the air.
KYMOGRAPH It graphically records physiological movements (Blood
pressure and heartbeat).
LACTOMETER It determines the purity of milk.
MANOMETER It measures the pressure of gases.
MARINER’S COMPASS It is an instrument used by the sailors to determine the
direction.
MICROPHONE It converts the sound waves into electrical vibrations
and to magnify the sound.
MICROSCOPE It is used to obtain a magnified view of small objects.
ODOMETER An instrument by which the distance covered by
wheeled vehicles is measured.
PERISCOPE It is used to view objects above sea level (used in
submarines)
PHONOGRAPH An instrument for producing sound.
PHOTOMETER The instrument compares the luminous intensity of the
source of light
POTENTIOMETER It is used for comparing the electromotive force of
cells.
PYROMETER It measures very high temperature.
QUARTZ CLOCK A highly accurate clock used in astronomical
observations and other precision work
RADAR Radio, angle, detection and range is used to detect the
direction and range of an approaching aeroplane by
means of radio micro waves
RADIOMETER It measures the emission of radiant energy.
RAIN GAUGE An apparatus for recording rainfall at a particular place.
RECTIFIER An instrument used for the conversion of AC into DC.
REFRACTOMETER It measures refractive index.
SACCHARIMETER It measures the amount of sugar in the solution.
SALINOMETER It determines salinity of solution.

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SEISMOGRAPH It measures the intensity of earthquake shocks.
SEXTANT This is used by navigators to find the latitude of a place
by measuring the elevation above the horizon of the
sun or another star.
SPECTROMETER It is an instrument for measuring the energy
distribution of a particular type of radiation.
SPECTROSCOPE An instrument used for spectrum analysis
SPEEDOMETER It is an instrument placed in a vehicle to record its
speed.
SPHEROMETER It measures the curvatures of surfaces.
SPHYGMOMANOMETER It measures blood pressure.
STEREOSCOPE It is used to view two dimensional pictures.
STETHOSCOPE An instrument which is used by the doctors to hear and
analyse heart and lung sounds.
STROBOSCOPE It is used to view rapidly moving objects.
TACHOMETER An instrument used in measuring speeds of aero planes
and motor boats.
TELEPRINTER This instrument receives and sends typed messages
from one place to another.
TELESCOPE It views distant objects in space.
THEODOLITE It measures horizontal and vertical angles.
THERMOMETER This instrument is used for the measurement of
temperatures.
THERMOSTAT It regulates the temperature at a particular point.
TRANSISTOR A small device which may be used to amplify currents
and perform other functions usually performed by a
thermionic valve
UDOMETER It is used to measure the amount of liquid precipitation
over a set period of time. It is also called Rain Gauge.
VERNIER An adjustable scale for measuring small subdivisions of
scale
VISCOMETER It measures the viscosity of liquids.
VOLTMETER It measures the electric potential difference between
two points.

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CHEMISTRY

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION
INTRODUCTION - STATES OF MATTER

“CHEMISTRY” this word is originated in Egypt. It comes from Greek

word “Chemia” which means black. Chemistry is nothing but Study of
matter. Antoinee Lavoisier is called The Father of chemistry/modern
chemistry.
Chemistry is the study of the structures, physical properties, and
chemical properties of material substances. It is very important to
understand that all gases, liquids and solids are not the same. All are
different in terms of their composition. This is the reason why the
classification of the matter is very important.
MATTER: Anything which can occupy space having mass and property
of inertia and we can feel the existence is called matter.
CLASSIFICATION: On the basis of physical states, matter is classified in
5 types
1) Solid, 2) Liquid, 3) Gas, 4) Plasma and 5) Bose-Einstein
Condensate.
1) SOLID: The solid has a rigid shape is that the atoms or molecules
are tightly connected via chemical bonds.
 Intermolecular force is of two types i.e. force of attraction & force
of repulsion. In the case of solid, force of attraction is much higher
than force of repulsion. force of attraction >>> force of repulsion
 High density
 High melting point & boiling point
 Definite volume
 Certain shape

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2) LIQUID: A liquid is one of the states of matter. The particles in a
liquid are free to flow, so while a liquid has a definite volume, it does
not have a definite shape. Liquids consist of atoms or molecules that
are connected by intermolecular bonds.
 Force of attraction is almost greater than force of repulsion
 Melting point, boiling point, density all is high but less than the
solid.
 It has no definite shape or size
 Definite volume
Do you know by which instrument is density measured?
Answer: Picnometer
3) GASES: Gas is made up of atoms, tiny particles that make up
molecules and molecules that move faster and further away as
compared to other states of matter, which enables gas to fill a
container evenly.
 In gas-molecules force of repulsion is greater than force of
attraction.
 Density, melting point and boiling point all are low
 No definite shape
 High compressibility.

 Can you say clouds are in which form of matter?

Answer: Liquid

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Melting is the process by which a substance changes from the solid
state to the liquid one. Melting is also known as fusion. This is done by
usually through the application of heat or pressure. An ice cube melts
into liquid water, melting butter in a hot pan are examples of the
process.
Freezing is a process through which a substance changes from a liquid
state to a solid one. All liquids except helium get freezed. Changing of
water in ice is an example of it.
Boiling is a process through which a substance transforms from
the liquid state to the gas state, occurring when a liquid is heated to
its boiling point. Example is when water is heated to form steam.
Condensation is a process through which water vapour in the air is
changed into liquid water. Example is when water vapour gets
liquefied.
Sublimation is a process through which a substance is transformed
directly from the solid state to the gaseous state. Eg. Camphor,
naphthalene

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Critical Temperature –
Critical temperature is the highest possible temperature value at
which substance can exist as a liquid. At temperatures above this,
gaseous substances are called gases and cannot exist in liquid state
even under increase of pressure. At temperatures below, gaseous
substances are called vapour and can exist as a liquid under increase
of pressure.

Usage – Used in ice cream factory, preservation of medicine, artificial

smoke, rainfall etc.

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Latent Heat:
 Amount of heat which is required to change the state of matter
without changing external temperature.
 Its units are cal/gm (in CGS system) & Joule/Kg (in SI system).
 Water in claypol remains cool due to this reason.
 Latent Heat melting of ice : 80 cal / gm
 Latent Heat of water vapour : 537 cal / gm
 With increasing Pressure, melting point of ice decreases
 With increasing Pressure, boiling point of water increases. This
principle is used in pressure cooker.

Freezing Mixture: The mixture of ice & NaCl or sodium chloride or

table salt with 3 : 1 ratio, is known as freezing mixture which leads
melting point depression This is used in reservation of food,
vegetables, medicines etc.
Super cooled liquid - Super cooled liquid is a liquid below its freezing
point that has not been crystallized to freeze.
Eg. - Glass

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BOILING & EVAPORATION:

BOILING EVAPORATION
In liquids only. In all forms like solid, liquid
At particular temperature At any temperature
It occurs throughout the It occurs from the surface of the
liquid liquid
Fast process Slow process
Rate of Evaporation depends on –
a) Free surface area
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b) Air flow
c) Nature of material
d) Temperature of medium
4) PLASMA: Plasma is called the fourth state of matter after solid,
liquid, and gas. Plasma is a hot ionized gas consisting of +ve charged
ions & -ve charge ions. It is a state of matter in which an ionized
substance becomes highly electrically conductive to the point that
long-range electric and magnetic fields dominate its behaviour. E.g. in
tube light, aurora

5) BEC (Bose-Einstein Condensate): When a substance is put in a

super low temperature and super low pressure, that turns to get BEC
state.

Physical change is a change where the physical properties of matter

are changed. A change of state of matter, change in colour, odour,
solubility, etc. occurs.
Rubbing a permanent magnet on a steel rod, mixing salt in water,
Switching of an electric bulb is example of this.

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Chemical change is an irreversible and permanent change in which the
molecular composition is completely altered and a new product is
formed. This chemical change cannot be reversed by changing or
altering the experimental changes.
Rusting of iron (When iron is exposed to moist air for a few days,
reddish brown powdery mass is found on its surface – this is called
rusting and this leads to the increased weight of that matter), Burning
of magnesium in air – all are chemical changes.
In all physical and chemical changes, the total mass of reactants is
equal to total mass of products. Law of conservation of mass is always
maintained.

METAL: Any of various opaque, ductile, and typically lustrous

substances that are good conductors of electricity and heat, form
cautions by loss of electrons, and yield basic oxides and hydroxides
especially: one that is a chemical element as distinguished from an
alloy.

Characteristics:
 Good conductor of heat and electricity (Gold, Silver, Iron etc are
also some examples of good heat conductors as well as electrical
conductors.)
 Malleable, they can be hammered into thin sheets.
 Maximum density (Osmium is the densest naturally occurring
element)
 Ductile, they can be drawn into wires.
[Note- brittle describes materials that are easily broken, cracked, or
snapped. Materials break when a force is applied to
them. Brittle materials break without any deformation. Therefore,
they cannot be stretched like ductile substances. The breaking
of brittle substances objects with a snapping sound.
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 Metals which are brittle are basically alloy, pig iron, cast iron, steel
with high carbon content is brittle. ]
 Melting point, boiling point are high (Tungsten has the highest
melting point)
 It’s in generally solid form. (Exception - Mercury, is also known as
liquid metal or quicksilver)
 Metals are situated in the left part of the periodic table
 Metallic lustre
 Lightest metal- Lithium, Heaviest metal- Osmium
 Mercury has the lowest melting point
 most abundant metal is Aluminium
 Lattice energy and hydration energy are two important properties
of ionic solids on which their melting point, boiling point and
solubility depend.
 Lattice energy increases as the charge of the ion increases and the
size decreases. lattice energy is the amount of energy released
when a mole of the lattice is formed from infinitely separated
ions
 Hydration energy increases as the size of the ion decreases and
charges on it increases. Hydration energy is the amount of energy
released when a lattice is separated into ions by solvation in
water.
The solubilities of carbonates, sulphates and phosphates of alkaline
earth metals are much less than those of the corresponding alkali
metals.

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NON-METAL: Non-metals are the elements which form negative ions
by accepting or gaining electrons. Non-metals usually have 4, 5, 6 or 7
electrons in their outermost shell.
Non-metals are those which lack all the metallic attributes. They are
good insulators of heat and electricity. They are mostly gases and
sometimes liquid. Some they are even solid at room temperatures like
Carbon, sulphur and phosphorus.
 Bad conductor of heat and electricity (exception Diamond,
Graphite conduct heat and electricity)
 Not malleable
 Not ductile
 Not sonorous
 Generally, in solid/gas forms (exception-bromine, only liquid non-
metal)
 Melting point, Boiling point and density are less than metal
 These are situated in the right side of the periodic table.
METALLOIDS:
 It behaves like both metal & non - metal
 In room temperature it behaves like non-metal but with the
increase of temperature it starts behaving like metals.
 These are situated in the middle part of the periodic table.
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 E.g. Silicon, Germanium (are used in semiconductor industry/ IC
chips), Gallium arsenide (is used in LED light emitting diode
industry)
COMPOUND: Compounds are chemical substances made up of two or
more elements that are chemically bound together in a fixed ratio.
 When two or more elements are mixed in a particular ratio, a
compound is formed.
 Characteristics of a compound are different from its composition
elements.
 There must be releasing energy (exothermic process) or absorbing
energy (endothermic process) while making of compounds.
2H2 (g) +02 (g) = 2H20 (liq)
MIXTURE:
 When two or more than two elements/compounds are mixed, then
mixture is formed.
 In a mixture, the characteristics of individual element or compound
remain unchanged.
 There is no releasing energy or absorbing energy while making of
mixture.

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SOLUTION:
Heterogeneous Homogeneous
 The size of the particles is not  The size of the particles is
same. The components are same as the components.
easily identified. The components cannot be
E.g. Sugar + salt + cement. easily identified.
 Components don’t dissolve E.g. Alcohol + water.
completely.  Components dissolve
completely.

 A solution is a mixture formed when one or more solutes dissolve

in a solvent.
 Water (solvent) + Sugar (solute) = Sugar solution (solution)
 At a given temperature, the amount of the dissolved particles
present in the saturated solution is known as solubility.
 Concentration of a solution = Amount of solute / Amount of
solvent
 Solution has two components- solute (less quantity) & solvent
(more quantity)
 strength / concentration of solution
 Mass percent = [Weight of solute (gm) / Weight of solution
(gm)] *100
 Normality = Number of gram equivalents of solute / Volume
of solution (lit.)
 Molarity = Number of gram moles of solute / Volume of
solution (lit.)
 Molality = Gram moles of solute / Weight of solvent (kg)

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1. 7.45 g of potassium chloride (KCI) was dissolved in 100 g of water.
Calculate the molality of the solution.

Given: mass of solute (KCl) = 7.45 g, mass of solvent (water) = 100 g=

0.1 kg

Molecular mass of KCl = 39*1 + 35.5*1 = 74.5 g mol

Number of moles of solute (KCI) = given mass of the solute / molecular

mass = 7.45/74.5 = 0.1 mol

Molality = Gram moles of solute / Weight of solvent (kg) = 0.1 mol/ 0.1
kg = 1 mol/kg

Ans- Molality of the solution is 1m.

There are three types of solution based on the size of the solute
particle-

solution colloidal suspension

Cold drinks, water + Face cream, Muddy water, water +

salt/ sugar shaving cream, chalk dust
fog, smoke

Generally homogeneous heterogeneous heterogeneous

Size of the solute Size of the Size of the solute

particle is less than 10-9 solute particle is particle is more than
cm 10-9 – 10-6 cm 10-6 cm

Doesn’t show tyndall It shows tyndall It may or may not

effect. The path of light effect show tyndall effect

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 is not visible.

transparent transluent opaque

Tyndall effect - This effect, also known as Willis-Tyndall scattering, is

light scattering by particles in a colloid or in a very fine suspension. It is
named after the 19th century physicist John Tyndall.

Colloidal systems – such as gum, starch, proteins, cellulose, agar and

gelatine when placed in water, will absorb a large volume of water and
swell up. These substances are called Imbibants.
Emulsion: Emulsions are liquid-liquid colloids.
Solution is of three types based on solubility- saturated, unsaturated &
super saturated
 A saturated solution is a chemical solution containing the
maximum concentration of a solute dissolved in the solvent. The
additional solute will not dissolve in a saturated solution.
 Unsaturated solutions are solutions in which the amount of
dissolved solute is less than the saturation point of the solvent (at

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 that specific temperature gradient). If the amount of dissolved
solute is equal to the saturation point of the solvent, the solution is
called a saturated solution.
 A supersaturated solution contains more dissolved solute than
required for preparing a saturated solution and can be prepared by
heating a saturated solution, adding more solute, and then cooling
it gently. Excess dissolved solute crystallizes by seeding
supersaturated solution with a few crystals of the solute.

Mainly chemical reactions are of following types -

Exothermic Reaction – in this type of reaction heat is released here

with the product like burning coal.
C + O2 = CO2 + ∆
N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3 + ∆

Endothermic Reaction – heat is absorbed in this reaction like

photosynthesis.

N2 + O2 = 2NO – ∆
H2 + I2 -> 2HI – ∆

Combination Reactions - In those two or more substances combine to

give a single substance.
CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2

Decomposition Reactions – In these reactions a molecule decomposes

into two or more simpler molecules
Dissociation Reactions - These are those reversible reactions in which
a molecule dissociates into two or more simple molecules
2HI = H2 + I2; 2H2O = 2H2 + O2

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Displacement Reactions - In these reactions, an atom or a group of
atoms of a molecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms.
Zn + H2SO4 = ZnSO4 + H2

Reversible Reactions – These are which occurs in forward as well as in

backward direction but never go to completion usually.
2H2O = 2H2 + O2
2H2 + O2 = 2H2O

Irreversible Reactions - Irreversible reactions occur in forward

direction only and go to completion easily.

SEPARATION OF MIXTURE:
Filtration Evaporation Sublimation
Distillation Fractional distillation Chromatography
Crystallization

Filtration - Filtration is defined as the process of separating suspended

solid matter from a liquid as the matter to pass through the pores of a
membrane, called a filter.
Evaporation is defined as a process by which a liquid or solid is
transformed into vapour.
Sublimation is the conversion that substances undergo when passing
from one state to another.
Eg. Camphor gets from a solid substance to gas.
Distillation refers to the selective boiling and subsequent
condensation of a component in a liquid mixture. This process is used
in perfume industry.

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Fractional distillation is a process by which components in a chemical
mixture are separated into different parts (called fractions) according
to their different boiling points. It is used in petroleum industry.

Chromatography is an analytical technique used to separate mixture

of chemical substances into its individual compounds.

Crystallization is a technique used for the purification of substances. A

separation technique to separate solids from a solution.
Solvent + solute Solution
Solid + solid Gemstone, Metal alloys such as Brass (Cu +
Zn), bronze (Cu + Sn)
Solid + liquid Milk + sugar
Liquid + liquid Water + alcohol, vinegar ( water + acetic
acid/ ethanoic acid)
Liquid + gas Soda water ( water + CO2)
Liquid + solid Jelly, butter
Gas + gas Producer gas (CO+N2), air is a mixture of
many gases

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATIONINITION
ACID, BASE & SALT

Arrhenius Theory stated that Acid provides H+ ion in aqueous solution

& Base gives OH− in the same.
Bronsted Lowry Theory stated that Acid donates proton ( H+) and Base
accepts proton (H+ )

CONJUGATE PAIR-
The members of which can be formed from each other mutually by
the gain or loss of protons are called conjugate acids and bases pairs.
The stronger acid and weaker base form one conjugate pair and the
stronger base and weaker acid form another pair.

 A conjugate acid comprises one more H atom and + charge than

the base that formed it.
 A conjugate base comprises one less H atom and one more
negative charge than the acid forming it.
 The conjugates will always be listed on the product side of the
reaction.
 Strong acid forms a weak conjugate base and vice versa.

Conjugate Acid of H2O is H3O+

Conjugate Base of H2O is OH-
Conjugate Acid of NH3 is NH4+
Conjugate Base of NH3 is NH2-

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ACID: An acid is a molecule or ion capable of either donating
a proton (i.e. hydrogen ion, H+), known as a Bronsted–Lowry acid, or
forming a covalent bond with an electron pair, known as a Lewis acid.
 Oxyacid - An oxyacid, Oxo acid, or ternary acid is an acid that
contains oxygen. Eg. HNO3 , H3PO4
 Hydro acid – This is an acid that contains hydrogen. Eg. HCl, HBr
 What are mono-acidic, di-acidic, and tri-acidic bases?

 A Mono-acidic base is a base that produces one hydroxide ion

when one of its molecules undergoes complete ionization.
Examples of such bases include potassium hydroxide (KOH) and
sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
 A Di-acidic base is a base that produces two hydroxide ions
when one of its molecules undergoes complete ionization.
Examples of such bases include magnesium hydroxide /
Mg(OH)2 and barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2

 A Tri-acidic base is a base that produces three hydroxide ion

when one of its molecules undergoes complete ionization.
Common examples of tri-acidic bases include aluminium
hydroxide Al(OH)3

Properties of acid-
 It provides H+ ion dissolving with water
 Hydrogen is the fundamental element of acid.
 It has replaceable hydrogen atom (Arrhenius’s theory)
 pH is 0-7
 It converts blue Litmus to red litmus
 It leads methyl orange to red colour
 Phenolphthalein is colourless in acid

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 Sour taste
 Acid is conductor of electricity
 Reacting with a base, acid provides salt and water.
HCL + NaOH= NaCl+ H20
Acid+ Base= Salt+ water
 It produces hydrogen gas by reacting with metal.
2HCl+ Zn= ZnCl2+ H2
 It produces salt, carbon dioxide and water by reacting with the
carbonates of metal
2HCl+ Na2CO3= 2NaCl+ CO2+ H2O
 The correct order of acidic strength is
HI > HBr > HCl > HF
CH3COOH < H2SO4 < HNO3 < HCl
Explanation- Acid strength depends on strength of H−X bond.
Weaker the bond easier it gives H+ ion. Bond dissociation enthalpy
decreases from H−F to H−I as the size of atom increases from F to I
Some natural acids & their usages:
Formic acid/ methanoic acid (HCOOH) is in string of insects, nettle
plant leaves. It is used in leather industry. It is also present in tomato.
Oxalic acid (HCOOH-COOH) is in spinach, tomato. This is used to
remove the ink stain from clothes. It is used in photography also.
Citric acid (C6H8O7) is in lemon, amla, citrous fruits. It is used to clean
metal, is rich in Vitamin-C.
Benzoic acid (C6H5COOH) is used in making medicines, in food
preservation purposes. This is present in grass.
Tartaric acid (C4H6O6) is used in making baking soda (NaHCO3). This is
found in tamarind.
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) is used in making pickle.

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Carbonic acid (H2CO3) is used in soda water or cold drinks.
Malic acid (C4H6O5) is in apple,
Boric acid (H3BO3) is used as eye lotion.
Tannic acid is in tea
Lactic acid is present in curd
Acetic acid is in vinegar
Butter is rich source of Butyric acid
- All these acids are obtained in nature. These are generally weak
acids.

Nitric acid (HNO3)

 Is used in making RDX (Research & development Explosive),
fertilizers, and explosives.
 It is commercially made through Ostwald's process
 In this reaction reactants are NH3 & O2 & platinum rod is used as
catalyst.
 Another name is Aqua fortis/ strong water.
 Identification-
Ring test: When freshly prepared FeSO4 followed by concentrated
H2SO4 is added to HNO3, brown colour ring is formed due to Penta
aqua Nitroso ferric Sulphate.

Hydrochloric acid (HCl)

 Another name is Muriatic Acid
 Yellow in colour
 Strongest acid, pH is 1
 Identification :
When NH3 gas passes through HCl gas, it produces white colour
fumes NH4Cl/ ammonium chloride which is in solid form.
 HCl is used for pickling of metal.

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 This acid is also used in making fertilizers, Aqua regia, is useful in
Food-Industry.
 It produces AgCl (AgCl is used for photographic film and light
sensation).
 Aqua regia = HCl: HNO3 (in the ratio 3:1) (gold is completely
dissolved in this)
Maximum metal & non-metal dissolves in it.
 HCl gas is a co-valent compound it doesn't dissociate ions easily,
but is a strong electrolyte.

Sulphuric Acid (H2SO4)

 Is also called “king of all acids” or “oil of vitriol”
 This is used in storage battery and as a cleansing agent.
 Prepared by Contact Process
 Burning of S & O2 provides this acid, Catalyst is vanadium
pentoxide/ V2O5
 Olium/ fuming sulphuric acid is made from it.

BASE:
 This has replaceable hydroxyl ion (OH-)
 pH 7-14
 bitter taste
 it converts red litmus into blue colour
 it turns methyl orange to yellow colour
 Phenopthalene solution is pink in basic solution
 calcium hydroxide / (Quicklime) CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2 (lime
water/slacked lime/ calcium hydroxide)
This product is used to remove acidity of the soil.
 Sodium Hydroxide /caustic soda/ NaOH: It is used in
manufacturing hard soap, strongest base is NaOH, its pH is 14
113 | P a g e
 Potassium hydroxide /caustic potash: it is used in manufacturing
soft soaps.
 magnesium oxide (MgO) it is used in Brick Industry
 magnesium hydroxide /milk of magnesia/ Mg(OH)2: is used as an
antacid

Alkalis:
Alkalis are bases that are soluble in water.
 Usually, the term ‘alkali’ is used to denote the ionic salts
of alkaline earth metals or alkali metals that shows basic
properties.
 All alkalis are base, but all bases are not alkaline.
 Some common examples of alkali salts are listed below --
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2),
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Potassium hydroxide (KOH)

SALT:
 Salt is formed by reaction of acid and base
HCL + NaOH= NaCl+ H2O
 Types of salt -
1. Acidic salt – The salt is formed by partial neutralization of a diprotic
or a polyprotic acid is known as an acidic salt. These salts have
ionizable H+ ion along with another cation. Mostly the ionizable H+ is a
part of the anion. Maximum acid salts are used in baking
Eg: - NaHSO4, KHPO4 etc.
2. Basic or Alkali Salt – The salt is formed by the partial neutralization
of a strong base by a weak acid is known as a basic salt. They
hydrolyse to form a basic solution. It is because when hydrolysis of

114 | P a g e
basic salt takes place, the conjugate base of the weak acid is formed in
the solution.
Eg :- White lead (2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2).
3. Double salt – The salts that contain more than one cation or anion
are known as double salt. They are obtained by the combination of
two different salts crystallized in the same ionic lattice.
Eg :- (KNaC4H4O6.4H2O)/ potassium sodium tartarate is also known
as Rochelle salt.
4. Mixed Salts – The salt that consists of a fixed proportion of
two salts, often sharing either a common cation or common anion is
known as mixed salt.
E.g :- CaOCl2
Usage of salt:
 Sodium chloride/ table salt (NaCl): This is used for food
preservation system and to melt ice.
 Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) is used to make gunpowder,
firecrackers.
 Alam K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H20 is used as antiseptic and water
purifier
 Plaster of paris (CaSO4,1/2H20) is used in medical purposes.
 Calcium oxi chloride (CaOCl2) is bleaching powder.
 Baking soda /Sodium Bicarbonate/ NaHCO3: is used in bakery
industry and fire extinguisher.
 Washing soda /sodium carbonate (Na2CO3.10H2O) is used in
laundry.

pH scale – A figure expressing the acidity or alkalinity of a solution on

a logarithmic scale on which 7 is neutral, lower values are more acid
and higher values more alkaline. The pH is equal to −log10 c, where c
is the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per litre.
115 | P a g e
 Full form of pH is Potential of Hydrogen.
 Number of H+ ions present in 1 litre of solution is called pH of
that solution.
 Arrhenius discovered pH
 S.P. Sorenson discovered pH-scale.

Substance pH value
Egg 7.7
Urine 6
Tears, blood 7.4
Saliva 6.7
Gastric juice 2
Oceanic water 8.5
Normal rain 5.6
Acid rain Below 5.5

116 | P a g e
Buffer Solution - The solution which can resist the change of pH
(potential of hydrogen) at a certain level is known at Buffer Solution.
Example
Acidic Buffer: CH3COOH + CH3COONa
Basic Buffer: NH4OH + NH4Cl

Electrolysis
 This is a process of decomposing ionic compounds into their
constituent elements through passing a direct electric current
through the compound in a molten form.
 The cations are reduced at cathode and anions are oxidized at the
anode.
 The main ingredients which are necessary for conducting
electrolysis are an electrolyte, electrodes, and some form of
external power source is also required. a partition such as an ion-
exchange membrane or a salt bridge is also used but not
mandatory. These are used mainly to keep the products from
diffusing near the opposite electrode.

 Electrolysis is usually done in a vessel named electrolytic cell

containing two electrodes (cathode and anode) connected to a
direct current source and an electrolyte which is an ionic

117 | P a g e
 compound undergoing decomposition, in either liquid form or in a
dissolves state in a suitable solvent.
Electrodes are mainly of two Types:
1. Reactive electrodes are those electrodes which take part in the
reaction taking place in the cell and can be dissolved in the
electrolyte.
Eg– generally made of metal- copper electrodes, silver
electrodes, zinc electrodes, copper electrodes etc. These are
mainly used in potentiometric work.

2. Inert electrodes are those electrodes that do not take part in

the reaction.
Eg– Carbon electrodes, Platinum electrodes etc.

Strong electrolytes Weak electrolytes

These electrolytes are These electrolytes are partially ionised
completely ionised
They have high electrical Low electrical conductivity.
conductivity.
The extension of ionisation The extension of ionisation is least.
is higher
Eg. Strong acids, strong Eg. acetic acid, carbonic acid,
bases, ionic salts phosphoric acid

 Salt containing water is electrolysed by passing electric current to

their original constituting elements hydrogen and oxygen.
H2O = H+ + OH-

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 Molten sodium chloride can be decomposed to sodium and
chlorine atoms.
NaCl = Na+ + Cl-

When electric current is passed through dissolved sodium chloride,

the sodium ion is attracted by the cathode from which it takes an
electrode and becomes a sodium atom.
Chloride ion reaches the anode, gives its electron, and become chlorine
atom to form a chlorine molecule.
 Na+ (in electrolyte) + e– (from cathode) → Na (At Cathode)
 Cl– (from electrolyte) → e– + Cl → Cl2 (At Anode)

Faraday's First law of electrolysis – This law of electrolysis states that

the mass of chemical deposited due to flow of current through an
electrolyte is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity or
charge (Q) passed through it.
m Q
m = mass of a substance (in grams) deposited or liberated at an
electrode.
Q = amount of charge (in coulombs) or electricity passed through it

119 | P a g e
Faraday’s Second Law of Electrolysis - This states that the mass of a
substance deposited at any electrode on passing a certain amount of
charge is directly proportional to its chemical equivalent weight. When
the same quantity of electricity is passed through several electrolytes,
the mass of the substances deposited are proportional to their
respective chemical equivalent or equivalent weight.
w E
w = mass of the substance
E = equivalent weight of the substance

So, w1/w2=E1/E2

SALT HYDROLYSIS:

All non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature.

SO3 + H2O = H2SO4
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3

Metallic Oxides are basic in nature.

Na2O + H2O = NaOH

Neutral Oxide - H2O, NO, CO

1) Washing Soda
Na2CO3 = 2Na + CO3-2
H2O = H+ + OH-
Na2CO3 + H2O = NaOH (strong base) + H2CO3 (weak base)
--- This is basic in nature.

2) NaCl + H2O = NaOH (strong base) + HCl (strong acid)

120 | P a g e
- This is neutral in nature.
3) NH4Cl + H2O = NH4OH (weak base) + HCl (strong acid)
- This is acidic in nature.

PROPERTIES OF GASES
A substance in a state in which it will expand freely to fill the whole of
a container, having no fixed shape and no fixed volume is called gas. It
excerts equal pressure to all sides of the container.
Brownian motion is a result of the collisions of the particles with other
fast-moving particles in the fluid or gas. This is named after the Robert
Brown, who first observed that pollen grains move in random
directions when placed in water.
Some important terms - Pressure, absolute temperature (Kelvin scale),
volume, molecular mass

MOLECULAR MASS is the mass of a molecule that is equal to the sum

of the masses of all the atoms contained in the molecule.
Eg. Atomic mass of oxygen is 16, but the molecular mass is 16*2=32

Avogadro’s number: The number of atoms or molecules in one mole

of a substance, equal to 6.023 × 10 23

Vapour density is the density of vapour in relation to that of hydrogen.

It may be defined as mass of a certain volume of a substance divided
by mass of same volume of hydrogen.

Relative molecular mass is the ratio of the mass of one molecule of a

substance to the mass 1/12th of a carbon atom, or 1 amu.

121 | P a g e
Molecular weight = Mass of one molecule of a substance /
Mass of one atom of hydrogen /

Vapour density = Mass of a certain volume of gas or vapour /

Mass of same volume of hydrogen
2×Vapour density=Molecular weight
Ques. - Calculate the molecular mass a gas if the vapour density of
the gas is 32.
Molecular mass = 2 * vapour density
= 2 * 32
= 64
Therefore, molecular mass of a gas will be 64

Expansion of gases: Gases are the most active substances which take
part in thermal expansion.

 Boyle’s law: At constant temperature the volume (V) of a sample of

a gas varies inversely with the pressure (P).
So, V is inversely proportional to P (when temperature & mass are
constant)
V 1/P
V=k/P
PV=k
PV = constant (at constant M & T)
CONSTATNTS: TEMPERATURE AND MASS
 Corollary of Boyle's Law:
We know PV =k [when temp & mass are constant]
Now, density (d) = mass (m)/volume (v)
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So, v = m/d
Now from Boyle's Law,
Relation between pressure and density is
P*m/d = K
P/d=K/m
P=k’d
P d
Pressure and Density are directly proportional to each other.
1. A 50mL of gas is at 3.5 atm. What will be the volume if the
pressure becomes 2.5 atm, with a fixed amount of gas and
temperature?
By solving with the help of Boyle’s law equation,
P1V1 = P2V2
V2 = P1V1 / P2
V2 = (50 * 3.5)/2.5
V2 = 70 mL

 Charle’s law: (at absolute temperature) - The volume (V) of a given

amount of a gas at constant pressure varies directly as its absolute
temperature (T). This law means that with the increase in
temperature the volume shall increase while with decreasing
temperature the volume decreases. The increment in volume with
every degree equals 1/273.15 times the original volume.
So, V is proportional to T [when pressure and mass are constant]
V T
V/T= k= constant
V1/T1 = V2/T2
CONSTANTS: Pressure & Mass
123 | P a g e
2. A sample of oxygen gases in a pump has a volume of 15 mL and it
is at 50 oC. When the amount of gas and pressure remain
constant, find the new volume of oxygen in the pump if the
temperature is increased to 75 oC.
Solution:
V1 = 15 mL
V2 =?
T1 = (50 + 273) = 323 K
T2 = (75 + 273) = 348 K
V2 = V1T2/T1
V2 = 15*(75+273) / (50+ 273)
V2 = 15*348 / 323
V2 = 16.16 mL

 Combined law of Charles’s & Boyle’s law:

PV/T = constant
 Corollary of Charles’s Law:
We know, V = KT [when temp & mass are constant]
Now, density (d) = mass (m)/volume (v)
So, V = m/d
Now from Charles’s Law, m/d = KT
d= (m/k) * (1/T)
So, d 1/T
d is inversely proportional to T (Relation between density and
absolute temperature)
 Gay-Lussac's Law (at absolute temperature):
The pressure (P) of a given amount of a gas at constant volume
varies directly as its absolute temperature (T)

124 | P a g e
 So, P is proportional to T [when Volume and mass are constant]
So, P/T = k = constant
P T
Now, P1 / T1 = P2 / T2
CONSTANTS: Volume & Mass
3. Calculate the pressure change when a constant volume of gas at 2
atm is heated from 30 °C to 40 °C.
Solution:
P1 = 2 atm
P2 =?
T1 = (30 + 273) = 303 K
T2 = (40 + 273) = 313 K
According to the Gay-Lussac law,
P T
P/T = constant
P1/T1 = P2/T2
P2 = ( P1 * T2 ) / T1
= (2 x 313) / 303
= 2.06 atm

 Avogadro's Law: Samples of different gases which contain the

same number of molecules (n) occupy the same volume (V) at the
same temperature and pressure.
So, V is proportional to n [when temp and pressure are
constant]
V n
V₁/ n₁ = V₂/ n₂
CONSTANTS: Temp & Pressure

125 | P a g e
 Avogadro’s law states that under the same conditions of
temperature and pressure, equal volumes of different gases
contain an equal number of molecules. This relation can be derived
from the kinetic theory of gases under the assumption of a perfect
ideal gas.
 At STP, all gases have same volume for 1 mol of gas and that
volume is always equal to the 22.4 L.
 Graham's law of Diffusion: The rate of diffusion(r) of a gas at
constant pressure and temperature is inversely proportional to the
square root of its molecular mass (M).
So, r is proportional to (1/M)1/2 [when temp and pressure are
constant]
r (1/M)1/2
So, r1/r2= (M2/M1)1/2

As, M = 2 x vapour density (d)

So, r1/r2 = (d2/d1)1/2
CONSTANTS: Temp & Pressure
 The combined gas law: Suppose, the pressure, temperature &
volume of some amount of gas are respectively P, T & V
PV /T = k (k is only depended on mass)
 Ideal Gas Equation: Combining these Boyle's law, Charle's law,
Avogadro's law equations,
PV = nRT (R= universal gas constant)
 The ideal gas law is approximately valid for real gases at sufficiently
low pressures and high temperatures.
Value of R is 8.314 JK-1mol-1
Boltzmann’s constant k= R/N (N= Avogadro’s number)
4. What is the temperature of one mole of CH4 gas that occupies 20 L
at 1 atm pressure in Kelvin?

126 | P a g e
Solution:
PV = nRT
T=PV/nR
T = [1][20]/ [1][0.082]
T = 243.94 = 244 K
5. A tyre containing 20 moles of air and occupying a volume of 40L
loses half of its volume due to a puncture. Supposing that the
pressure and temperature are constant, what will be the amount of
air in the deflated tyre?
Initially the amount of air (n1) = 20 mol
The initial volume of the tyre (V1) = 40 L
Final volume of the tyre (V2) = 20 L
According to Avogadro’s law,
The final amount of air in the tyre (n2) = (V2n1)/V1 = 10 moles.
The deflated tyre will contain 10 mole air.

6. 400 mL of a gas is collected at 745 mmHg. What will the volume be

at standard pressure?

(745 mmHg)* (400 mL) = (760 mmHg)* (x)

x = 392.10 mL

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION
OXIDATION & REDUCTION

Oxidation:
 addition of oxygen
2Mg + O2 = 2MgO
 separation of hydrogen
2H2S + O2 = 2H2O + 2S
 loss of electron
Na = Na+ + e-
 increase in oxidation number
Reduction:
 removal of oxygen
2MgO = 2Mg + O2
 addition of hydrogen
2H2O + 2S = 2H2S + O2
 gain of electron
Cl + e- = Cl-
 decrease in oxidation number
Oxidation number is the charge on any atom.
Some oxidation numbers:

O2 0
Na+ +1
Mg+2 +2
Cl- -1
Al+3 +3
CH4 0
SO2-2 -2

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In KMnO4, what is the oxidation number of Mn?
K=19 (2, 8, 8, 1), +1; O=8 (2, 6), -2
1+x+4(-2) = 0
x= 7
1. In H2SO4, what is the oxidation number of S?
Ans: 6

Oxidising agent is reduced but oxidise others & reducing agent gets
oxidised but reduce others.
In which reaction oxidation and reduction simultaneously happen,
that is called Redox Reaction.
Photosynthesis reaction: 6CO2 + 12 H2O = C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
In this reaction, the source of the product oxygen gas (O2) is produced
from reactant water (H2O). So, H2O is oxidised to produce O2 by CO2.
Here CO2 is oxidising agent. On the other side, CO2 is reduced to
produce C6H12O6, here H2O is responsible for this reduction.
Some oxidizing agent: KMnO4 (potassium permanganate), K2Cr2O7,
H2O2

129 | P a g e
 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION
ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Atom Molecule
John Dalton discovered the Smallest particle of compound.
smallest particle.
They are never in free state & They are in independent state and
it participates in chemical never participate in chemical
reaction. reaction.

Fundamental particles of atom:

ELECTRON -1e0 PROTON 1p1 NEUTRON 0n1

JJ Thomson Goldstein discovered James Chadwick
discovered in proton in 1886 but discovered in 1932
1897 (Milikan Oil Rutherford coined the
Drop Experiment) term Proton first
Located in extra Located in nucleus Located in nucleus
space excluding
nucleus
Relative mass is Relative mass is 1 Relative mass is 1
1/1840
negative charge, - positive charge, neutral/ no charge
1.6*10-19C +1.6*10 C-19

Mass is 1/1840 of mass is equivalent to mass is equivalent

mass of hydrogen hydrogen to hydrogen
atom =9.1*10- atom=1.67*10-27kg = atom=1.67*10-27kg
31
kg= 9.1*10- -24
1.67*10 gm = 1.67*10-24gm
28
gm

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  Positron was discovered by Anderson in 1932. This particle is
known as antiparticle of electron.

Various atomic models:

1. Dalton model (1803) –
❑All matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms. Atoms of the
same element are similar in shape and mass, but differ from the atoms
of other elements

❑ Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.

❑ Atoms of different elements may combine with each other in fixed,

simple, whole number ratios to form compound atoms.

❑The atom is the smallest unit of matter that can take part in a
chemical reaction.
But later atomic models and atomic theories proved that atoms are
divisible and they have a definite internal configuration and
composition.
2. Thomson model (1903) - plum pudding model/ water melon model.

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3. Rutherford Model (1911) – (gold foil experiment)

Conclusions of this model:

 The positively charged particles and maximum mass of an atom
was focused in an extremely small volume. This region is called
a nucleus.
 Rutherford model proposed that the negatively charged
electrons revolve around the nucleus of an atom. He said that
the electrons revolve around the nucleus with very high speed
in circular paths. He named these circular paths as orbits.
 Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a
positively charged particle are held together by a strong
electrostatic force of attraction.
Drawbacks - When negatively charged electrons revolving
around nucleon electrons emit energy continuously.
Consequently, they fall upon nucleus immediately & hence the
stability of atom breaks down. So, it is cleared the in
Rutherford's model is not justified.

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4. Neil Bohr’s model (1913) –
Three postulates of this model:
❑ The electron is able to revolve in certain stable orbits around the
nucleus without radiating any energy. These stable orbits are called
stationary orbits.
❑ The stationary orbits are attained at distances for which the angular
momentum of the revolving electron is an integer multiple of the
Planck constant. mvr = nħ, (where n = 1, 2, 3, ... is called the principal
quantum number), and ħ = h/2π
❑ Electrons gain and lose energy by jumping from one allowed orbit
to other, absorbing or emitting electromagnetic radiation with a
frequency ν determined by the energy difference of the levels
according to the Planck relation: ∆E = E2 - E1 = hυ , where h is Planck's
constant
5) Bohr Burry model (1921) –

❑ The first or the innermost energy shell (K; n = 1) takes maximum

two electrons.
❑ The second shell (L; n = 2) can contain up to 8 electrons.
❑ From third shell (M; n = 3) onwards, the shells become bigger. The
third shell can accommodate as many as 18 electrons.

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In general, the maximum number of electrons that can be present in
any shell is 2n2; where, n is the number of energy shell. Thus, the first
orbit (n = 1, known as K shell) can contain 2 × 12 = 2 electrons, the
second orbit (n = 2, known as L shell) can contain 2 × 22 = 8 electrons.
 The inner most orbit or shell has the lowest energy.
 The outer most orbit or shell has the largest energy.

Atomicity: The number of atoms present in a molecule of an element

or a compound is known as its atomicity.
e.g. the atomicity of nitrogen (N2) is 2 while atomicity of ozone (O3) is
3.

Valency: Every element wants to be stable. So that they have strong

tendency to obtain the electronic configuration of their nearest inert
gases. The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are
known as valence electrons. These electrons determine the valency of
an atom. Valency is equal to the number of valence electrons. In case
the number of valence electrons is close to its full capacity. Then,
Valency = 8 - valence electrons
Na (11) = (2, 8, 1). Valency is 1
O (8) = (2, 6), valency is (8- 6) = 2

❑ Atomic Number: The number of proton (in neutral case number of

electrons also) of an atom of the element is called atomic number of
the element and generally it is represented by Z.
❑ Mass Number: The sum of the total number of protons and
neutrons of the nucleus of an atom of the element is called mass
number and it is represented by A.
 No of neutrons = mass no - atomic no
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When electron(s) is/are removed the resulting ion is called a cation or
basic radical. A cation is positively charged ion (Na+).
When electron(s) is/are added the resulting ion is called an anion or
acidic radicals. An anion is negatively charged ion (Cl–)
Isotopes: Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same
atomic no but different mass number. Isotopes of an element
generally have the same physical and chemical properties.
e.g (protium) 1H1, (deuterium) 1H2, (tritium) 1H3

Isobars: Atoms whose atomic numbers are different but having the
same mass no are called isobars.
e.g 27Co64, 28Ni64

Isotone: one of two or more atoms having an equal number of

neutrons but different atomic number. 8O16, 7N15 in both cases no of
neutrons is 16-8= 15-7= 8

Isoelectronic refers to two atoms, molecules or ions that have the

same electronic structure and the same number of valence
electrons.
Na+, Mg+2, Al+3 are isoelectronic.

Moles - The number of atoms or other particles in a mole is the

same for all substances. The mole is related to the mass of an
element in the following way: one mole of carbon-12 atoms has
6.022 × 1023 atoms and a mass of 12 grams.
Number of Moles = Mass of substance / Mass of one mole
1. Determine the number of moles in 1740 gm of MnO2.
Solution:
135 | P a g e
Given, Mass of MnO2 = 1740 gm
Mass of one mole MnO2 = (55 + 16*2) =87 gm
Number of moles = Mass of substance / Mass of one mole
Number of moles = 1740 / 87
Number of moles = 20 mol
Avogadro’s number – The number of units in one mole of any
substance is called Avogadro’s number or Avogadro’s constant. (n =
6.022×1023)

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Shape of s, p, d, f orbital:

137 | P a g e
The principal quantum number (n) tells us which principal electron
shells the electrons occupy. For example, the electron configuration of
helium (He), is 1s2 - the principal quantum number is the number '1'.
This means the two electrons of helium occupy the first principal
electron shell.
Angular momentum quantum number / secondary quantum
number / azimuthal quantum number (l) tells that the shape of an
orbital and tells us which subshells are present in the principal shell
this value is equal to the total number of angular nodes in the orbital.
This can indicate either of s, p, d, or f subshell which vary in shape.
This value depends on the value of the principal quantum number, the
value of the azimuthal quantum number ranges between 0 and (n-1).
138 | P a g e
If n =3, the azimuthal quantum number can take on the following
values – 0, 1, and 2. When l=0, the resulting subshell is an ‘s’ subshell.
When l=1 and l=2, the resulting subshells are ‘p’ and ‘d’ subshells
respectively. Therefore, when n=3, the three possible subshells are 3s,
3p, and 3d.
When the value of n is 5, the possible values of l are 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. If
l = 3, then there are a total of three angular nodes in the atom.
The Magnetic quantum number (m) splits the sub-shells (such as s, p,
d, f) into individual orbitals and places the electron in one of them. It
defines the orientation in space of a given orbital of particular energy
(n) and shape (I).

There are two rules that the Pauli Exclusion Principle follows:

 Only two electrons can occupy the same orbital.

 The two electrons that are present in the same orbital must
have opposite spins or they should be antiparallel.

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 Hund’s rule – This states that all orbitals will be once filled before
any electron is double filled. Hund's rule also specifies that all of
the unpaired electrons must have the same spin.

Van der Waals forces - are weak intermolecular forces that are
dependent on the distance between atoms or molecules. These forces
arise from the interactions between uncharged atoms/molecules. This
force is found in inert gases. The ability of geckos lizard to hang on a
glass surface using only one toe to climb on sheer surfaces had been
responsible to the Van der Waals’ forces between these surfaces and
their foot-pads.
Afbau principle: It states the manner in which electrons are filled in
the atomic orbitals of an atom in its ground state. It states that
electrons are filled into atomic orbitals in the increasing order of
orbital energy level. According to the Aufbau principle, the available

140 | P a g e
atomic orbitals with the lowest energy levels are occupied before
those with higher energy levels.

Al (13): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

Fe (26): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Cu (29): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10

MCQs:

1. Which of the following is not a fundamental particle of an atom?

Ans: Alpha particle.

2. The no of protons in a negatively charged atom is -

a. more than the no of electrons in the atom
b. less than the atomic no of the element
c. more than the atomic no of the element
d. less than the no of electrons in the atom

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3. The atoms, in which the number of neutrons is same but the
number of protons is not same are called -
a. isobars
b. Isomers
c. isotones
d. isotopes

4. An element has 20 electrons, and 20 neutrons. Its charge is -2.

What is its mass number?
(a) 38 (b) 40 (c) 42 (d) 36

5. The isotope Deuterium of hydrogen has -

a. no neutron and one proton
b. one neutron and two protons
c. one electron and two neutrons
d. one proton and one neutron

6. The isotope used to remove the brain tumours and treatment of

cancer is
a. U-235
b. Na-24
c. I-131
d. Co-60

7. Which of the following isotopes of element helps to find blood

clot?
(a) U-235 (b) Co-60 (c) Na-24 (d) I-131

142 | P a g e
8. If Cl has 17 electrons, then how many electrons will be there in Cl-?
(a) 16 (b) 17 (c) 18 (d) none of these

9. According to the Rutherford model, the electron inside an atom is -

(a) Stationary (b) Centralized (c) Non stationary (d) none of these

10.The value of charge of electron was determined by -

(a) Thomson (b) Rutherford (c) Chadwick (d) Millikan

143 | P a g e
 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION

PERIODIC TABLE

A table of the chemical elements arranged in order of atomic number,

usually in rows, so that elements with similar atomic structure (and
hence similar chemical properties) appear in vertical columns is called
periodic table.

HISTORY OF THE BACKGROUND OF PERIODIC TABLE:

Triad theory of Dobereiner (1815): When elements are arranged in

order of increasing atomic masses, groups of three elements (triads),
having similar chemical properties are obtained. The atomic mass of
the middle elements of the triad being equal to the arithmetic mean
of the atomic masses of the other two elements.
X Y Z
Atomic mass of Y = (Z + X)/2
He arranged elements in group of three; he found that atomic mass of
middle element is half of the sum of the mass of other two elements.
(Li, Na, K), ( Cl, Br, I)

Newland’s Octave law (1865): Newland's Law of Octaves states that

when Elements are arranged in increasing order of Atomic Mass, the
properties of every eighth Element starting from any Element are a
repetition of the properties of the starting Element. Law of Octaves was
true only for Elements up to Calcium.
There were 56 elements.
Elements are arranged according to increase of atomic mass

144 | P a g e
7 rows, 8 columns
He placed Hydrogen at the first place and Thorium at the last place.
He got every element is similar in properties to its 8th element

Mendeleev periodic table (1869): Mendeleev’s periodic law states

that; the physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic
function of their atomic weights.

63 elements were discovered then.

According to increase of atomic mass
Total number of group = 8, Total number of period = 7
He determined Position of elements in periodic table according to –
The number of shell = Number of period.
No of e’s present in valence shell = No. of group
Eka Boron- scandium, Eka aluminium- gallium, Eka Silicon- Germanium
According to Mendeleev, the naughty element is H, he did not think
about isotopes.

Modern Periodic table/ Moseley periodic table (1913):

Henry Moseley discovered a new property of an element that is
atomic number and he arranged elements according to the increasing
atomic number.

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Periodical distribution of elements:

Total no of Last
Period Name 1st element
element element
1 shortest 2 H He
2 short 8 Li Ne
3 short 8 Na Ar
4 Long 18 K Kr
5 Long 18 Rb Xe
6 Longest 32 Cs Rd
7 incomplete - Fr Uuo

Group wise distribution of elements –

Group Feature 1st element Last element

1 Alkali metal H, Li Fr
(except H)
2 Alkali earth metal Be Ra
3-12 Transition Sc Cn
element
11 Coinage metal
(Cu, Ag, Au)
16 Chalcogen
elements (O, S,
Se, Te )
17 Halogen (F, Cl, Br,
I)
18 Nobel gas (He, Ne, He Rn
An, Kr, Xe, Rn)

Zn is not a Transitional Element.

146 | P a g e
Representative Element: Except group 18, S & P block elements are
called as Representative Element.

Lanthanide Elements:
Cerium (Ce) to Lutetium (Lu)
There are 14 elements.
They are barely found in earth crust.
Their atomic size, physical & chemical properties almost same.
They are very closer to Lanthanum (La).

Actinide Elements:
Thorium (Th) to Lawrentium (Lr)
There are 14 elements
They are 2nd inter transition Element.
They are very closer to Actinide.

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Now, there are 118 elements -
 period 7 (2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32, 32) – horizontal rows
 groups 18 - vertical rows
 first group IA - alkali metal
 second group IIA - alkaline earth metals- they are found in Earth
crust
 11th group - coin metals
 7th group halogens - (chlorine, bromine, Iodine)
 18th group - inert gas or zero group or noble gas
 1st transition element is Scandium (Sc)
 the heaviest inert gas is radon (Rn)
 in nature the heaviest inert gas is Xenon (Xe)
 the most abundant inert gas in atmosphere is Argon (Ar)
 the lightest inert gas is helium (He)
 the only radioactive inert gas is radon (Rn)
 maximum compound making inert gas is Xenon (Xe)
 17 groups are most reactive element. Fluorine is the most reactive
among all.
Total 118 elements. Among them there are Metals 89, non-metals 22
(gas 11, liquid 1, solid 10), metalloids 7
Properties of period:
 Number of electrons in outermost orbit: left to right increases ,
number of Valence Electrons: top to bottom- same
 Valency: left to right, first increases, then decreases, Valency:
top to bottom-same
 Chemical reactivity: left to right, first decreases then increases.
Top to bottom- in metal it increases & in non-metal it
decreases.
Most reactive metallic element is sodium; most reactive non-metal
element is chlorine.

148 | P a g e
 Size of atom/ atomic radius :
Left to right (period wise) - it decreases.
From top to bottom (group wise) radius increases.
Li> Be> B> C> N> O > F (period wise)
Li< Na< K< Rb< Cs< Fr (group wise)
 Electro-Affinity: The amount of energy is liberated when an
electron is added to a neutral atom to form a negatively charged
ion (anion). It is measured in KJ / mole or Kcal/mole
From left to right (period) it increases.
From top to bottom, (group) it decreases.
Highest Electron affinity - Cl
Least E. A. - all inert elements
 Metallic character: left to right- it decreases ,
top to bottom, it increases.
 Electro negativity: It is the tendency of an atom of an element to
attract shared electron pair while forming covalent bond.
left to right (period wise) - it increases.
from top to bottom (group wise) - it decreases.
Most electronegative element is fluorine (F) & least electronegative
element is cesium (Cs)/ francium (Fr) /Os.
 Ionisation Energy: The amount of energy is required to remove an
electron from an isolated atom or molecule. It is measured in Kcal /
mole or KJ / mole
for inert element I. E. very high.
from left to right I. E. increases
from top to bottom I. E. decreases.

149 | P a g e
Highest ionization energy is helium (He) & least ionization potential
element is caesium (Cs) / Fr/ Os
Li <Be< B< C< N< O< F< Ne (period)
Li> Na> K> Rb> Cs> Fr (group)
 Oxidation – Reduction Property :
From left to right oxidizing character increases, reducing character
decreases.
From top to bottom, oxidising character increases, reducing
character increases.
Block Group
s 1,2
p 13-18
d 3-12
f Lanthanide,
Actinide

 last element is ununoctium

 the heaviest element is ununoctium
 naturally the heaviest element is Uranium
 the lightest element is hydrogen
 lightest metal is lithium
 heaviest metal is osmium
 element of highest electron affinity is chlorine
 the smallest element in size is helium (radius 16 picometer)
 the largest in size is caesium (radius 113 picometer)
 7 period is still incomplete
 There are 92 natural elements and 26 man-made or artificial
elements.

150 | P a g e
 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION
POLYMER

Poly+ mer= Many units

Manufacturing of polymer from monomer in high temperature is
called polymerisation.
Polymer is classified in two types-
1) Natural polymer& 2) Artificial/synthetic polymer
(artificial/synthetic polymer is further divided into three - a) plastic,
b) fibre& c) rubber)

1) Natural polymer is obtained naturally from plants or animals.

e.g. cellulose, starch, glycogen, protein, DNA, natural rubber
Plant cell wall is made of cellulose
Glycogen is in human body in liver- they are polysaccharide.
Monomer is glucose (C6H12O6)
Monomer of protein is amino acid (in silk, wool)
Monomer of natural rubber is isoprene C5H8 (from latex)
Monomer of DNA is nucleotides

2) Artificial polymers
Plastic: plastic is found by Alexander Parkes
Plastic is of two types- Thermoplastic and Thermosetting plastic

Thermoplastic Thermosetting Plastic

It is given different shape by Once it is given a certain
melting repeatedly (recycling) shape after melting for that it
can't be melted

151 | P a g e
Bakelite Teflon PTFE (Poly Melamine
tetra fluro ethylene)
monomer is (phenol + monomer is- tetra Used in
formaldehyde) fluro ethylene plastic
(CF2=CF2) utensils
1st man made plastic used in used in non-stick
electric switches, handle of utensils, to make
utensils, Radio, TV-cabinet, vehicle dust
bucket resistance

Artificial polymer:
Fibre Monomer Usage
Nylon-6 caproductum Rope, net,
W.H.Carathers parachute
discovered this first man-
made fibre.
Nylon 6,6 Hexamethylene di amine Same as
+ adipic acid nylon-6
Rayon (artificial silk) cellulose Clothes
Kevlar Para phenylene di Bullet proof
amine+ terapthalyl jacket
chloride
Decron Terapthalic acid + In making
ethylene glycol clothes, ropes

Rubber (elastomer): This was discovered by Charles Goodyear.

Natural rubber is highly elastic. Producing of synthetic
rubber/neoprene/polychloroprene from natural rubber, the process is
called vulcanization of rubber. Mixture of natural rubber and carbon
black is used in rubber tyre.

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Natural rubber (3-5% sulphur), 150c
Neoprene/polychloroprene
 monomer of Buta-N is (butadine + acrylo nitrile)
 monomer of Buta-S is (butadine + styrene)

153 | P a g e
 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION
FUEL

Fuel - These are the substance which produces heat and light on
combustion.
 fuel is of two types- fossil fuel, atomic fuel
 mixture of carbon(maximum), hydrogen and oxygen
 source of the maximum energy of the world is fossil fuel
 Another name of coal is black diamond.

Coal - It is believed to have been formed by the slow carbonisation of

vegetable matter buried underneath the Earth from centuries ago, in
limited supply of air under high temperature and pressure prevailing
there.
Coal is of four types:
 Anthracite: the most superior, carbon (80-95%), no smoke while
burning.
 Bituminous: carbon (55-65%), the most abundant in India, this has
been produced in Gondwana era.
 Lignite: another name is brown coal carbon (35-45%), it is found in
Southern portion of India
 Peat: worst quality coal, carbon (30%) maximum smoke, water
vapour.

Energy Resources are of three types –

Natural Resources - These resources are provided by nature like air,
water, mineral, sunlight, etc.

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Renewable Natural Resources These are available in excess amount
and eco-friendly.
e.g., air, sunlight, etc.

Non-Renewable Natural Resources These resources are available in

limited quantity and creates a harmful atmosphere.
e.g., minerals, coal petroleum, natural gas, etc.

Flame:
It is the hot part of fire and is divided in three parts.
Innermost region of flame - It is black because of the presence of
unburnt carbon particles.
Middle region of flame - It is yellow luminous due to partial
combustion of fuel.
Outermost region of flame - It is blue (non-luminous) due to
complete combustion of fuel. This is the hottest part of flame.

Petroleum
• It is a dark coloured oily liquid with offensive odour.
 Another name is also called rock oil, mineral oil, crude oil or
black gold.
• When subjected to fractional distillation, it gives different
products at different temperatures.

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Substance Heat-value (KJ/kg)
Cow dung 6000-8000 KJ/kg
Wood 18,000-22,000
Coal 25,000-30,000
Petrol, diesel, kerosene 45,000
Methane, CNG 50,000
LPG 55,000
Bio gas 35,000-40,000

Producer gas - (CO+ N2) - it is a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and

nitrogen (N2)
Water gas - (CO+ H2) - This is a mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and
hydrogen (H2)
Coal gas - (CO+ CH4 + H2) coal gas is a mixture of hydrogen, methane,
carbon monoxide, ethane, acetylene, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and
oxygen.
Biogas/ gobor gas - (CH4 + CO2) - Produced during decay of biomass in
the absence of oxygen. Methane (75%) is the main constituent of
biogas).
Oil gas and petrol gas is a mixture of methane, ethylene and acetylene
etc., is obtained by cracking of kerosene.
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas) - This is the mixtures of hydrocarbons
such as propane, propene, n-butane, isobutene and various butane
with small amount of ethane. The major sources of LPG are natural
gas.
 highly inflammable
 It is a mixture of n-butane, iso-butane and some propane

156 | P a g e
  It is easily compressed under pressure as liquid and stored in
iron cylinders.
 A strong smelling substance called ethyl mercaptan, is added to
LPG which detect the gas leakage.
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) = (methane+ ethane)
 CNG contains mainly of methane (95%) which is a relatively
unreactive hydrocarbon and makes its almost complete
combustion.
 It is highly compressed natural gas
 Octane rating of CNG is 130.
Gasohol It is a mixture of ethyl alcohol (10%) and petrol (90%)/
(gasoline + ethanol) This Gasoline is used in automobiles has an octane
number 80 or higher while in aeroplane, it has an octane number 100
or over higher.
In which compound, number of carbon atom is 5-8, that is called
petrol and if the number of carbon atom is 9-16 that is called diesel
and if the number of carbon atom is 17-30, we know them as wax.
Petrol/ gasoline/ octane/ C8H18: quality of petrol is measured in octane
number. TEL is used in order to increase the octane number of petrol.
Knocking -In a petrol engine, vapours of petrol and air are first
compressed to a small volume and then ignited by a spark. If the
quality of petrol is not good, it leads to the pre-ignition of fuel in the
cylinder. This gives rise to a metallic sound known as knocking.
Tetraethyl lead (TEL) and Benzene – Toluene – Xylene (BTX) are
common antiknock compounds.
Octane number can be increased by any of the following methods:
(1) by increasing the percentage of branched or cycloalkanes.

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(2) By addition of BTX (Benzene – Toluene – Xylene) or TEL (tetraethyl
lead)
(3) By addition of powder alcohol (ethanol).
 Diesel/ C10H22: quality of diesel is measured in cetane.
 If the number of carbons is increased, it pollutes more.
 The pure fuel is hydrogen fuel.
 Alcohol: when one or more than one carbon atoms are replaced by
hydroxyl Ion (OH-), which is called alcohol. Another name of methyl
alcohol is wood spirit.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic chemistry is defined as the study of hydrocarbons and their

derivatives. Urea was the first organic compound prepared in
laboratory. Wohler discovered urea in 1828 from inorganic compound
i.e. ammonium cyanate.
Hydrocarbons consist of hydrogen and carbon. They are of two types:
saturated (alkane) & unsaturated (alkene, alkyne)
The bonds with greater bond energy values have shorter bond lengths.
The bond energies of C-to-C bonds being in the order C ≡ C > C=C > C-
C.
Their bond lengths remain in the reverse order
i.e. C -C > C=C > C ≡ C.
The distance between the nuclei of two atoms forming a covalent
bond is called the bond length.
Functional group is responsible for the chemical properties of the
molecules.

 Alkane (CnH2n+2) – They are Saturated hydrocarbons. They contain

only single bonds.
Methane CH4, Ethane C2H6, propane C3H8, butane C4H10, pentane
C5H12, hexane C6H14, heptane C7H16, Octane C8H18, nonane C9H20,
Cetane C10H22

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 Alkene (CnH2n)
Ethene/ ethylene (C2H4): is used for ripening of fruits naturally, it’s a
natural plant hormone
 Alkyne (CnH2n-2)

Methane (CH4) - Rice agriculture is a big source of atmospheric

methane. It is also known as marsh gas or damp fire. Natural gas
contains mainly 90% methane along with ethane, propane, butane
etc.
Ethylene (𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻2) - it was used in war for the manufacturing of
mustard gas (poisonous gas). It is used as an anesthetic for the
preservation and natural ripening agent of green fruits. Another name
is ripening hormone.

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Acetylene (CH ≡ CH)/ Ethyne – this is the simplest alkyne. It is used for
ripening of fruits artificially.
CaC2+ H2O=C2H2+CaO
Ethane (𝐶2𝐻6) - Its hexa-chloro derivative 𝐶2𝐶𝐼6 is used as an artificial
camphor.
Butane is the main constituent of LPG (liquefied petroleum gas). This
is used in cigarette lighter.
Naphthalene (𝐶10𝐻8) it is used as an insecticide in almirah or book
shelves.
Toluene (𝐶6𝐻5𝐶𝐻3) It is used as a solvent in the manufacturing of
explosive (TNT). This is used in the manufacturing of saccharin and
printing inks.
Methyl isocyanate (𝐶𝐻3𝑁𝐶𝑂) Leakage of this gas is responsible for
Bhopal gas tragedy.
Carbon tetrachloride (𝐶𝐶𝐼4 ) – it is used as a fire extinguisher.
Phenol (𝐶6𝐻5𝑂𝐻) It is a monohydric benzene derivative. It is
commonly known as carbolic acid or benzenol.
Methyl alcohol (𝐶𝐻3𝑂𝐻) – Another name is wood spirit. It is very
poisonous gas.
Glycerine/ Glycerol/ (𝐶𝐻2𝑂𝐻. 𝐶𝐻𝑂𝐻. 𝐶𝐻2𝑂𝐻)
It is sweet in taste and very hygroscopic in nature
It is used in the manufacturing of transparent soaps
Chloroform (𝐶𝐻𝐶𝐼3) – Simpson discovered this. It is stored in closed
dark coloured bottles completely filled because it is oxidized by air in

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the presence of sunlight to an extremely poisonous gas phosgene
(𝐶𝑂𝐶𝐼2).
Chloropicrin is an insecticide and is very poisonous gas. It is used in
making Freon gas in refrigerator.
Dichloro diphenyl trichloro ethane (DDT) - It is used as an organic
insecticides
Iodoform (𝐶𝐻𝐼3) is used as an insecticide.
Rocket Fuel: (liquid H2 + liquid O2) is used as rocket propellant. But
presently, polybutadiene and acrylic acid used along with oxidizers are
as solid propellants.
Aromatic hydrocarbons they have ring structure with alternate double
bonds (by Huckle’s rule)
Benzene (C6H6):
Aromatic hydrocarbon. It has 3 pie bonds, 12 sigma bonds.

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163 | P a g e
 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

Henry Becquerel discovered radioactivity. In our nature some

elements have properties of self dis integration and after
disintegrating repeatedly, they emit some invisible rays. These
elements are called radioactive element and this phenomenon is
called radioactivity.
e.g. Uranium, Thorium, radium, polonium
Madame Curie and Pierre Curie discovered radium and polonium in
1897 and they received Nobel in physics in 1903.
There are 3 units:
 Becquerel (1 emission/ second)- basic unit
 Rutherford (106 emission/ s)
 Curie (3.62*1010 emissions/second)
1 Rutherford= 106becquerel
1 Curie = 3.62*1010Becquerel
Half- life of radium is equal to 1950 years.

Half- life - The time required for half of the atoms of a radioactive
substance to change composition: the time required for half
of something to undergo a process.

Half- life = 0.693/ y, where y= emission constant

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Rutherford experiment-
Alpha rays (2He4) +2
 mass is very high
 velocity is 1/10th of the velocity of the light= 3*107 m/s
 wavelength is very high
 kinetic energy is maximum as M is maximum
 energy is minimum
 penetrating power is minimum
Beta rays-
 flow of electron
 Mass is less than Alpha
 velocity is more than Alpha
 wavelength is less than Alpha
 penetrating power is more than Alpha
 energy is more than alpha
Y (Gamma) rays-
 electromagnetic waves
 neutral
 mass is very low
 velocity is equal to light
 minimum wavelength
 maximum energy
 penetrating power is maximum

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1. first nuclear reactor in India is APSARA
2. in Alpha decay Z decreases by 4 and A decreases by 2
3. A particle which is similar to electron is beta particle
4. A device used for the measurement of radioactivity is GM counter/
gigger-muller counter.
5. Photon of electromagnetic radiation is gamma ray.
6. Phenomenon of radioactivity was discovered by Henry Becquerel
in 1896
7. Gamma ray photons have no mass and no electric charge
8. By which method the age of earth is estimated? Uranium dating
9. The father of the Indian nuclear programme is Homi Jahangir
Bhabha.
Nuclear reaction is of two types: Nuclear Fission and nuclear fusion
Nuclear Fission:
235
92U + 0n1 = 56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 30n1 + 200 MeV

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Uncontrolled reaction produces huge energy. This principle is applied
in making atom bomb. Scientist Otto Hahn first discovered the atom
bomb.
Controlled reaction: rots (cadmium, Boron), heavy water (deuterium
oxide), graphite slows down the speed of neutron,
Nuclear fusion: in stars, sun, hydrogen bomb the source of energy is
nuclear fusion.

Fast breeder reactor: such an atomic reactor in which easily

fissionable, radioactive substances are made.

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Uranium 238- Plutonium 239, Thorium- uranium 233
Radiocarbon Dating (C -14) is used in determining the age of carbon
bearing materials such as wood, animal fossils, etc.
Uranium Dating It is used to determine the age of earth, minerals and
rocks.
Cobalt 60 Used in cancer therapy
Arsenic 74 To detect tumour
Uranium 235 Nuclear reactor
Iodine 131 Used in remedy of cancer of thyroid gland
Sodium 24 To detect blood clotting in body
Phosphorus 23 To fight against blood cancer

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION
CHEMISTRY IN DAILY LIFE

Explosive:
 Tri nitro toluene (TNT) = toluene + concentrated HNO3 +
concentrated H2SO4
 Tri nitro phenol (TNP)/picric acid= phenol + nitric acid + sulphuric
acid
 Tri nitro glycerine/ TNG/ Nobel’s oil = (glycerine + concentrated
H2SO4 + concentrated HNO3) this is used in making Dynamite.
 RDX (Research and developed explosive)/ another name is RDX HH.
 Gunpowder: Rodger Beacon discovered this. (KNO3 + charcoal +
sulphur)
Alcohol:
 methyl alcohol/ wood spirit
 Power alcohol is mixture of (spirit + benzene + petrol) is used as
fuel.
Some important drugs:
 Antipyretic drugs (pain relief): This is used to lessen pain or reduce
fever. Aspirin, crocin, morphine, paracetamol
 antiseptic: This prevents the growth of disease-causing micro-
organisms hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), formaldehyde, boric acid,
ethyl alcohol
 Anaesthetic drugs: This is used to result in a temporary loss of
sensation or awareness. di-ethyl Ether/ ether/ spirit (C2H5-O-C2H5),
chloroform, nitrous oxide (N2O)
 Antibiotic: Antibiotics are substances that are used to fight against
bacterial infections or antiprotozoal substances, which means they
are effective against protozoan infections. first antibiotic was

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 Penicillin was obtained from a fungus named Penicillium notatum,
Alexander Fleming discovered this in 1929; penicillin, tetra-cyclin,
streptomycin.
 Tranquilizer: They are the chemical compounds which are very
useful in the treatment of stress and mild or severe mental
diseases. potassium Bromide (KBr)
 Analgesic: An agent producing diminished sensation to pain
without loss of consciousness is called analgesic. morphine
Carbon tetra chloride (CCl4) is used in fire extinguisher.
Glycerol (C3H8O3): product of saponification; fatty acid + KOH/NaOH=
soap+ glycerol

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION
CHEMICAL BONDING

In order to complete octet in the outermost orbit, this tendency leads

to form chemical bond. These bonds are of three types:
1. Ionic electrovalent bond: it is formed between metal and non-
metal, due to transfer of electrons.
 properties of ionic bond
 high melting point and boiling point
 good conductor of electricity in liquid form
 bad conductor of electricity in solid form
 soluble in water
 low ionization energy
 electron affinity is highest
 NaCl, MgCl2, CaCl2, Al2O3

11Na (2, 8, 1) 17Cl (2, 8, 7)

2. Covalent bond: this bond is formed by equal sharing of electrons.

Single covalent bond> double bond> triple bond
O2, N3, H2, Cl2, H2O, HCl, C2H2, CH4

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There are two types of Covalent bonds:
ς Bond/ sigma bond : Strongest type of covalent chemical bond, they
are formed by head on head over lapping between atomic orbitals.

π Bonds/ pie bond : π Bonds are covalent chemical bonds in each of

which two lobes of an orbital overlap with two lobes of an orbital on
another atom.

In H-H, there is one sigma bond.

In O=O, there are 1 sigma, 1 pie bond.
In N2, there is 1 sigma, 2 pie bonds.

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3. Co-ordinate bond/ dative bond: this bond is formed by
transforming of one or more lone pair of electrons by a single atom.
One donor and one acceptor atom exist. It (a part of covalent bond)
consists of a pair of electron, supplied by only one of two atoms to
achieve the electronic configuration of nearest noble element:
H2O2, NH4+, O3

Dimerization of AlCl3

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 No. of bonded electron Bond Angle
Structure of Compound
pair (degree)
2 Linear 180 º
3 Trigonal Planner 120 º
4 Tetrahedral 109º28’
5 TBP 120 º, 90 º
6 Octahedral 90 º
7 Pentagonal bipyramidal 72 º, 90 º

Linear - CO2, BeF2

trigonal planar - NH3 , BF3
Tetrahedral Shape of Molecule - CH4, NH₄⁺
Trigonal Bipyramid - PCl5
Octahedral - SF6

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1. Bonds formed by sharing four electrons are- double covalent
bonds.
2. Complete transfer of one or more electrons between atoms
institute in forming- ionic bond.
3. Metal atoms usually lose electrons and form- positive ions/
captions
4. How are Bond length and Bond energies related? - Inversely related

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CEMENT:
Portland cement - It was discovered by Joseph Aspdin in 1824. He
named it Portland cement because he thought that it resembled the
limestone found in Portland.
Composition of Portland cement
 Calcium oxide (CaO) 60-70%
 Silica (Si𝑂2) 20-25%
 Alumina (𝐴𝐼2𝑂3) 5-10%
 Ferric oxide (𝐹𝑒2𝑂3) : 2-3%
 Magnesium oxide (MgO)
• Raw materials are limestone, clay, gypsum which reduces the setting
time of cement.
• When water is mixed with cement and left as such for some time, it
becomes hard. This is known as setting of cement. It is an exothermic
process,
 gypsum is added to cement clinker to increase setting time of
cement
PH value of cement is 13.5
Cement+ sand= mortar
Cement + sand + gravel = concrete
GLASS:
 Glass is discovered in Egypt
 Composition:
limestone/CaCO3/ calcium carbonate
Silicon dioxide SiO2
Na2CO3/ sodium carbonate
NaHCO3/ Sodium Bicarbonate/ baking soda

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  It is resistant to action of air and acids except hydro fluoric acid.
 It is alkaline in nature.
 Hard, rigid, high viscosity, bad conductor of heat and electricity
and brittle in nature.

Flint glass: (potassium carbonate) used in lens of camera, electric

bulb, telescope
Soda glass: used in tube light, bottles
Crooks glass (cerium oxide and silica): lens of spectacles or goggles
Crown glass (potassium oxide + barium oxide + silica): used in
spectacles’ glass
Pyrax glass: (barium silicate and sodium silicate) in lab beaker
photochromic glass: (silver chloride)
Melting point of Glass is 4500c
Laminated glass – This is used for doors and windows of automobiles.
it has high strength.
Opaque glass - In it a non-transparent glass filters the light entering
into it. Thus provides an aesthetic look.

Coloured glasses due to the following compounds -

Yellow colour - ferric salt
Brownish black - carbon
Red- cuprous oxide
Ruby colour -gold chloride
Green colour - ferrous oxide, sodium chromate
Blue colour - Cobalt oxide

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION
METAL AND ITS ORES & COMPOUNDS

METAL, THEIR ORES & DETAILS –

Minerals: The natural substance in which the metals or their
compounds occur in the earth is called minerals.
Ores: The minerals from which the metals can be conveniently and
economically extracted are called ores.
Metallurgy: The whole process of obtaining a pure metal from one of
its ore is known as metallurgy.
Gangue or matrix: Ores usually contain soil, sand, stones and others
useless silicates. These undesired impurities present in ores are called
gangue or matrix
Native ores: These ores contain metals in the Free State, e.g., silver,
gold, platinum, etc.
Some important metals and their ores:
Ore Formulae Obtained metal
Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O Aluminium (Al)
Haematite Fe2O3 Iron (Fe)
Magnetite Fe3O4 Iron (Fe)
Zincite ZnO Zinc (Zn)
Cuprite Cu2O Copper (Cu)
Carnallite KCI. MgCI2. 6H2O Potassium (K)
Sylvine KCI Potassium (K)
Litharge PbO Lead (Pb)
Malachite CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 Copper (Cu)

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Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Copper (Cu)
Zinc blende ZnS Zinc (Zn)
Galena PbS Lead (Pb)
Common salt NaCl Sodium (Na)
Chile saltpetre NaNO3 Na
Borax Na2B4O7. 10H2O Na
Horn silver AgCl Silver (Ag)
Chalcocite Cu2S Copper (Cu)
Magnesite MgCO3 Magnesium (Mg)
Carnallite KCI. MgCI2. 6H2O Magnesium (Mg)
Asbestos CaSiO3. 3MgSiO3 Magnesium (Mg)
Cinnabar HgS Mercury (Hg)
Gypsum CaSO4. 2H2O Calcium (Ca)
Fluorspar CaF2 Calcium (Ca)
Lime stone CaCO3 Calcium (Ca)

ALLOYS - Alloys are homogeneous mixtures of metals. Characteristics

of alloys: Alloys are harder and tougher than the base metal and are
resistant to corrosion. Pure metals have poor mechanical properties.
Hence, they are not used in their pure form in industry. Their
properties are modified by adding other elements.

Alloy Composition Usage

Brass Cu = 80%, Zn = 20% In making utensils
and cartridges
Yellow Brass Cu 67%, Zn 33% Hardware items
Bronze Cu = 90%, Sn = 10% icons, medals, ships,
coins
Solder Sn = 50%, Pb = 50% For joining metals,
solding wire and
electronic
equipments

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Duralumin Al = 95 %, Cu ,Mn in making bodies of
,Mg aeroplanes
Alnico Al 8-12% , Ni 15-26% in making of
, Co 5-24% ,Cu 6% magnets.
Remaining: Fe, Tl
German Silver Cu = 60%, Zn = 20%, utensils and
Ni = 20% ornaments
Bell metal Cu = 80%, Sn = 20% For making bells
Stainless steel Fe, Ni, Cr, C For making utensils
Type metal Pb = 82%, Sb = 15%, For making casting
Sn = 3% type
Magnalium Al = 90%, Mg = 10% For making balance
beams, light
instruments
Gun metal Cu = 90%, Sn = 10% making gears

Metal:

Sodium –
 sodium chloride/ table salt/ NaCl is used as a preservative and in
cooking
 Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)/ baking soda is used in drinks and
fruit juice, salts, in fire extinguishers.
 Sodium sulphate (Na2SO4. 10H2O) is Glauber’s salt. It is used as
purgative.
 Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3. 10H2O)/ washing soda is used in
making glass, soap, washing powder and for softening hard water.
 Sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3. 5H2O) or Hypo is used in the
photography.
 sodium nitrate/ Chili salt peter/ NaNO3 is used as a preservative
 borax / Na2B4O7.10H2O is used as a disinfectant.

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Potassium (19)
 Potassium super oxide (KO2) is used in space capsules,
submarines and breathing masks because it produces oxygen
and keeps away carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
 Potassium Chloride/ KCl
 Potassium Nitrate/ KNO3
 Potassium hydroxide (KOH)/ caustic potash is used in the
preparation of soft soap.
 Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) is potash or pearl ash.
 Potassium cyanide (KCN) is used as a germicide in agriculture. It
is very poisonous.

Magnesium
 Magnesium hydroxide/ Mg (OH)2 is called milk of magnesia and
used as an antacid.
 MgCI2 are also used in De-icing process in which ice is removed
from a surface by using salts on the surface.

Calcium
 Calcium oxide (CaO) / quick lime is used in making of glass,
cement, bleaching power, calcium carbide, slaked lime, in the
extraction of iron and as a drying agent for ammonia and
alcohol.
 Calcium hydroxide/ slaked lime [Ca(OH2 )] is used in the
manufacturing of caustic soda, soda lime and for softening of
hard water.
 When Calcium sulphate - gypsum (CaSO4. 2H2O) is heated in
120°C to form [CaSO4 .1/2H2O] , that is known as plaster of Paris.
Plaster of Paris is a white powder, which sets into hard mass on
mixing with water and it is used in making statues, icons,
medical purposes.

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Boron (B)
 It is a metalloid.
 Boron rods are used as a moderator in the nuclear reactors.
 Boron carbide (B4C) is hardest, known as an artificial substance
after diamond and is known as Norbia.
 Orthoboric acid (H3BO3 ) is used as an antiseptic and eye wash
under the name boric lotion.

Aluminium (Al)
 It is a third most abundant element of Earth’s crust.
 It is extracted from ores like bauxite (AI2O3. 2H2O), Cryolite
(Na3AlF6) , Corundum (Al2O3), Diaspore (Al2O3.H2O)
 Aluminium powder is used in fireworks, flash light powder,
welding.
 Ruby and sapphire are essentially AI2O3. Ruby is red due to the
presence of Cr and sapphire is blue due to Fe and Ti.

Tin (Sn)
 The important ore of tin is cassiterite (SnO2) or tin stone.
 In cold continents white tin is converted to grey tin (powder),
this is known as tin disease or tin plague. Tin plating is done to
prevent the rusting of iron.

Lead (Pb)
 Lead is mainly found in the form of sulphide ore called galena
(PbS).
 Red lead (sindhur) / Pb3O4 is used for making protective paint
for iron and in match industry.

Vanadium (V)
 Vanadium pentoxide (V2O5) is a very good catalyst for
manufacturing of sulphuric acid by contact process.

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Tungsten (W)
 Tungsten filament is used in electric bulbs.
 High melting point
 Calcium tungstate is used in X-ray tube.

Iron (Fe) (26)

 Superior ore is haematite ore (Fe2O3). Others are Magnetite
(Fe3O4 ) and Siderite (FeCO3)
 Cast iron It is the most impure form of iron and contains 2.5–4%
carbon.
 Stainless steel is an alloy of iron (Fe), chromium (Cr) and nickel
(Ni).
 Mild steel contains very less carbon while hard steel contains
0.5%–1.5% carbon
 Iron (II) is present in haemoglobin in human body.
 Wrought iron or Malleable iron is the purest form of iron and
contains minimum amount of carbon
 Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) is used in making blue black ink.

Copper (Cu) (29)

 coinage metals
 CuFeS2 is called fool’s gold.
 Ores are cuprite (Cu2O) and azurite CuCO3(OH)2
Uranium (92):
 Pitch blend
Barium (56):
 Heavy spar (BaSO4)
Silver (Ag) (47)
 Coinage metal.
 Silver is used as amalgam for filling teeth and in silvering
mirrors.
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  Silver bromide (AgBr) is used in photography.
 Silver nitrate/ AgNO3 / lunar caustic is used in preparing marking
inks and hair dyes.
 CuSO4. 5H2O is called blue vitriol used in colour
 Argentite (Ag2S) is an ore.
Gold (Au) (79)
 Ores are Calvarite (AuTe2) and Silverite (AgAuTe2)
 24 kt gold is pure gold.
 18 kt gold contains 18 parts gold and 6 parts of another
metal(s), making it 75% gold.
 Is very popular in making jewellery.
Mercury (Hg) (
 Another name is quick silver.
 Mercuric sulphide (HgS) is used as a cosmetic
 It forms amalgum except iron
 Cinnabar (HgS) and Calomel (Hg2Cl2) are its ore.
Zinc (Zn)
 It is used in galvanization to prevent rusting of iron.
 zinc phosphate is used in making rat killer insecticide
 Zinc oxide is known as philosopher’s wool.
 Zinc sulphate (ZnSO4. 7H2O) is white vitriol.

Lead (82):
 Galena (PbS)
Antimony (51):
 Ore is stibnite
Titanium (22)/ strategic metal:
 Limonite

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* Some important facts:
Fine crackers &their different colours
1. Red – Strancium
2. Yellow -Sodium
3. Violet – Potassium
4. green- barium
5. White - magnesium

Non-metal:
22 non-metals- solid 10, liquid 1, gas 11

Hydrogen-
 This gas was discovered by Henry Cavendish
 only element which doesn't have neutron
 lightest element
 In universe most abundant element.
 Preparation : In lab H2 gas is prepared by reaction between
impure Zn & dilute H2SO4
Zn + H2SO4 = ZnSO4 + H2
 In Sun & star source of energy is H₂ & He ( nuclear fusion)
 Most efficient fuel is H2 , its calorific value is very high.
 In gas balloon we use He gas instead of H2 due it has an
inflammable property.
 Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 is used to cure wound.
 (Liquid hydrogen + liquid O2) is used as a rocket fuel.
 Water gas is ( CO + H2 )
 Synthetic / Syn gas is ( N2 + H2 )
 Banaspati ghee is made of H₂ (hydrogen)
Water / H₂O
 Scientist Henry Cavendish proved that water is a compound

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 Scientist Lavoisier proved that water is formed by the
combination of hydrogen and oxygen.
 Universal solvent- pure water is bad conductor of electricity.
 Anomalous expansion - Density of water is maximum is at 4ºc ;
Anomalous expansion of water At 4°c density of water is
maximum and at 4°c volume of water is minimum this is called
anomalous behaviour or expansion of water.

 Freezing point is 0ºc

 boiling point is 100ºc
 specific heat of water is maximum
 Naturally pure water is rainwater
 Most pure water is distilled water
 Ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in water volume wise is 2:1
 In water, ratio of hydrogen and oxygen Mass wise is 1:8
 Hardness of water
1. Soft water -- soap bubbles can be formed easily
2. Hard water-- soap bubbles cannot be formed easily
 There are two types of hardness
A. Temporary hardness is due to presence of carbonate and
bicarbonate ions
Removal of temporary hardness of water 1. By boiling 2. By
Clark process
B. Permanent hardness is due to Chloride and sulphate ions

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 Removal of permanent hardness of water
1. Soda lime process 2. Permutide process 3. Calagon process
 Hardness of water is measured by ppm and ppb unit
Degree of hardness
1. Soft water - 0.5 ppm
2. Moderate water 18-25 ppm
3. Hard water above 33 ppm
 Identification - Anhydrous copper sulphate turned in blue
coloured to produce CuSO4.5H2O
 Important points
1. K reacts with cold water most vigorously
2. Mg reacts with hot water and steam only.
3. Zinc and iron react with steam
4. Sulphur dioxide and bleaching powder can bleach in presence
of water only.
Carbon – maximum compound
Allotrope- chemical property same, different physical property-
diamond & graphite.
Crystalized allotropes-
Diamond-
 bad conductor of electricity
 Good conductor of heat because of strong covalent bonding and
low photon scattering.
 Structure-tetrahedral
 Naturally most hard substance.
 Density is 3.51 gm/cc
 Is used in making battery, pencil scissors
 Diamond is the most important gemstone in the jewellery
industry.
 It is seen in many colours.
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  It has a high melting and boiling point.
 Prepared in 50,000-60,000 atm & 1873 K

Graphite-
 Is good conductor of heat and electricity
 has metallic lustre
 hexagonal shape
 is used as a moderator in nuclear reactor
 there is a co-valent bonding for atoms in the plane
 Graphite has high thermal and electrical conductivity and high
thermal stability
 It is a greyish black, opaque substance.
 Lighter than diamond
 Lubricating & smooth substance
 It is mixed with wax and clay make pencils.
Fullerene
 Another name is Buckminster-fullerene (C60)
 Fullerenes are used in the medical field as light-activated
antimicrobial agents.
 Buckminsterfullerene is used in drug delivery systems, in
lubricants and as a catalyst.
 It is also used as a conductor.
 It is used in cosmetic industry.

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Non-crystalized allotropes-

Charcoal:

 Is soft, black and porous.

 It floats in water.
 Bad conductor of heat & electricity.

Coke:

 Coke is obtained by diluting anthracite coal.

 Hard coke is obtained by distillation at high temperatures.
 Soft coke is obtained by distilling the interior at low
temperatures.
 Coke is needed to prepare water gas, producer gas, cooking,
and metal extraction.

Gas Carbon:

 The hard black embers found in the inner crust of coal are called
gas carbon.
 It can transmit heat and electricity.
 Gas carbon is used in batteries, arc lighting, dynamo, and
electric meters.

Vusakali (Lamp Black):

 Vusakali is irregular and black.

 It cannot transmit electricity and heat.
 Jhul or Vusakali is used to make black paint and polish, shoe ink,
printing ink, etc. called Japan Black.

* In electric iron, mica is used (as mica is good heat conductor but bad
conductor of electricity)

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3 isotopes- C-12, C-13, C-14 (carbon dating is used to find the age of
fossil)
Carbon monoxide/ CO: poisonous gas formed Carboxy haemoglobin.
CO+Cl₂ Phosgene (poisonous gas)
CO + N₂ = producer gas, CO + H₂ = water gas

CO2 (carbon dioxide)

 Preparation: By addition of acid to any carbonate/bi-carbonate
salt by heating of any carbonate bi-carbonate salt, CO2 gas is
produced.
CaCO3 = CaO + CO2
CaCO3 + HCl = CO2 + H2O + CaCl2
 This is a Green-house gas.
 This is heavier 1.5 than air.
 Used in making cold drinks & soda water
 Used in fire extinguisher (we mix NaHCO3 )
 CO2 is not used in a fire extinguisher in a fatal, large, horrible
accident because CO2 breaks down and produces (CO + O2) and
this O2 helps in burning.
 Identification : Ca(OH)2 solution gets turbid in presence of CO2
as formation of insoluble CaCO3
Ca (OH)₂ + CO₂ =CaCO3 + H₂O
In presence of excess CO2 the above solution becomes again
clear due to the formation of soluble Ca(HCO3)2
 Solid CO2/ (dry ice) is used in refrigerator.

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Nitrogen
 Henry Rutherford discovered this gas
 Preparation –
 In lab Nitrogen gas is prepared by heating ammonium
dichromate.
 Industrial it is prepared by fractional distillation of air.
 This is used in making protein (amino acid), ammonia, fertilizers,
in tyre of aircraft.
 Except inert gases, the most unreactive gas is nitrogen. So, it is
used for preparation of inert atmosphere such as within electric
bulb.
 Main source of nitrogen is atmosphere. But we cannot take it
directly. We take this through nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen
fixation - Rhizobium (bacteria) helps to trap the nitrogen gas
from the air & converts into acceptable nitrogenous compound
for plants.
 In plant and animal body it is present in the form of protein
 It is found in mineral such as Chilli salt Peter.
 Boiling point of liquid nitrogen is -196c, this is called Cryo
preservation.
 In electric bulb we use nitrogen and argon gas to create inert
atmosphere
 In package industry we use Nitrogen gas
 To prepare Nitrolim
 N2O/ Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) - Anesthesians use this.
 NO2/ Nitrogen dioxide - NO₂, SO₂ are responsible for acid rain
which leads to stone cancer.
 HNO3/ Nitric acid- (TNT, TNB, TNG, and TNP) are used for
making explosives.
 HNO₂ (Nitrous acid)-is used in Flash photography.

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  NH4Cl (Ammonium chloride) – used as a drug, electrolytic
substance.
 NH3 / Ammonia
 Ammonia gas is commercially prepared by haber's
process.
 Reactant nitrogen and hydrogen, Catalyst Fe dust,
Molybdenum (Mo) is acted as a Promoter.
N2 + H2 = NH3
Here NH3 acts as an auto-catalyst.
 Ammonia dissolve in water to produce basic solution
 It has pungent smell
 It is lighter than air and highly soluble in water. Higher
concentration of ammonia in aqueous solution is known as
liquor ammonia
 Identification –
Ammonia turns nessler reagent brown in colour.
 Usage-
1. Manufacturing urea (nitrogen is 46%), fertilizers
2. Liquid Ammonia acts as a freezing agent in refrigerator
& is used in cold storage
3. It is used as cleaning agent.
Phosphorus (P)-
Two all allotropes
Red Phosphorus-match stick.
White / yellow–Fluorescence

PH3 (Phoshpene) – colourless

Use - Holme's signal.

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Oxygen
 Pristley discovered this inflammable gas.
 Preparation -
1. Oxygen gas is prepared by heating of KClO3,
Here MnO2 acts as a positive catalyst
2. In room temperature without heating, Oxygen gas is
prepared by the reaction between H20 and peroxide compound.
 In Artificial respiration (O2 + He) is used
 Identification – If the colour of NO gas changes to brown colour
NO2, the gas will be oxygen
 Usage –
1. Oxy acetylene flame is used for welding purpose at 3500°C
2. Oxy hydrogen flame is used for welding purpose at 3000°C
 The mixture of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen used as rocket
fuel
 For artificial respiration the mixture of (O2+He) is used
 CO + Cl₂ = COCl₂ phosgene.

 Ozone (O3) –
 allotrope of oxygen
 ozone layer is in Stratosphere
 this is measured in Dobson unit
 Montreal protocol is signed to protect this layer.
 16thSeptember is World Ozone Day
 It has fishy smell
 It is used as an air purifier in Metro tunnel

Sulphur, 16 is used in Vulcanization of rubber, responsible for the

smell of Onion/garlic
SO2 / Poisonous gas/ acid gas
H2S/ hydrogen sulphide- smell like a rotten egg

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Halogens- 17 no group most active
Fluorine - Moissan (1886) -most electronegative element
Chlorine-Shelley discovered this & this is used as a bleaching agent, in
making chloroform &water purifier, Phosgene/ COCl2
DDT (Dichloro Di phenyle trichloroethane)
Bromine (35) Br - Only liquid non-metal. Scientist Belard discovered
this.
KBr (Prossium bromide) - sleeping drug
AgBr is used in Photography.
Coverts Starch paper in yellow.
Iodine - I (53)
I-131 is used to cure cancer of thyroid gland
Metallic Lustre, solid non metal
Iodoform (CHI3)
Tincher Iodine (Iodine + Ethyl alcohol)is used to recover injuries.
Only halogen in solid form
Iodine is present in chlorella
Colour - blue

Astatine -At (85)

The radioactive element present in least amount in earth crust.
HF
Inert gas- 18 group/Zero group.
He, Ne, An, Kr, Xe, Rd

Helium (2)
Balloon (H2+He)
Artificial respiration/sea diver (O2 +He + N2)

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Neon (10) Ramse discovered this gas in (1898)
Is used in Flurocent Lamp
Beacon light

Argon (18) Scientist Relay discovered this gas.

Is used in electric bulb (Ar + N₂)

Krypton (36)

Xenon (54)

Redon (86) - the heaviest inert gas.

PREVIOUS YEAR PSC, UPSC QUESTIONS

1. The compound that cannot be kept in glass vessel because it reacts

with glass is-
A) HNO, B) HCI, C) HF, D) HBr
2. Which among the following is called 'Laughing Gas' popularly?
a. Nitric oxide
b. Nitrous oxide
c. Nitrogen penta oxide
d. Nitrogen
3. In the manufacturing of Vanaspati ghee from vegetable oils, which
among the following gas issued?
A) Nitrogen, B) Carbon dioxide, C) Hydrogen, D) Neon

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4. Which one of the following sets of elements was primarily
responsible for the origin of life on the Earth?
a. Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sodium
b. Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen
c. Oxygen, Calcium, Phosphorus
d. Carbon, Hydrogen, Potassium
5. Microwave ovens heat water in food because-
A) Water is a polar molecule B) The heat capacity of water is
high
C) Water flows easily D) Water molecule is small
6. The gas used in refrigerators that destroys the ozone layer is-
A) Ammonia B) Nitrous oxide C) Chlorofluorocarbon D)
Methane
7. Which gas caused industrial disaster in Bhopal in December, 1984-
A) Oleum B) Nitrous oxide C) MIC (methyle isocyanate),
D) methyle amene
8. When a lead storage cell is charged-
A) Sulphuric Acid is consumed B) Sulphuric Acid is formed
C) Lead sulphate is formed D) Lead is consumed
9. Consider the following minerals:
1. Calcium, 2.Iron, 3.Sodium
Which of the minerals given above is/are required by human body
for the contraction of muscles?
A) Only 1, B) 2 and 3, C) 1 and 3, D) All of the above

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10.Graphene is frequently in news recently. What is the importance?
1) It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical
conductivity
2) It is one of the thinnest but stronger materials tested so far
3) It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical
transparency
4) It can be used as conducting electrodes required for touch
screens LCDs and organic LED's
Which of the statement(s) given above are correct?
a. 1 and 2
b. 3 and 4
c. 1, 2 and 4
d. 1, 2, 3 and 4
11.A Company marketing foods products advertise that its items do
not contain trans fats what does this campaign signify to the
customers?
1) The food products are not made out of hydrogenated oils
2) The food products are not made out of animal fats/ oils
3) The oils used are not likely to damage the cardiovascular
health of the consumers
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
A) Only 1
B) B) 2 and 3
C) 1 and 3
D) 1, 2 and 3

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12. A aspartame is an artificial sweetener sold in the market it consists
of amino acids and provides calories like other amino acids, yet it is
used as a low calorie sweetening agents in food items what is the
basis of this use?

A) Aspartame is as sweet as table sugar but unlike table sugar it is

not readily oxidized in human body due to lack of requisite
enzymes
B) When aspartame is used in food processing the sweet taste
remains but it becomes resistant oxidation
C) Aspartame is as sweet as sugar but after ingestion into the
body it is converted into metabolites that yield no calories
D)Aspartame is several times sweeter than table sugar hence
food items made with small quantities of aspartame yield made
with small quantities of aspartame yield fewer calories on
oxidation.
13.Chlorination is a process used for water purification. The
disinfecting action of chlorine is mainly due to
A) The formation of hydrochloric acid when chlorine is added to
water
B) The formation of hypochlorous acid when chlorine is added
to water
C) The formation of nascent oxygen when chlorine is added to
water
D) The formation of hydrogen when chlorine is added to water
14.Which one of the following is another name of RDX ? (IAS, 2007)
A) Cyanohydrin
B) Dextran
C) Cyclohexane
D) Cyclonite

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15.Consider the following chemicals-
A) Benzene
B) Carbon tetrachloride
C) Sodium carbonate
D) Trichloroethylene
Which of the above is/are correct used as dry cleaning chemical?
a. Only 1
b. Only 2
c. 1, 2 and 4 only
d. 1, 2, 3 and 4

16.Salts of which of the following elements provide colours to

fireworks?
a. Zinc and sulphur
b. Potassium and mercury
b. Strontium and barium
c. Chromium and nickel

17.Consider the following statements-

The purpose of adding sodium sulphate and sodium silicate to the
detergent in a washing powder is:
1) To keep the washing powder dry 2) to maintain the alkalinity of
the powder
Which of these statements is/are correct?
A) Only 1B) Only 2
C) Both 1 and 2 D) neither 1 nor 2

199 | P a g e
18.Assertion (A) Unsaturated fats are more reactive compared with
the saturated fats reason
(B) Unsaturated fats have only single bonds in their structure
A) Both A and R are individually true and R isthe correct
explanation of A
B) Both A and R are individually true, but R is the not the
correct explanation of A
C) A is true, But R is false
D) A is false, but R is true
19.An aqueous solution of copper sulphate is acidic in nature because
the salt undergoes-
a. dialysis
b. electrolysis
b. hydrolysis
c. photolysis
20. The basic molecule binds with other molecules to forma polymer is
called-
(A) Macromolecule (B) Monomolecular (C) Monomer (D)
Monolith
21. Marsh gas is-
a. Methane
b. Ethane
c. Ethylene
d. None of the above
22. Which one is the correct sequence in increasing order of molecular
weights of the hydro carbons?
(A) Methane, ethane, propane and butane
(B) Propane, butane, ethane and methane
(C) Butane, ethane, propane and methane
(D) Butane, propane, ethane and methane

200 | P a g e
23. Which of the following is natural polymer?
(A) Terylene (B) Orion (C) Starch (D) Dacron
24. Which one of the following is used as an explosive?
a. Phosphorous trichloride
b. Mercuric Oxide
c. Graphite
d. Nitro-glycerine
25. Gun powder consists of a mixture of -
a. Sand and TNT
b. Sulphur, Sand and Charcoal
c. Niter, Sulphur and Charcoal
d. TNT and Charcoal
26. Land fill gas is another name of[WBCS (Mains), 2015)
a. CO2
b. CO
c. HS
b. (D)CH4
27. Compressed Natural Gas is the other name of-
a. Ammonia
b. Methane
c. Hydrogen Sulphide
d. Carbon dioxide
28. The following compound is not a persistent organic pollutant-
a. DDT
b. Dioxins
c. Endosulfan
d. Methane
201 | P a g e
29. Paraffin wax is-
a. Ester
b. Alcohol
c. Unsaturated hydrocarbons
d. Saturated hydrocarbons
30. Which one of the following gases is used for artificial ripening of
fruits?
a. Methane
b. Acetylene
c. Ethylene
d. Propane
31. Jam-jelly can be preserved by adding small percentage of-
a. HCHO
b. EDTA
c. Sodium benzoate
d. CH3COOH
32. Diazo-Couling reaction between diazonium Salt and naphthol
product
a. Green dye
b. Yellow dye
c. Red dye
d. Blue dye
33. 3Chemical formula of Grignard reagent is [WBCS (Mains), 2017]
a. R-Mg-X
b. R-Ca-X
c. R-ST-X
d. None of the above

202 | P a g e
34. Excessive release of the pollutant carbon monoxide (CO) into the
air may produce a condition which oxygen supply in the human body
decrease what cause this condition?
a. When inhaled into the human body CO is converted into CO2
b. The inhaled CO has much higher affinity for haemoglobin as
compared to oxygen
c. The inhaled CO destroyed the structure of haemoglobin
d. The inhaled CO adversely affects the respiratory centre in the
brain
35. Iron is not dissolved in-
a. Hot dil. HNO3
b. Cold dil. HNO3
c. Fuming HNO3
d. None of the above
36. Bauxite extracted in Madhya Pradesh is used for the production of-
a. Bronze
b. Aluminium
c. Copper
d. Mica
37. The first metal discovered by man was-
a. Iron
b. Aluminium
c. Zinc
d. Copper
38. Brass is an alloy of-
a. Iron and Copper
b. Copper and Tin
c. Copper and Aluminium
d. Copper and Zinc

203 | P a g e
39. The material extracted from bauxite is (WBCS, 2012)
a. Aluminium
b. Alumina
c. Biotite mica
d. Chalcopyrite
40. The most malleable metal is
a. Platinum
b. Silver
c. Iron
d. Gold
41. In the metallurgy of iron, the material obtained from bottom of
the blast furnace is-
a. Slag
b. Pig iron
c. Cast iron
d. Wrought iron
42. Which one of the following does not contain silver?
a. Horn Silver
b. German Silver
a. Ruby Silver
b. Lunar Caustic
43. Stainless steel contains-
a. Fe + Cr + Ni
b. Fe+Ni+Cu
c. Fe + Mn + Cr
d. Fe +Co+Ni

204 | P a g e
44. Iron loses its magnetic property at-
a. Melting point
b. Curie point
c. 1000
d. Boiling point
45. Bell metal is an alloy of-
a. Cu + Sn
b. Cu + Zn
c. Cu+ Ni
d. Cu+ Mn
46. Aluminium is extracted from bauxite by-
A) Bayer's process (B) Downs process
(C) Solvay process, D) Oswald process
47. The most common element in the universe is
(A) Fe (B) Ca (C) AI D) Si
48. The base composition of white ware body contains
a. Clay, Quartz and Tal
b. Quartz, Clay and Feldspa
c. Talc, Bauxite and Wollastonite
d. Clay, Gypsum and Feldspar
49. Which of the following metals do not form amalgam?
a. Iron
b. Sodium
c. Zinc
d. Magnesium
50. Martensitic steel has following crystal structure:
A) BCC, (B) FCC, (C) BCT, D) HCP

205 | P a g e
51. (Ni-Mn) ferrite is an example of material-
a. Ferromagnetic
b. Paramagnetic
c. Ferromagnetic
d. NOTA
52. To control the Global warming we should control the use of-
a. Fossil fuel
b. Renewable energy
c. Solar energy
d. Atomic energy
53. Blackfoot disease is caused by which pollutant?
a. Mercury
b. Arsenic
c. Copper
d. Iron
54. Minamata disease is caused by which metal contamination?
a. Zinc
b. Lead
c. Copper
d. Mercury
55. Contamination of which metal with soil makes it hard for trees to
take up water?
a. Aluminium
b. Magnesium
c. Copper
d. Zinc

206 | P a g e
56. MRI stands for-
a. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
b. Magnetic Reflection Imaging
c. Machine readable imaging
d. Mechanical reading instrument
57. Which one of the following is printed on a commonly used
fluorescent tube light?
a. 220 K
b. 273K
c. 6500K
d. 9000K
58. Long distance short waves radio broadcasting uses-
a. Direct wave
b. Sky wave
c. Ionosphere wave
d. Ground Wave
59. Crude petroleum is converted to number of hydrocarbon product
by-
a. Fractional Distillation
b. Thermal cracking
c. Steam distillation
d. None of the above
60. The potash feldspar is known as-
a. Orthoclase
b. Albite
c. Anorthite
d. Dickite

207 | P a g e
60. Which one of the following constitutes the common glass
composition?
a. Sodium Silicate
b. Calcium Silicate
c. Calcium and Sodium Silicate
d. Lead Silicate
61. The process of zone refining is used for ultra-purification of -
a. Silicon
b. Germanium
c. Gallium
d. All of above
62. Diamond has the Moh's scale hardness number of-
a. 5
b. 7
c. 10
d. 9
63. The crown glass is an-
a. Optical glass
b. Radiation shield glass
c. Safety glass
d. Toughened glass
64. The hydrolysis of cane sugar is catalysed by-
a. H+
b. Enzymes
c. Mineral acid
d. All of the above

208 | P a g e
65. The catalyst used in the hydrogenation of oils is-
a. V₂O5
b. Ni
c. Fe
d. Pt
66. Which of the following adds/add nitrogen to the soil?
1. Excretion of urea by animals
2. Burning of coal by man
3. Death of Vegetation
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
a. Only I
b. 2 and 3
c. 1 and 3
d. All of these
67. With reference to the usefulness of the by-products ofsugar
industry, which of the following statements is/ are correct?
1) Biogases can be used as biomass fuel for thegeneration of
energy
2) Molasses can be used as one of the feed stocks for the
production of synthetic chemical fertilizers
3) Molasses can be used for the production of Ethanol
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
a. Only 1
b. 2 and 3
c. 1 and 3
d. All of these

209 | P a g e
68. Fruits stored in a cold chamber exhibit longer storage life because-
a. Exposure to sunlight is prevented
b. Connect ratio of carbon dioxide in the environment is
increased
c. Rate of respiration is decreased
d. There is an increase in humidity
69. Biomass gasification is considered to be one of the sustainable
solutions to the power crisis in India- in this context which of the
following statement(s) is/are correct?
1. Coconut shells, groundnut shells and rice husk can be used in
biomass gasification
2. The combustible gases generated from biomass gasification
consist of hydrogen and carbon dioxideonly
3. The combustible gases generated from biomass gasification can
be used for direct heat generation but not in internal
combustion engines.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
a. Only 1
b. 2 and 3
c. 1 and 3
d. 1, 2 and 3
70. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles produce one of the following as
'exhaust'-
a. NH3
b. CH4
c. H₂O
d. H₂O2

210 | P a g e
71. What is the pH level of blood of a normal person?
a. 4.5-4.6
b. 6.45-6.55
c. 7.35-7.45
d. 8.25-8.35
71. Mixture of which one of the following pairs of gases is the cause of
occurrence of most of the explosions in mines?
a. Hydrogen and Oxygen
b. Oxygen and acetylene
c. Methane and air
d. Carbon dioxide and methane
73. Which one of the following pairs of metals constitutes the lightest
metal and the heaviest metal respectively?
a. Lithium and mercury
b. Lithium and Osmium
c. Aluminium and Osmium
d. Aluminium and mercury
74. Who among the following discovered heavy water-
a. Heinrich Hertz
b. HC Urey
c. G Mendel
d. Joseph Priestly
75. What is Bisphenol ABPA?
a. A medical text for detecting canner
b. A text for testing the use of drugs to improve performance
by athletes

211 | P a g e
 c. A chemical used for the development of food packaging
materials
d. A special type of alloy steel
76. Assertion (A)- Cellulose is used in making shatter proof glass
Reason (R)- polysaccharides are not soluble in water
a. Both A and R is individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A.
b. Both A and R is individually true, but R is the nota correct
explanation of A
c. A is true, but R is false
d. A is false, but R is true
77. Consider the following statements-
1. Baking soda is used in fire extinguishers
2. Quicklime is used in the manufacture of glass
3. Gypsum is used in the manufacture of plaster of Paris
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
a. I and 2
b. 2 and 3
c. Only 1
d. 1,2,3
78. With reference to ionic compounds consider the following
statements-
1. Ionic Compounds are insoluble in alcohol
2. Ionic compounds in the solid state are good conductor of electricity
Which of these statements is/are correct?
a. Only 1
b. Only 2
c. Both 1 and 2
d. Neither 1 nor 2
212 | P a g e
79. Which one of the following statements is not correct?
a. The presence of NaCl increase the rate of setting of plaster of
paris
b. Gypsum is added to the cement to slow down itsrate of
setting
c. All alkaline earth metals are from hydrated salts
d. Barium and strontium are found free in nature
80. Regarding the atom of a chemical element magnetic quantum
number refers to-
a. Orientation
b. Shape
c. Size
d. Spin
81. Assertion (A) Coal based thermal power station contribute to acid
rain-
Reason(R) oxides of carbon are emitted when coal burns
a. Both A and R is individually true and R is the correct
explanation of A
b. Both A and R are individually true, but R is the not a correct
explanation of A
c. A is true, but R is false
d. A is false, but R is true
82. The technique of MRI uses the phenomenon of-
a. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
b. Electron Cyclotron Resonance
c. Optical Resonance
d. Microwave Resonance
213 | P a g e
83. A magic bullet is a-
a. Bullet that kills a person magically
b. Drug that selectively targets a disease without other effects
c. Guided missile
d. High magnification microscope
84. The following term is not involved in air pollution-
a. SMOG
b. MMD
c. DO
d. VC
85. The global warming potential of CO2 is-
a. 1
b. 2
c. 3
d. 4
86. Arsenic is associated with-
a. Myeloma
b. Melanoma
c. Sarcoma
d. Glioma
87. 'Green Accounting' indicates-
a. Level of environmental pollution
b. Counting of environmental bodies
c. Level of Greenery in the world
d. None of the above

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88. Which one of the following is a green-house gas?
a. SO₂
b. CO
c. CFC
d. all of the above
89. When red glass is heated in dark room it will seem-
a. Green
b. Purple
c. Black
d. Yellow
90. Hydrogen from sea water was first introduced in-
a. Spain
b. Italy
c. Finland
d. Iceland
91. Fly Ash Contains-
a. Si
b. Al
c. Fe
d. all of the above

92. Which among the following is paramagnetic?

a. H₂O
b. NO
c. CO₂
d. SO₂

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93. The number of electrons present in H+ is-
a. Zero
b. One
c. Two
d. Three
94. Mg2+ is isoelectric with-
+
a. Ca²
b. Na+
+
c. Zn²
d.
Cu+
95. Geometry of SF4 is-
a. square planer
b. tetrahedral
c. octahedral
d. see saw

96. Strongest electro positive element is-

a. Cs
b. Li
c. Mg
d. K

97. The following radioactive element is widely available in India

a. Uranium
b. Plutonium
c. Cesium
d. Thorium

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98. Which material is used for safety from nuclear radiation?
a. Copper
b. Platinum
c. Iron
d. Lead

99. In an atom the order of filling of the orbitals is governed by-

a. afbau principle
b. higenberegun certainity principle
c. hund’s rule
d. pauli’s exclusion principle

100. Water attains maximum density at-

a. 0c
b. 4K
c. 4c
d. -273c

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BIOLOGY

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
CHAPTER-1
IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGY

1. Biology Branch of science in which living beings are studied.

2. Botany Study of different aspects of plants.
3. Zoology Study of various aspects of animals.
4. Anatomy Study of internal structure of organism.
5. Agrology Soil science dealing specially with production of crop.
6. Agronomy Science of soil management and production of crop
7. Agrostology Study if grass.
8. Arthrology Study of joins.
9. Anthropology Study of origin, development and relationship between
the culture of past and present human.
10. Anthology Study of flower and flowering plant.
11. Angiology Study of blood vascular system including arteries and
veins.
12. Andrology Study of male reproductive organ.
13. Apiculture Rearing of honey bee for honey.
14. Bryology Study of bryophytes.
15. Biometrics Statical study of biological problem.
16. Biotechnology Technology connected with living being for wilful
manipulation on molecular level.
17. Bacteriology Study of bacteria.
18. Cytology Study of cell.
19. Cardiology Study of heart.
20. Cryobiology It is the study of effect of low temperature on organisms
and their preservation.
21. Clone Clones are genetically identical individuals in a population.
22. Demography Study of population.
23. Diffusion Random movement of molecule / ion or gases from a
region of higher concentration to lower concentration.
24. Dendrochronology Counting and analysing annual growth rings of tree
to know its age.
25. Dermatology Study of skin.

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26. Ecology Study of inter-relationship between living and their
environment.
27. Embryology It is the study of fertilization and development if zygote.
28. Eugenics Study of factors connected with the improvement of race.
29. Euthenics Treatment of defective in heredity through genetic
engineering.
30. Ethnology Study of science dealing with different races of human.
31. Ethology Study of animal behaviour.
32. Etiology Study of life cycle of pathogen.
33. Exobiology Study of possibility of life in space.
34. Entomology Study of insects.
35. Floriculture Cultivation of plant for their flower.
36. Fishery Catching, breeding, rearing and marketing of fishes.
37. Forestry Development and management of forest.
38. Fermentation Process of incomplete oxidation that occurs in microbes
and other cells in absence of oxygen, leading to the
formation of ethyl alcohol.
39. Genetics Study of variation and transmission of characters from
parents to their young ones.
40. Gynaecology Study of female reproductive organ.
41. Gerontology Study of ageing.
42. Histology Study of tissue with the help of microscope.
43. Haematology Study of blood
44. Hepatology Study of liver.
45. Immunology Study of immune system or resistance of body to disease.
46. Kalology Study of human beauty.
47. Lchthyology Study of fishes.
48. Immunology Study of immunity or resistance of body to disease.
49. Metazoans All multi cellular animals are called metazoans.
50. Morphology Study of external structure.
51. Microbiology Study of Micro-Organism like virus bacteria algae fungi
and protozoa.
52. Mycology Study of fungi.
53. Neurology Study of nervous system.
54. Neonatology Study of new born.
55. Nephrology Study if kidneys.

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56. Osmosis Movement of water molecule across semi permeable
membrane from the region of its higher concentration to
the region of lower communication.
57. Odontology Study of teeth and gum.
58. Orthopaedics Diagnosis and repair of disorders of locomotery system.
59. Osteology Study of bones.
60. Oncology Study of cancer and tumours.
61. Ornithology Study of birds.
62. Planetology Study of fossils.
63. Parasite organism which depend on other living for their food and
shelter.
64. Paleontology Study of function of various system of organism.
65. Pathology Study of diseases, effects, causable agents and
transmission of pathogens.
66. Pomology Study of fruit and fruit yielding plant.
67. Phycology Study of algae.
68. Paediatrics Branch of medicine dealing with children.
69. Psychiatry Treatment of mental disorders.
70. Pharmacology The science which deals with drugs.
71. Physiotherapy Treatment of body defects through massage and exercise.
72. Radiology Science dealing with the effect of radiation on living
beings.
73. Rhinology Study of nose and olfactory organs.
74. Sonography Study of ultrasound imaging.
75. Saurology Study of lizards.
76. Serology Study of serum, interaction of antigen and antibodies in
the blood.
77. Sphygmology Study of pulse and arterial pressure.
78. Taxonomy Study of classification, nomenclature and identification of
organism.
79. Telepathy Communication of thoughts or ideas from one mind to
another without normal use of senses. In other word this
is the process of mental contact.
80. Veterinary Science Science of health care and treatment of animals.

 Father of Botany - Theophrastus

 Father of Zoology - Aristotle
 Father of Taxonomy - Carlos linnus

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
CHAPTER-2
CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISM

Characteristics of Five Kingdom Classification:

 Cell type [Eukaryotes (the genetic material is surrounded by a membrane)
or prokaryotes (lacking a membrane)].
 Cell organization [Unicellular (having only one cell) or multi cellular (having
two or more cells).
 Mode of nutrition [Autotrophic (makes its own food) or heterotrophic (feeds
on other living things)].
 Types of reproduction [Sexual, asexual or through spores].
 Respiration [Aerobic (needs oxygen) or anaerobic (does not use oxygen)].
 Movement [Self-moving or static].

R. H. Whittaker proposed the five-kingdom classification.

Five kingdom classifications include:

Monera -
Monera refers to a large group of organisms (all prokaryotic) that include Archaea
and Bacteria. Single celled organism and lack of nucleus inside. Their DNA is
loosely organized within the cell. All organisms in this kingdom are microscopic.
Example- Bacteria, Cyanobacteria, Archaebacteria.
Protista -
This kingdom includes unicellular from usually found in aquatic habitats. On the
basis of mode of nutrition, they are autotrophic, parasitic and saprophytic.
[Euglena have both heterotrophic and autotrophic mode of nutrition. So, it is
placed between plant and animal].Example- Diatoms flagellates, Protozoa.

Fungi -
This kingdom includes nongreen plants. It has saprophytic nutrition and growing
on dead and decaying organic matter. The cell-wall is composed of chitin.
Example- Mushroom, Mucor, Albugo.

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Plantae–
This kingdom includes all plants except algae, diatoms, fungi and member of
Monera and Protista. Trees, plants and other species of vegetation make up part
of the Plantae kingdom - one of the oldest, and characterized by its immobile,
multi cellular and eukaryotic nature. These autotrophic things, whose cells contain
cellulose and chlorophyll, are essential for life on Earth since they release oxygen
through photosynthesis. As regards their method of reproduction, this may be
either sexual or asexual.

Animalia -
The kingdom Animalia is the most evolved and is divided into two large groups -
vertebrates and invertebrates. These animals are multi-celled, heterotrophic
eukaryotes with aerobic respiration, sexual reproduction and the ability to
move. This kingdom is one of the most diverse and comprises mammals, fish,
birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects, molluscs and annelids, among others.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
CHAPTER- 3
STUDY OF CELL (CYTOLOGY)

 Every organism starts its life from single cell.

 Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
 Cell was first coined by Robert Hook.
 Schleiden and Schwan established the cell theory.

Two types of Cells: 1. Prokaryotic

2. Eukaryotic

Note:
1. Number of Mitochondria in bacterial cell is zero.
2. The smallest known prokaryotic organism is Mycoplasma.
3. The smallest cell is Mycoplasma gallisepticum.
4. The longest cell in human body is Neuron.
5. The biggest cell is egg of Ostrich.
6. Hydrophilic nature of DNA is due to presence of Phosphate group.

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Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells:

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Type of Cell Always unicellular Unicellular and multi-cellular

Ranges in size from 0.2 μm – Size ranges from 10 μm – 100 μm

Cell size
2.0 μm in diameter in diameter

Usually present; chemically When present, chemically simple in

Cell wall
complex in nature nature

Absent. Instead, they have

Nucleus Present
a nucleoid region in the cell

Present. Smaller in size and Present. Comparatively larger in

Ribosome
spherical in shape size and linear in shape

DNA
Circular Linear
arrangement

Mitochondria Absent Present

Present, but cell organelles

Cytoplasm Present, cell organelles present
absent

Endoplasmic
Absent Present
reticulum

Plasmids Present Very rarely found in eukaryotes

Ribosome Small ribosomes Large ribosomes

Lysosomes and centrosomes Lysosomes and centrosomes are

Lysosome
are absent present

Cell division Through binary fission Through mitosis

Flagella The flagella are smaller in size The flagella are larger in size

Reproduction Asexual Both asexual and sexual

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Cell Structure:
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions. These
components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell
organelles.

1. Cell Wall:
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is
made up of cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma
membrane and other cellular components. The cell wall is also the
outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from
mechanical shocks and injuries.

2. Cell Membrane:
 It is also known as plasma membrane which form the outer covering of
animal cell.
 In plant cell it is found within cell wall. It is thin, elastic, living, double layer,
and permeable membrane. It is made up of phospholipids molecules.

Function: It regulates movement of molecules inside and outside of the cell.

3. Protoplasm(Name given by Purkenje):

 The whole fluid present inside plasma membrane is protoplasm.
 Protoplasm is made up of various chemical substances like water, ions, salt
and organic molecule. It is the living part of cell.

Protoplasm is divided into two parts:

 Cytoplasm-The fluid outside the nuclear membrane.
 Nucleoplasm- The fluid found inside the nuclear membrane.
 99% of protoplasm is made up of oxygen (76%), carbon (10.5%) hydrogen
(10%) and nitrogen (2.5%).
 80% of protoplasm is water. The ratio of inorganic compound in
Protoplasm is 81: 19.

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4. Mitochondria (Discovered by Altman):
 Mitochondria are called the powerhouses of the cell as they produce
energy-rich molecules for the cell.
 It is a double membrane-bound, inner membrane has many folds called
cristae. The fluid presents inside mitochondria is called matrix, which
contains many enzymes and co-enzyme.
 Found in almost all eukaryotic cells.

Function: Mitochondria are the respiratory site of cellular respiration.

Mitochondria synthesize energy rich compound ATP.

5. Golgi bodies (Discovered by Camilo Golgi):

 Golgi bodies also termed as Golgi complex. It is a membrane-bound

organelle, which is mainly composed of a series of flattened, stacked
pouches called cisternae.
 Golgi apparatus is found within the cytoplasm of a cell and is present in
both plant and animal cells.
 In plant it is more in number and here it is known as Dictyosomes.

Function: This cell organelle is primarily responsible for transporting, modifying,

and packaging proteins and lipid to targeted destinations.
6. Endoplasmic reticulum:

 Membranous network of tubules like structure found in cytoplasm is called

endoplasmic reticulum.
 It is attached with the nucleus on one side and on other side it is joined
with plasma membrane.
 The endoplasmic reticulum transpires in two forms: a type with a
ribosome-studded surface and another with a smooth surface. The latter is
called the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and the former is called
the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Function: Endoplasmic reticulum helps in the distribution of material. It forms

supporting framework of cell.

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7. Ribosome (Discovered by Palade):
 A ribosome is a complex molecular machine found inside the living cells
that produce proteins from amino acids during a process called protein
synthesis.
 The process of protein synthesis is a primary function, which is performed
by all living cells.
 Ribosomes are specialized cell organelles and are found in
both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Every living cell requires ribosome
for the production of proteins.
 This cell organelle also functions by binding to a messenger ribonucleic
acid (mRNA) and decoding the information carried by the nucleotide
sequence of the mRNA. They transfer RNAs (tRNAs) comprising amino
acids, and enter into the ribosome at the acceptor site. Once it gets bind
up, it adds amino acid to the growing protein chain on tRNA.

The two different types of Ribosomes include:

 70 S-found in prokaryotic cells
 80 S-found in eukaryotic cells

8. Lysosome (Discovered by De Duve):

 Lysosomes are cell organelles almost exclusively found in eukaryotic
animal cells.
 Lysosomes are membrane-bound spherical sacs filled with hydrolytic
enzymes.
 These enzymes can break down many types of bio-molecules such as
proteins and fats.
 They are not found in plants, but vacuoles perform the role of lysosomes in
plant cells.
 Lysosomes are known as Suicidal Bags as they tend to destroy the cell
membrane with its digestive enzymes, causing lysis of the cell (also called
autolysis).
 Lysosomal enzymes are synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum,
where they are brought in by the Golgi apparatus through tiny vesicles. It
eventually merges with bigger acidic vesicles.

Note: Lysosome is not found in red blood corpuscles of mammal.

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9. Centrosome (Discovered by Boveri):
 The centrosome is made up of two perpendicular centrioles, a
daughter centriole, and a mother centriole, linked together by
interconnecting fibres.
 It consists of a complex of proteins that helps in the formation of
additional microtubules.
 An amorphous pericentriolar matrix surrounds the centrioles. It is involved
in the nucleation and anchoring of cytoplasmic microtubules.

Function:

 The centrosomes help in cell division.

 They maintain the chromosome number during cell division.
 They also stimulate the changes in the shape of the cell membrane by
phagocytosis.

10. Plastid:

 Plastids are double-membrane organelles which are found in the cells of

plants and algae.
 Plastids are responsible for manufacturing and storing of food.
 These often contain pigments that are used in photosynthesis and
different types of pigments that can change the colour of the cell.

Types of Plastids:
There are different types of plastids with their specialized functions.
Among them, a few are mainly classified based on the presence or absence of
the Biological pigments and their stages of development.

 Chloroplasts- (These are green pigment found in green plant involve in

photosynthesis. So, it is known as ‘kitchen of the cell’)
 Chromoplasts-These can be usually found in flowering plants, ageing
leaves and fruits. Chromoplasts have Carotenoid pigments that allow
different colors that you see in leaves and fruits. The main reason for its
different color is for attracting pollinators.
 Gerontoplasts-These are basically chloroplasts that go with the ageing
process. Geronoplasts refer to the chloroplasts of the leaves that help to

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 convert into different other organelles when the leaf is no longer using
photosynthesis usually in an autumn month.
 Leucoplasts-(It is Colourless. It stores the food in the form of starch, fat
and protein. They are mostly used for converting amino acids and fatty
acids.

Leucoplasts are of three types:

 Amyloplasts - Amyloplasts are greatest among all three and they store and
synthesize starch.
 Proteinoplasts - Proteinoplasts help in storing the proteins that a plant
needs and can be typically found in seeds.
 Elaioplasts - Elaioplast helps in storing fats and oils that are needed by the
plant.

11. Vacuole:
Vacuoles are membrane-bound cell organelles present in the cytoplasm and
filled with a watery fluid containing various substances.
Function: It helps in osmoregulation. It stores toxic metabolic waste.
Note: The membrane surrounding the vacuole is called Tonoplast.

 Endocytosis and Exocytosis

The substances are taken in by a vacuole through endocytosis and
excreted through exocytosis. These substances are stored in the cells, separated
from the cytosol. Lysosomes are vesicles that intake food and digest it. This is
endocytosis and it varies in different cells.

12. Nucleus:
The most integral component of the cell is the nucleus. The nucleus is
found only in eukaryotes and is the defining characteristic feature of eukaryotic
cells. However, some cells, such as RBCs do not possess a nucleus, though they
originate from eukaryotic organisms.

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Function: It controls all the activity of cells. So, it is also known as Control room of
cell. Chromatin transmits hereditary characters from parentsto their offspring.
The major differences between the plant cell and animal cell are mentioned below:

Plant Cell Animal Cell

Cell Shape

Square or rectangular in shape Irregular or round in shape

Cell Wall

Present Absent

Plasma/Cell Membrane

Present Present

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Present Present

Nucleus

Present and lies on one side of the cell Present and lies in the Centre of the cell

Lysosomes

Present but are very rare Present

Centrosomes

Absent Present

Golgi Apparatus

Present Present

Cytoplasm

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Present Present

Ribosomes

Present Present

Plastids

Present Absent

Vacuoles

Few large or a single, centrally Usually small and numerous

positioned vacuole

Cilia

Absent Present in most of the animal cells

13. Chromosome (Named by Waldeyer)

 Chromosome is thread like structure found in the nucleus. It becomes

visible during cell division.
 Each chromosome is made up of two chromatids joined together at a point
centromere. Bead like structure found on chromosome is called gene.
 Genes are made up of DNA which is the carrier of genetic information from
generation to generation.
 Gene is hereditary unit which is made by a segment of DNA found on the
chromosome. (Johannes was first used the name gene)
 Eukaryotic cell possesses many chromosomes. A particular kind of species
has definite number of chromosomes in their cell.

Number of Chromosome in different organism

Human 23 pairs Wheat 21 pairs
Chimpanzee 24 pairs Pigeon 40 pairs
Cat 19 pairs Tomato 12 pairs
Dog 39 pairs Pea 7 pairs

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Nucleic Acid: It is complex organic compound in cell. It contains special genetic
instruction in coded form. Nucleic acids are of two kinds- DNA and RNA.

 Phosphorous is an essential constituent of nucleic acid.

DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid)-Watson and Crick give the structural model of DNA.
 It is made up of nucleotides which contain nitrogenous group, a phosphate
group, and a sugar group.
 Nitrogen base are of two types –Purines and Pyrimidines. Purines contain
two types of nitrogen base-Adenine (A), Guanine (G). Pyrimidine nitrogen
base are Thymine (T) and Cytosine(C).

Function:
 It contains genetic information in coded from.
 DNA synthesis RNA.

Note:DNA is mainly found in nucleus. In small amount it is also found in

mitochondria and chloroplast.

RNA (Ribo-Nucleic-Acid)- RNA is single stranded nucleic acid made up of

phosphate, ribose sugar and nitrogen base Uracil (U), Adenine (A), Guanine (G)
and Cytosine(C). It is found in nucleus as well as cytoplasm.
RNA is of three kinds:
t-RNA– The transfer RNA or the tRNA carries amino acids to ribosomes
while translation
m-RNA – The messenger RNA or the mRNA encodes amino acid sequences
of a polypeptide
r-RNA – The ribosomal RNA or the rRNA produces ribosomes with the
ribosomal proteins that are organelles responsible for the translation of
the mRNA.

Function: Synthesis of Protein.

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Structure of DNA and RNA:

DNA and RNA Difference:

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

Definition

It is a long polymer. It has a deoxyribose It Is a polymer with a ribose and

and phosphate backbone having four phosphate backbone with four
distinct bases: thymine, adenine, varying bases: uracil, cytosine,
cytosine and guanine. adenine and guanine.

Location

It is located in the nucleus of a cell and It is found in the cytoplasm, nucleus

in the mitochondria. and in the ribosome.

Sugar portion

It has 2-deoxyribose. It has Ribose.

Function

DNA is functional is the transmission of RNA is functional is the transmission

genetic information. It forms as a media of the genetic code that is necessary

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for long-term storage. for the protein creation from the
nucleus to the ribosome.

Predominant Structure

The RNA is a single-stranded molecule

The DNA is a double-stranded molecule
which has a shorter chain of
that has a long chain of nucleotides.
nucleotides.

Propagation

RNA does not replicate on its own. It

DNA replicates on its own, it is self-
is synthesized from DNA when
replicating.
required.

Nitrogenous Bases and Pairing

The base pairing is as follows: GC The base pairing is as follows: GC

(Guanine pairs with Cytosine) A-T (Guanine pairs with Cytosine) A-U
(Adenine pairs with Thymine). (Adenine pairs with Uracil)

Cell Cycle
Cell cycle refers to the series of events that take place in a cell, resulting in the
duplication of DNA and division of cytoplasm and organelles to produce two
daughter cells.
Phases of Cell Cycle
Cell cycle or cell division refers to the series of events that take place in a cell
leading to its maturity and subsequent division. These events include duplication
of its genome and synthesis of the cell organelles followed by division of
the cytoplasm.
Human cells exhibit typical eukaryotic cell cycle and take around 24 hours to
complete one cycle of growth and division. The duration of the cycle, however,
varies from organism to organism and cell to cell.
A typical eukaryotic cell cycle is divided into two main phases:

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Interphase
Also known as the resting phase of the cell cycle; interphase is the time during
which the cell prepares for division by undergoing both cell growth and DNA
replication. It occupies around 95% time of the overall cycle. The interphase is
divided into three phases:
 G1 phase (Gap 1) – G1 phase is the phase of the cell between mitosis and
initiation of replication of the genetic material of the cell. During this
phase, the cell is metabolically active and continues to grow without
replicating its DNA.

 S phase (Synthesis) – DNA replication takes place during this phase. If the
initial quantity of DNA in the cell is denoted as 2N, then after replication it
becomes 4N. However, the number of chromosomes does not vary, viz., if
the number of chromosomes during G1 phase was 2n, it will remain 2n at
the end of S phase.

 G2phase(Gap 2) –During the second gap phase or G2 phase, the cell

grows more, makes proteins and organelles and begins to reorganize its
contents in preparation for mitosis. G2 phase ends when mitosis begins.

The G1, S and G2phases together are known as interphase. The prefix inter-
means between, reflecting that interphase takes place between one mitotic (M)
phase and the next.

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 In Figure: Cell Cycle
M phase
During the mitotic (M) phase, the cell divides its copied DNA and cytoplasm to
make two new cells. M phase involves two distinct division-related processes:
mitosis and cytokinesis.
Mitosis
In mitosis, the nuclear DNA of the cell condenses into visible chromosomes and is
pulled apart by the mitotic spindle, a specialized structure made out of
microtubules.
Mitosis takes place in four stages:

 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase

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Cytokinesis
In this phase, the cytoplasm of the cell divides. It begins as soon as the mitosis
ends. Plant cells are much tougher than animal cells, as they have a rigid cell wall
and high internal pressure. Thus, cytokinesis occurs in plant and animal cells
differently.

In Figure: Cytokinesis in animal and plant cells

In an animal cell, a contractile ring of cytoskeletal fibres forms at the middle of
the cell and contracts inward, producing an indentation called the cleavage
furrow. Eventually, the contractile ring pinches the mother cell in two, producing
two daughter cells.

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In a plant cell, vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus move to the middle of
the cell, where they fuse to form a structure called the cell plate. The cell plate
expands outwards and connects with the side walls of the cell, creating a new cell
wall that partitions the mother cell to make two daughter cells.
The G0 phase, also known as the resting phase, is the phase of the cell cycle
during which a cell is neither dividing nor preparing to divide. During this period
the cell performs regulatory and its basic cellular functions. The cell cycle typically
refers to the process by which the cell can grow and repair itself.

Terms related to cytology:

 Karyokinesis- Karyokinesis means the process of division of the nucleus.

 Cytokinesis- Cytokinesis means the process of division of cytoplasm.
 Diploid- Two complete set of chromosomes is called diploid, found in
somatic cell.
 Haploid- Single set of chromosomes in cell is called haploid, found in
gametes.
 Crossing over- Exchange of genetic material between two non-sister
chromatids takes place during meiosis cell division is called crossing over.
 Homologous Chromosome- A pair of Chromosome having size and shape
bearing corresponding gene.
 Allele- Alternative form of characters governed by gene.
 Phenotype- The character of organism which can be seen directly.
 Genotype- Genetic constitution of organism is called genotype.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
CHAPTER - 4
GENETICS (First coined by W. Wattson)

 The process of transfer of hereditary character from generation to

generation is called genetics.
 Gregor Johan Mendel is also known as father of genetics.
 Mendel chosen pea plant for his experiment.

Mendel made a cross between two pure plant shaving contrasting characters for
single trait called monohybrid cross i.e., tall and dwarf plant for height.

Monohybrid Cross Definition:

 A monohybrid cross is the hybrid of two individuals with homozygous
genotypes which result in the opposite phenotype for a certain genetic
trait.
 The cross between two monohybrid traits (TT and tt) is called a
Monohybrid Cross.
 Monohybrid cross is responsible for the inheritance of one gene.
 Monohybrid cross is used by geneticists to observe how homozygous
offspring express heterozygous genotypes inherited from their parents.

Monohybrid Cross: Mendel studied the following seven characters with

contrasting traits:
 Flower colour : Violet/white
 Flower position : Axial/terminal
 Pod colour : Green/yellow
 Pod shape : Inflated/constricted
 Seed colour : Yellow/green
 Seed shape : Round/wrinkled
 Stem height : Tall/dwarf

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1st type Flower colour: Violet/White

Dihybrid Cross:
 Dihybrid cross is a cross
between two organisms,
with both being heterozygous for two different traits.
 The individuals in this type of trait are homozygous for a specific trait.
 These traits are determined by DNA segments called genes.
 He made a cross between plant having round seed with yellow colour and
wrinkled seed with green colour.

Phenotype ratio of F2 generation- 9:3:3:1

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Genotypic ratio- 1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1

Law of dominance- Offspring of cross breed parent only show dominant

characters in generation.
Law of segregation- In F2 generation both the character which is governed by
gene is separated.

Terms related to genetics:

1. Linkage-Linkage is an exception of Mendel law. When two different genes
are present on the same chromosome, they express themselves together
instead of independently. This phenomenon is known as Linkage. The word
linkage first coined by Morgan.
2. Mutation-A sudden change in the gene which is heritable from one
generation to other. The term mutation was first coined by Hugo De Vrice.
3. Variation-When characters are transmitted from one generation to next
generation there is some change. Change in characters by recombination
of gene in offspring takes place they look different from their parents. This
phenomenon is known as Variation.
4. Chromosomal aberrations-Any change in chromosomal structure is known
as Chromosomal aberrations.
5. Cloning-It is a process of producing many identical organisms from a single
cell having same genetic character as his mother. Ex- Sheep Dolly was
produced from single cell.
6. Totipotency-It is the potential ability of a plant cell to grow in a complete
plant.
7. Pluripotency-It is the potential ability of a cell to develop into any kinds of
the cell of animal body.
8. GMO-A genetically modified organism (GMO) is an animal, plant, or
microbe whose DNA has been altered using genetic engineering
techniques.
9. Autosome and Sex chromosome- Autosomes are the homologous pairs of
chromosomes in the human genome that determine the somatic
characteristics of an organism. Sex chromosomes determine the sex of the
organism. They are partially homologous. Out of 23 pairs, 22 are
autosomes while one pair is sex chromosomes.
10. Genome- All genes present in a haploid cell is called genome.
11. DNA fingerprinting-is a technique used for the detection of disputed
parentage.

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Note: In human each cell contains 46 chromosomes. Any addition or removal in
the number of sex chromosome or autosome cause genetic disorder.

Chromosomal disorders due to aneuploidy- This is the cause of most of the

genetically inherited disorders and abortion during pregnancy

No. of
Genetic
Defect in Genotype Chromoso Phenotypic effect
Disorder
mes

 Short statured
with a small round
head

Trisomy of  Furrowed tongue

Down’s st with partially open
21 chromoso 47
syndrome mouth
me
 Protruded eyes,
Autosom mental
es development is
retarded

• Cut mark in the lip

• Serious defects in
Trisomy of the eyes, brain,
Patau
13th chromoso 47 kidney or
syndrome
me circulatory system
• Mentally retarded

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 • Multiple
malformations like
Trisomy of in lower jaw,
Edward’s
18th chromoso 47 fingers, skull, face
syndrome and feet
me
• Cardiac
malformations

• These males have

tall and masculine
stature with
feminine
characteristics
• Development of
Klinefelter’ breasts
XXY 47
s syndrome (gynecomastia)
• Small testicles,
high-pitched voice
and sparse body
hairs
• Mental retardation
Sex
chromoso • Sterile females
me with short stature
• Breasts and
Turner’s Monosomy- ovaries are
45
syndrome XO underdeveloped,
thin and less pubic
hairs

• They are called

super females
Triple X • Mild development
XXX 47 delays and
syndrome
menstrual
irregularities

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 • Males with an
XYY unusual height
XYY 47 • Below normal
syndrome
intelligence

Sickle cell Anemia- In these disorder erythrocytes destroyed more rapidly than
normal leading to anemia. These occur due to change in 11 th autosomal
chromosome.

Hemophilia- Gene responsible for this disorder is linked with sex chromosomes.
This disease leads to failure of blood clotting.

Colour blindness- This disorder led to failure to distinguished red and green
colour. The gene responsible for this disease is situated on sex chromosome.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION
BOTANY

Botany is the branch of Biology that deals with the study of plants.
Plant Kingdom – Plantae
Kingdom Plantae includes all the plants. They are eukaryotic, multi cellular and
autotrophic organisms. The plant cell contains a rigid cell wall. Plants have
chloroplast and chlorophyll pigment, which is required for photosynthesis.

CHAPTER – 1
CHARACTERISTICS OF PLANT KINGDOM
 They are non-motile.
 They make their own food hence are called autotrophs.
 They reproduce asexually by vegetative propagation or sexually.
 These are multi cellular eukaryotes. The plant cell contains the outer cell wall
and a large central vacuole.
 Plants contain photosynthetic pigments called chlorophyll present in the
plastids.
 They have different organelles for anchorage, reproduction, support and
photosynthesis.

Classification of Kingdom:
Classification is based on the following criteria:

 Plant body-Presence or absence of a well-differentiated plant body. E.g.,

Root, Stem and Leaves.
 Vascular system-Presence or absence of a vascular system for the
transportation of water and other substances. E.g., Phloem and Xylem.
 Seed formation-Presence or absence of flowers and seeds and if the seeds
are naked or enclosed in a fruit.

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The plant kingdom has been classified into five subgroups according to the above-
mentioned criteria:
1. Thallophyta
2. Bryophyta
3. Pteridophyta
4. Gymnosperms
5. Angiosperms

1. Thallophyta:

 Thallophytes lack a well-differentiated body structure and the plant body is

thallus like.
 Primitive plants where the body is not differentiated into stem roots and
leaves.
 They may be unicellular, multi cellular, filamentous, colonial, branched or
unbranched. There is no conducting tissue.

It is divided into two groups:Algae and Fungi.

Algae:

 The algae normally have chlorophyll and autotropic mode of nutrition.

Useful Algae: As a food: Porphyria, Nostoc, A
 Chlorella is known as space alga. It is used for the consumption of carbon
dioxide provided by the astronauts and the production of oxygen in the
spacecraft.
Fungi:

 Fungi are a kingdom of usually multi cellular eukaryotic organisms.

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  They are heterotrophs (cannot make their own food) and have important
roles in nutrient cycling in an Ecosystem.
 Fungi reproduce both sexually and asexually, and they also have symbiotic
associations with plants and bacteria. However, they are also responsible
for some diseases in plants and animals.

2. Bryophyta:

 Small, non-vascular plants that prefer moist environments.

 Body has root-like, stem-like and leaf-like structures.
 They have rhizoids instead of roots which helps the plant to anchor to
surface.
 These roots or rhizoids do not absorb nutrients like other usual plant
roots.
 Mosses release spores from their leaves which travels by water and make
new mosses in new locations.
 Examples- Marchantia, Funaria, Sphagnum etc.

They are terrestrial plants but known as “amphibians of the plant kingdom” as
they require water for sexual reproduction. They are present in moist and shady
places.

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3. Pteridophyta:

 They are seedless.

 They are multi cellular.
 They reproduce through spores
 They are independent and free-living organisms.
 They have a well-differentiated plant body into root, stem and leaves.
 Examples- Selaginella, Equisetum, Pteris etc.

Note:
Thallophyta, Bryophyta andPteridophytaare calledCryptogamous plants. Because
there areno flower and seed in these types of plants.

4. Gymnosperms:

 They do not produce flowers.

 Seeds are not formed inside a fruit. They are naked.
 They are found in colder regions where snowfall occurs.
 They develop needle-like leaves.
 They are perennial or woody, forming trees or bushes.
 They are not differentiated into ovary, style and stigma.
 Since stigma is absent, they are pollinated directly by the wind.
 The male gametophytes produce two gametes, but only one of them is
functional.
 The seeds contain endosperm that stores food for the growth and
development of the plant.

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  These plants have vascular tissues which help in the transportation of
nutrients and water.
 Xylem does not have vessels and the phloem has no companion cells and
sieve tubes.
 Examples- Cycas, Pinus,Ephedraetc.

5. Angiosperms:

 All plants have flowers at some stage in their life. The flowers are the
reproductive organs for the plant, providing them with a means of
exchanging genetic information.
 The sporophyte is differentiated into stems, roots, and leaves.
 The vascular system has true vessels in the xylem and companion cells in
the phloem.
 Angiosperms are heterosporous, i.e., produce two kinds of spores,
microspore (pollen grains) and megaspores.
 A single functional megaspore is permanently retained within the nucellus.
 The sporophytes are diploid.
 The root system is very complex and consists of cortex, xylem, phloem,
and epidermis.
 The flowers undergo double and triple fusion which leads to the formation
of a diploid zygote and triploid endosperm.

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  Angiosperms can survive in a variety of habitats, including marine habitats.
 The process of fertilization is quicker in angiosperms. The seeds are also
produced quickly due to the smaller female reproductive parts.
 Examples: Roses, lilies, Broccoli, Kale, Petunias, Eggplant, Tomato,
Peppers. Grains including Rice, Corn, Wheat etc.

Angiosperms are seed-bearing vascular plants with a well-differentiated plant

body. The seeds of angiosperms are enclosed within the fruits. Angiosperms are
widely distributed and vary greatly in size, e.g.,Eucalyptus trees are around
100meter tall.

Angiosperms are further divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons

according to the number of cotyledons present in the seeds. Examples: mango,
rose, tomato, onion, wheat, maize, etc.

Note: Gymnosperms, Angiosperms are called Phanerogams plants,becausethey

are Flowering and seed-bearing plants.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
CHAPTER – 2
PLANT MORPHOLOGY
Morphology is a branch of science that deals with the study of the external
structure of plants. When we look into the morphology of flowering plants; a plant
has two systems root system and shoots system.

 The underground part is called the root while the one above is named the
shoot.
 The shoot system consists stems, leaves, and the reproductive parts of the
plant (flowers and fruits). Where it absorbs the light needed for
photosynthesis.
 Root system supports the plants and absorbs water and minerals, is usually
underground.

Root System:
The root is a brown, no green and underground part of a plant. There are
three types of the root system:

1. Taproot System -
Taproot, main root of a primary root system, growing vertically
downward. It develops from the radical of the germinating seed, along with its
primary roots and branches. Most dicotyledonous plants such as dandelions
produce taproots and some such as the edible roots of carrots and beets are
specialized for food storage. Mustard seeds, mangoes, grams and banyan are
examples of dicotyledonous plants with taproot system.

2. The Fibrous root System -

The fibrous root is mainly found in ferns and in all monocotyledonous
plants. This root develops from thin, moderately branching roots or primary roots,
growing from the stem. The fibrous root system usually does not penetrate deep
into the soil, therefore on full maturity these roots look like a carpet on the floor.
Wheat, paddy, grass, carrots, onion, grass are examples of monocotyledonous
plants with the fibrous root system.

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3. The Adventitious root System -

The roots which originate from any part of the plant body other than the
radical is called the adventitious root system. This root system is mainly found in
all monocotyledonous plants. In plants, the adventitious root system is used for
various purposes, like mechanical support, vegetative propagationetc.
Banyantree, maize, oak trees are examples of monocotyledonous plants with the
adventitious root system.

Modification of Tap roots are -

 Conical roots are broad at the base and conical at the apex. Example-
carrot.
 Fusiform roots are swollen in the middle and tapering towards both the
ends. Example- Radish.
 Napiform roots are spherical at the base and taper towards the apex.
Example-Beet.
 Tuberous roots have no specific shape. They appear thick and fleshy.
Example-Sweet Potato.

Functions of the Root -

 To provide appropriate anchorage to the plants.

 To absorb minerals and water from the soil.
 Synthesis of the plant growth.
 To store reserved food elements.

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Shoot System:
Shoot system is an aerial and erect part of plant body which grows
upward.

Some of the important characteristics of the stem are:

 The stem develops from the plumule and epicotyl of the embryo.
 The stem is erect and grows away from the soil towards the light.
 There is a terminal bud at the apex of the stem.
 In angiosperms, the shoot is differentiated into nodes and internodes.
 Young stems are green and photosynthetic.
 Multi cellular hair is present.

Different forms of Stem:

1. Runners- [Aerial stems- Strawberry]
2. Climbers- [Tendrils to climb- Beans, pea]
3. Tubers- [Edible- Potatoes]
4. Rhizome- [Fleshy underground stem- Ginger, Turmeric]

Leaf:
Leaf is a green flattened and exogenous lateral growth which arises from
the node of a branch. It is a special organ of gaseous exchange and
photosynthesis.
 The leaf is a laterally borne structure and usually flattened.
 It is the main photosynthetic part of the plants. It absorbs light and helps in
the exchange of gases through the stomata.

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Modifications of Leaves -

 Leaf Tendrils (Melon family. Sweet pea)

 Spines (Acacia tree)
 Storage Leaves (Desert plants like Lithops)
 Insect-catching leaves (Pitcher plant, Venus flytrap)

Functions of Leaves -
 Photosynthesis.
 Transpiration.
 Storage.

Flowers :

Flowers are attractive, colourful and often fragrant structures of flowering

plants. They are the primary reproductive organs of the plants.

There are four main layers of the parts of a flower:

 Calyx
 Corolla
 Androecium
 Gynoecium

Calyx -
It is a collection of sepals. The sepals are the green coloured small florets
that are considered the first layers of the flower from the base. In some cases, the
sepals have colour. They are called petaloid. Their main function is to protect the
flower while it is still in the bud stage.

Corolla -
This layer is a collection of petals. It is the second layer of the flower,
superior to the calyx layer. The petals are the colourful part of a flower that helps
to attract insects and birds to the flower to facilitate Pollination.

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Androecium -
It is the third layer of the flower superior to the Corolla. This is a term
given to the male parts for sexual reproduction of a plant. The androecium is
made up of a collection of stamens. Each stamen has the following parts:

 Anther- It is present at the tip of the filament. It is internally lobed. Pollen

grains are inside the Anther Lobe.
 Filament- It is a thin stalk-like structure that holds the anther

Gynoecium -
A Gynoecium is a collection of carpels. It is the fourth layer of a flower. It
has three parts:
 Stigma- It is a small and sticky landing structure. The pollen grain from the
same or different flower sticks to it. This structure acts as a landing for the
insects or birds that act as pollinating agents.
 Style- It is a thin stalk-like structure that holds the stigma.
 Ovary- It is the base of the style and contains the ovules which contain the
female gametes.

Pollination -
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to
the stigma of the same or another flower. It is said to be the first process of
sexual fertilization in flowering plants. Pollen grains contain the male gamete and
are present in the anthers of the flower.

Types of Pollination:Pollination can be of two types:

Self-Pollination-When the pollen is transferred from the anthers of a flower to the

stigma of the same flower, it is called as self- pollination.Self–pollination can be
further divided into two types:

 Autogamy– In this type of self-pollination, the pollen is transferred from

the anthers of one flower to the stigma of the same flower.
 Geitonogamy– In this type of self-pollination, the anthers are transferred
from the anthers of one flower to the stigma of another flower but on the
same plant.

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Cross-Pollination-In this type of pollination, the pollen is transferred from the
anthers of one flower to the stigma of another flower (two flowers are genetically
different from each other).Cross-pollination is always dependent on another
agent to cause the transfer of pollen. The agents of pollination include birds,
animals, water, wind, and insects. Based on the agent of pollination.

Cross-pollination can be of different types:

 Hygrophilous Flowers-These flowers are pollinated by water. Pollen is
adapted to be able to float in water.
 Anemophilous flowers-These flowers are pollinated by the agency of wind.
Pollen grains are very light, non-sticky and sometimes winged.
 Entomophilic flowers-These flowers are pollinated by insects. Flowers are
attractive, fragrance with bright petals.
 Ornithophilous flowers-These flowers are pollinated by birds.

Note:
 Parthenocarpyis the formation or development of fruit without
fertilization.
 Apomixisis the formation of seeds without fertilization.

Fruits:
The fruit is the characteristic feature of flowering plants, which is a ripened
or mature ovary and the seed is what the ovules develop into after fertilization.

Types of Fruits:
There are three different types of fruits and are classified mainly based on
their mode of development.
 Simple-Developed from the monocarpellary ovary or multicarpellary
syncarpous ovary.Example-Banana.
 Aggregate-Developed from the multicarpellary apocarpous ovary.
Example-Strawberry.
 Composite-These are false fruits, developed from the entire inflorescence
rather than from single flower. Example-Jackfruit.

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Seed:
A seed is a basic part of a plant, which is found enclosed within the fruit. It
is made up of a seed coat and an embryo. During the development of the fruit, the
wall of the ovary becomes the pericarp. In some plants, the ovary wall dries out
completely, while in some it remains fleshy.

Types of Seeds:
Based on the number of cotyledons, seeds are further classified into two types:
1. Monocotyledonous-The embryo consists of an embryo axis and has only
one cotyledon. The monocotyledonous is also known as monocot
seeds. Examples- Grains including rice, millet, wheat and other plants
like onions, corn.
2. Dicotyledonous- The embryo consists of an embryo axis and has two
cotyledons. The dicotyledons are also known as dicots or dicot seeds.
Examples- Legumes including beans, lentils, pea, peanuts, and tomato.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
CHAPTER-3
PLANT TISSUE SYSTEM

A tissue is a cluster of cells that are alike in configuration and work together to
attain a specific function. Different types of plant tissues include permanent and
meristematic tissues.

1. Meristematic Tissue - Meristematic tissue is also called as growing tissue.

Based on origin, meristems are of two types’ primary meristem
and secondary meristem.

Primary meristem - Primary meristem is produced from promeristem, which

further divide to form different tissues. Primary meristems are the birth place of

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primary permanent tissues increasing the plant's length and width, e.g., Apical
meristem.
Location- It is located at the tips of the roots and stems, base of
the node and internode or leaf.

Secondary meristem - Secondary meristems are not formed during the early stages
of differentiation. It develops from primary permanent tissue later by de-
differentiation. Through this process, secondary meristems form permanent
secondary tissue for secondary growth (increases only in width).

Location- It is located at the cork-cambium, cambium of roots and inters

fascicular cambium of stem.

Note: In woody plants, primary growth is followed by secondary growth, which

allows the plant stem to increase in thickness or girth. Secondary vascular tissue is
added as the plant grows, as well as a cork layer. The bark of a tree extends from
the vascular cambium to the epidermis.

Characteristic features of meristematic cells:

 In meristematic tissues, the cells are very active, immature, and non-
vascular; contain dense cytoplasm, large nucleus and thin cell wall made
up of cellulose.

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  They lack vacuoles because vacuoles are full of cell sap and
provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
 The new cells generated by meristem are initially like those of pre-
existing meristem. After maturation, their characteristic features started to
change and becomes a permanent tissue.

Types of meristematic tissue: Meristematic tissues are classified based on

their position:Apical meristem, Intercalary meristem and Lateral meristem.

(a) Apical meristem -

Location- It is located at the growing tips of the stem and roots of vascular
plants.

Function- It helps to increase the length of the stem and the roots. It acts as
the promeristm having actively dividing cells giving rise to other new
meristems.

(b) Lateral meristem or Cambium-

Location- It is located at the lateral sides of stems and roots.

Function- It increases the girth of stem and root (circumference of the stem
and root).

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(c) Intercalary meristem -

Location- It is located at the base of inter-nodes, between the places at

which the leaves attach, i.e., at leaf bases.

Function- Their primary function is to provideelongation (longitudinal

growth) and growth of part of the plant where they are present.

Stem showing internode, nodes and leaf petioles

Leaves are attached to the plant stem at areas called nodes. An internode is the
stem region between two nodes. The petiole is the stalk connecting the leaf to
the stem. The leaves just above the nodes arose from axillary buds.

2. Permanent Tissue:Plants can't do their functions with only meristematic

tissues. A permanent tissue is made up of mature, living or dead cells divided
from meristematic tissues.

There are two types of permanent tissue.

(a) Simple Permanent tissue
(b) Complex Permanent tissue

(a) Simple Permanent Tissue:

They can be classified into parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchymabased on
their purpose.

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(I) Parenchyma-
These are alive, polygonal cells with a big central vacuole, and have intercellular
spaces amidst them.

Location-

 The Parenchyma is found in many parts of the plant body.

 This is most commonly found in the medullary rays, the pithand the cortex
of the wood.
 It is also found as a packing tissue phloem and xylem.
 It is mostly found in the softer parts of the plants.

Functions-
Parenchyma cells from the ground tissue of plants. Parenchyma tissues perform
various important functions:

 Storage: Parenchyma cells have large intercellular space which is ideal for
storage
o High amount of starch is present in the tubers of potato and
cassava
o These can store water, fats, oil droplets, and ergastic substances
o Store water and act as a water reservoir
 Transport: Parenchyma cells transport nutrients and other chemicals
o Transfer cells have outgrowth for increasing absorption surface
o The xylem parenchyma helps in radial transportation of water and
minerals
o Some cells transport light from the surface to underground cells
 Photosynthesis: Chlorenchyma present in the mesophyll and the other
green parts of the plant, have chloroplasts and perform photosynthesis
 Gas Exchange: Aerenchyma cells help in the gas exchange
 Protection: In gymnosperms, the parenchymatous cell have spiny
projections that help in the protection from predators

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  Totipotent: Parenchyma cells have an ability to transform to the other
types of cells and act as a precursor for other types of cells
 Buoyancy: Aerenchyma present in aquatic plants have air sacs that help in
floating

(ii) Collenchyma-
These are stretched out, living cells with minute intercellular gaps.

Location- Leaf Stalks below the epidermis and leaf midrib. It is absent in dicot
roots, monocot plants and underground parts.

Functions-

 It provides flexibility and elasticity to the growing parts.

 It grows with the growing part of the plant.
 It protects leaf margins from tearing.
 Itoften contains chloroplasts and performs photosynthesis and
accumulates food.
 This tissue enables parts of the plants such as tendrils and stems of
climbers to bend easily without any breaking.

(iii) Sclerenchyma-
These are elongated, dead cells with lignin deposits in their cell wall.
Location: In stems, around vascular bundles, in the veins of leaves, in the hard
covering of seeds and nuts.

Function:To provide mechanical support and protection to the plant.

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 (b) Complex Permanent Tissue:
These tissues include phloem and xylem. Xylem is valuable for the
transportation of water and solvable constituents. Phloem is valuable in
the transportation of food particles.

(i) Xylem-
It helps in the transport of dissolved substances and water all through the
plant. The diverse components of the xylem include vessels, tracheid, xylem fibres
and xylem parenchyma. Xylem fibres and Tracheid are made up of lignin, which
provides structural support to the plant.

(ii) Phloem-
This tissue helps in the transportation of food all through the plant. The
diverse elements of phloem include phloem fibres, sieve tubes, phloem
parenchyma and companion cells.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
CHAPTER-4
PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to
synthesize nutrients from carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis in plants
generally involves the green pigment chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a by-
product.
Photosynthesis equations-
The process of photosynthesis differs in green plants andsulphurbacteria.

1. Oxygenic Photosynthesis
In green plants, water is utilized along with carbon dioxide to release glucose and
oxygen molecules.
Carbon dioxide + Water + solar energy → Glucose + Oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O + solar energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

2. Anoxygenic Photosynthesis
In the case of sulphur bacteria, hydrogen sulphide is utilized along with carbon
dioxide to release carbohydrates, sulphur, and water molecules.
CO2 + 2H2S + light energy → (CH2O) +H2O + 2S

Site of Photosynthesis -
Photosynthesis takes place in special organelles known as chloroplast. This
organelle has its own DNA, genes and hence can synthesize its own proteins.
Chloroplasts consist of stroma, fluid, and stack of thylakoids known as grana.
There are three important pigments present in the chloroplast that absorb light
energy, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids.

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Factors Affecting Photosynthesis:
 Light Intensity: Increased light intensity results in a higher rate of
photosynthesis. On the other hand, low light intensity results in a lower
rate of photosynthesis.
 The concentration of CO2: Higher concentration of carbon dioxide helps in
increasing the rate of photosynthesis. Usually, carbon dioxide in the range
of 300 – 400 PPM is adequate for photosynthesis.
 Temperature: For efficient execution of photosynthesis, it is important to
have a temperature range between 25° to 35° C.
 Water: As water is an important factor in photosynthesis, its deficiency can
lead to problems in the intake of carbon dioxide. The scarcity of water
leads to the refusal of stomatal opening to retain the amount of water
they have stored inside.
 Pollution: Industrial pollutants and other particulates may settle on the
leaf surface. This can block the pores of stomata which makes it difficult to
take in carbon dioxide.

Types of Photosynthesis-
There are two different types of photosynthesis:
 Oxygenic photosynthesis
 Anoxygenic photosynthesis

Oxygenic Photosynthesis-
 Oxygenic photosynthesis is more common in plants, algae and
cyanobacteria.
 During this process, electrons are transferred from water to carbon dioxide
by light energy, to produce energy.
 During this transfer of electrons, carbon dioxide is reduced while water is
oxidized, and oxygen is produced along with carbohydrates.
 During this process, plants take in carbon dioxide and expel oxygen into
the atmosphere.

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This process can be represented by the equation:
6CO2+ 12H2O + LIGHT ENERGY → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O
Anoxygenic Photosynthesis
 This type of photosynthesis is usually seen in certain bacteria, such as
green sulphur bacteria and purple bacteria which dwell in various aquatic
habitats.
 Oxygen is not produced during the process.

The anoxygenic photosynthesis can be represented by the equation:

CO2 + 2H2A + LIGHT ENERGY → *CH2O+ + 2A + H2O
The process of photosynthesis occurs in two stages:
 Light-dependent reaction or light reaction
 Light independent reaction or dark reaction

Light Reaction of Photosynthesis:

 Light reaction is the first stage of photosynthesis process in which solar
energy is converted into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH.
 The protein complexes and the pigment molecules help in the production
of NADPH and ATP.
 The light reaction traps the energy from the sun and converts it into
chemical energy that is stored in NADPH and ATP.
 Oxygen is released as the waste product.

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Dark reaction of Photosynthesis
 Dark reaction is also called carbon-fixing reaction. It is a light-independent
process in which sugar molecules are formed from the carbon dioxide and
water molecules.
 The dark reaction occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast, where they
utilize the products of the light reaction.
 Plants capture the carbon dioxide from the atmosphere through stomata
and proceed to the Calvin cycle.
 In the Calvin cycle, the ATP and NADPH formed during light reaction drives
the reaction and convert six molecules of carbon dioxide into one sugar
molecule, i.e., glucose

3CO2 + 6 NADPH + 5H2O + 9ATP → G3P + 2H+ + 6 NADP+ + 9 ADP + 8 Pi

Importance of photosynthesis

The process of photosynthesis plays an important role in such ways:

 Plant prepares their food by photosynthesis. The plants, in turn, are eaten
by the animals.
 Photosynthesis converts radiant or solar energy into chemical energy.
 Productivity of agricultural crops directly depends upon the rate of
photosynthesis.
 It provides oxygen in atmosphere for all living organisms.
 It maintains the balanced level of oxygen and carbon dioxide ecosystem.
 Fossil fuels are derived from plants. Energy stored in fuel is originally
trapped from sun during photosynthesis.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
CHAPTER – 5
PLANT HORMONES

Plant hormones or phytohormones are small, simple chemical molecules, which

are present in low concentration in plants and regulate growth differentiation and
development.

Plant hormones control all the growth and development activities like cell division,
enlargement, flowering, seed formation, dormancy and abscission.
Based on their action, plant hormones are categorised into two categories:
 Plant Growth Promoters
 Plant Growth Inhibitors

Plant Growth Promoters-They promote cell division, cell enlargement, flowering,

fruiting and seed formation. Examples are auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins.

1. Auxin Hormone -

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Auxin means “to grow”. They are widely used in agricultural and horticultural
practices. They are found in growing apices of roots and stems and then migrate
to other parts to act.

 Natural-Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), Indole butyric acid (IBA)

 Synthetic-2,4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid), NAA (Naphthalene acetic
acid)

Functions -

 Cell elongation of stems and roots.

 Apical dominance, IAA in apical bud suppresses the growth of lateral buds
 Induces parthenocarpy i.e., development of fruit without fertilization.
Example-Tomato.
 Prevents premature fall of leaves, flowers, and fruits.
 Useful in stem cuttings and grafting where it initiates rooting.
 Promotes flowering. Example-Pineapple.
 2, 4-D is widely used as an herbicide to kill undesirable weeds of dicot
plants without affecting monocot plants.

2. Gibberellins Hormone:

 There are more than 100 gibberellins (GA1, GA2, GA3…...) that are known.
They are acidic in nature. These are found in higher plants and fungi.

Functions -
 Promotes bolting, i.e., sudden elongation of internodes just before
flowering in rosette plants like cabbage, beet.
 Delays senescence.
 Induces parthenocarpy.
 Elongation of the stem and reverses dwarfism.
 Induces maleness in certain plants like cannabis.
 Induces the formation of hydrolytic enzymes such as lipase, amylase in the
endosperm of germinating cereal grains and barley seeds.
 Breaks seed dormancy.

3. Cytokinin Hormone:

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Cytokinin plays an important role in cytokinesis process. cytokinin are naturally
synthesised in the plants where rapid cell division occurs e.g., root apices, shoot
buds, young fruits, etc.
 Natural-Zeatin (corn kernels, coconut milk), isopentenyladenine.
 Synthetic-Kinetin, benzyl-adenine, diphenyl-urea.

Functions-
 It promotes lateral and adventitious shoot growth and used to initiate
shoot growth in culture
 Helps in overcoming apical dominance induced by auxins
 Stimulate the formation of chloroplast in leaves
 Promotes nutrient mobilisation and delay leaf senescence

Plant Growth Inhibitors– These chemicals inhibit growth and promote dormancy
and abscission in plants. An example is an abscisic acid, Ethylene Hormone.

1. Abscisic Acid Function:

It is a growth-inhibiting hormone. ABAs act as an antagonist to GAs. It inhibits

plant metabolism and regulates abscission and dormancy. It is also called “stress
hormones” as it increases the tolerance of plants.

Functions:

 Induces abscission of leaves and fruits

 Inhibits seed germination
 Induces senescence in leaves
 Accelerates dormancy in seeds that is useful for storage purpose
 Stimulates closure of stomata to prevent transpiration under water stress

2. Ethylene Plant Hormone:

It acts as a growth promoter as well as an inhibitor. Occurs in gaseous form. It is

synthesised in the ripening fruits and tissues undergoing senescence. It regulates
many physiological processes and one of the most widely used hormones in
agriculture.

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Functions:
 It hastens the ripening of fruits.
 Controls epinasty of leaves.
 Breaks seed and bud dormancy.
 Stimulates rapid elongation of petioles and internodes.
 Promotes senescence and abscission of leaves and flowers.
 Stimulates femaleness in monoecious plants.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINATION

ZOOLOGY
Zoology is the branch of biology that studies the animal kingdom, including the
structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all
animals and how they interact with their ecosystems.

CHAPTER-1
CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL KINGDOM

Basis for Animal Kingdom Classification:

1. Levels of Organisation
2. Symmetry
3. Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation
4. Coelom development
5. Segmentation of the body and
6. Presence or absence of Notochord

1. Levels of Organization:

 Though all members of Animalia are multi cellular, all of them do not
exhibit the same pattern of organisation of cells.
For example-Sponges (Cells are arranged as loose cell aggregates, i.e.,
cellular level of organisation).
 In coelenterates, the arrangement of cells is more complex. Here the cells
performing the same function are arranged into tissues, hence is
called tissue level of organisation.
 The digestive system in Platyhelminthes (incomplete digestive
system) has only a single opening to the outside of the body that serves as
both mouth and anus, and is hence called incomplete. A complete
digestive system has two openings, mouth and anus.

2. Symmetry:

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  Asymmetrical-Any plane that passes through the centre does not divide
them into equal halves.
Example-Sponges
 Radial symmetry-Any plane passing through the central axis of the body
divides the organism into two identical halves.
Example- Echinoderms Coelenterates
 Bilateral symmetry-(where the body can be divided into identical left and
right halves in only one plane). Example- Annelids, Arthropods.

3. Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organism:

 Diploblastic refers to having only two embryonic layers ectoderm and
endoderm, mesoderm is absent.
Examples- Jellyfish, Comb jellies, Corals, and Sea anemones.
 Triploblastic refers to having three embryonic germinal layers, viz.
Ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.
Examples- Platyhelminthes, Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, Echinoderms,
and Chordates.

4. Coelom:
 The body cavity, which is lined by mesoderm is called coelom.
 Animals possessing coelom are called coelomates, e.g., Annelids, Molluscs,
Arthropods, Echinoderms, Hemichordates & Chordates.
 Pseudocoelom is the false body cavity that lies between the body wall and
the gut. Example-Nematodes.
 Acoelomates: The animals in which coelom is completely absent. Example-
Flatworms.

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5. Segmentation:
In some animals, the body is externally and internally divided into segments
with a serial repetition of at least some organs.
Example- Earthworm (The body shows this pattern called metameric
segmentation).

6. Presence and Absence of Notochord:

The notochord is an embryonic midline structure common to all members of
the phylum Chordata, providing both mechanical and signalling cues to the
developing embryo.
In vertebrates, the notochord arises from the dorsal organizer and it is critical
for proper vertebrate development.

Classification of Animal kingdom:

o Phylum – Porifera
o Phylum -Coelenterate (Cnidaria)
o Phylum - Ctenophora
o Phylum - Platyhelminthes
o Phylum -Aschelminths (Nematoda) Annelida
o Phylum - Arthropoda
o Phylum - Mollusca
o Phylum - Echinodermata
o Phylum -Hemichordata
o Phylum– Chordata

1. Porifera
 They are primitive multicellular animals and have cellular level of
organisation.
 They are non-motile, porous body, do not have well developed organ
system, marine habitat.
 Sexes are not separate (hermaphrodite), i.e., eggs and sperms are
produced by the same individual. The cells of Poriferans are loosely
organized.
 They are mostly found in marine water. Only a few are found in
freshwater.
 They are either radially symmetrical or asymmetrical.

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  Their body is usually cylindrical.
 They have no organs in their body.
 The body comprises numerous pores known as Ostia and osculum.
 They reproduce asexually by budding, and fragmentation.
 The nutrition is holozoic.
 They have the power to regenerate the lost parts.
 The development is indirect and the cleavage is holoblastic.
 The exchange of respiratory gases and nitrogenous wastes occurs by the
process of diffusion.
 Examples- Sycon, Spongillaetc.

Figure: Examples of Porifera: (a) Sycon (b) Espundia (c) Spongilla

2. Coelenterate (Cnidaria)
 Coelenterate (Cnidaria) are aquatic, mostly marine sessile or free-
swimming radially symmetrical.
 They exhibit tissue level of organization.
 They have a central gastro-vascular cavity with a single opening.
 They are diploblasticThey are aquatic, mostly marine except few
freshwater forms like the hydra.
 They are multicellular with tissue grade of organization.
 Body organization of cell-tissue grade. Cells mostly scattered and
specialized for different functions. Some cells form tissues like nerve nets
or nervous tissues.
 Exoskeleton chitinous (perisarc) or calcareous (corals).

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  They are diploblastic animals with 2 cellular layers-outer an epidermis and
an inner gastrodermis- with a gelatinous acellular mesoglea in between.
 Acoelomate animals because they do not pose a second body cavity, the
coelom.
 Short and slender tentacles encircle the mouth in one or two whorls.
 The tentacles are provided with nematocysts; tentacles serve for food
capture, its ingestion, serve for adhesion, and for defence.
 Examples: Corals, Hydras, Aurelia (jelly fish), Sea anemone, Chrysaora etc

Figure: Chrysaora (Sea nettle)

3. Ctenophora
 Ctenophora are commonly known as sea walnuts or comb jellies.
 They exclusively marine, radially symmetrical, diploblastic.
 Digestion is both extracellular and intracellular.
 Sexes are not separate and reproduction takes place only by sexual means.
 Fertilisation is external [fertilization occurs outside the body] with indirect
development *zygote → larvae → animal+.
 They are free-living marine organisms.
 They are acoelomates, i.e., do not have a body cavity.
 They have a tissue level of body organisation.

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  Most ctenophores have colloblasts to capture prey. Colloblasts are like
cnidoblasts in cnidarians. They are present on tentacles and are discharged
to capture prey.
 Colloblasts consist of collocytes, which have a coiled spiral filament.
Colloblast has adhesive, which sticks to the prey, unlike cnidoblasts that
have stinging capsules.
 Sensory cells are present in the outer epidermis. They secrete mucus and
provide protection.
 Interstitial cells are also present in the outer epidermis. They can
transform into other cell types.
 The nerve net is present in the inner epidermis. It also contains
myoepithelial cells, which work like muscles.
 Examples: Pleurobrachia, Ctenoplanaetc.

Figure: Pleurobrachia (Ctenophora)

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4. Platyhelminthes
 Complex and have differentiated body structure.
 Tissues are differentiated from three layers of cells and are triploblastic.
 Do not have a true internal cavity or coelom.
 Have bilateral symmetry.They are triploblastic, acoelomate, and
bilaterally symmetrical.
 They may be free-living or parasites.
 The body has a soft covering with or without cilia.
 Their body is dorsoventrally flattened without any segments and
appears like a leaf.
 They are devoid of the anus and circulatory system but have a mouth.
 They respire by simple diffusion through the body surface.
 They have an organ level of organization.
 They do not have a digestive tract.
 The space between the body wall and organs is filled with connective
tissue parenchyma which helps in transporting the food material.
 They are hermaphrodites, i.e., both male and female organs are present
in the same body.
 Either free-living (Planaria) or parasitic (liver flukes).
 Examples- -Tapeworm, Liver fluke etc.

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5. Aschelminths (Nematoda) Annelida
 Nematodes have a cylindrical body.
 Bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
 Have pseudocoelom, a false body cavity.
 Parasitic and causes diseases such as elephantiasis, ascariasis.
 They have a long and segmented body.
 Annelids are bilaterally symmetrical.
 They exhibit organ system grade of organisation, showing organ
differentiation.
 The body is covered with a thin cuticle.
 They are coelomate. A body cavity or coelom is present.
 Annelids live in moist environments, moist soil, freshwater and marine
water.
 They have parapodia and chitinous setae, used for locomotion.
 Their body appears red due to the presence of haemoglobin.
 Excretory and nervous systems are present.
 The digestive system is complete and developed.
 Respiration happens through the general body surface.
 These invertebrates have a true closed circulatory system.
 Sexes may be separate or united, wherein they are called hermaphrodites.
 Fertilization can be internal or external.
 Examples of phylum Nematoda include – Ascaris, Wuchereria etc.

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6. Arthropoda
 They are bilaterally symmetrical.
 Have jointed appendages, exoskeleton and a segmented body.
 Have well-differentiated organ and organ system.
 Have an open circulatory system, but do not have differentiated blood
vessels.The body is triploblastic, segmented, and bilaterally symmetrical.
 They exhibit organ system level of organization.
 The body is divided into head, thorax, and abdomen.
 Their body has jointed appendages which help in locomotion.
 The coelomic cavity is filled with blood.
 They have an open circulatory system.
 The head bears a pair of compound eyes.
 The exoskeleton is made of chitin.
 The terrestrial Arthropods excrete through Malpighian tubules while the
aquatic ones excrete through green glands or coaxal glands.
 They are unisexual and fertilization is either external or internal.
 They have a well-developed digestive system.
 They respire through the general body surface or trachea.
 They contain sensory organs like hairs, antennae, simple and compound
eyes, auditory organs, and statocysts.
 Examples of phylum Arthropoda include – Spiders, butterflies.

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7. Mollusca
 They exhibit organ-system level of organization.
 They areterrestrial or aquatic, bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic,
coelomate animals.
 They have an open circulatory system and kidney-like organs for excretion.
 Body is covered by a calcareous shell and is unsegmented with a distinct
head, muscular foot and visceral hump. A soft and spongy layer of skin
forms a mantle over the visceral hump. They are mostly found in marine
and freshwater. Very few are terrestrial and found in moist soil.
 They exhibit organ system level of organization.
 Their body has a cavity.
 The body is divided into head, visceral mass, muscular foot and mantle.
 The head comprises of tentacles and compound eyes.
 The body is covered by a calcareous shell.
 The muscular foot helps in locomotion.
 They have a well-developed digestive system; the radula is the rasping
organ for feeding.
 They respire through the general body surface, gills or pulmonary sac.
 The blood circulates through the open circulatory system
 Examples: Octopus, snails etc.

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8. Echinodermata
 These animals have an endoskeleton [calcium carbonate structures].
 They are exclusively free-living marine animals with organ-system level of
organisation.
 They are triploblastic with a coelomic cavity [coelomate animals]. The
adult echinoderms are radially symmetrical but larvae are bilaterally
symmetrical.
 Water-driven tube system [water vascular system] are used for
locomotion, capture and transport of food and respiration.
 Digestive system is complete. An excretory system is absent.
 Sexes are separate. Reproduction is sexual. Fertilisation is usually
external.They have a star-like appearance and are spherical or elongated.
 They are exclusively marine animals.
 The organisms are spiny-skinned.
 They exhibit organ system level of organization. Most members have a
circulatory system as well as a digestive system.
 They are triploblastic and have a coelomic cavity.
 The skeleton is made up of calcium carbonate.
 They have an open circulatory system.
 They respire through gills or cloacal respiratory tree.
 They have a simple radial nervous system and the excretory system are
absent.
 The body is unsegmented with no distinct head. The mouth is present on
the ventral side while the anus is on the dorsal side.
 The tube feet aids in locomotion.
 They reproduce sexually through gametic fusion and asexually through
regeneration. Fertilization is external.
 Examples:Star fish, Sea urchin, Sea lily, Sea cucumber.

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9. Hemicordata
 This phylum consists of a small group of worm-like marine
animals with organ-system level of organisation.
 They are cylindrical [bilaterally symmetrical], triploblastic, coelomate
animals.
 Respiration takes place through gills.
 Excretory organ is present.
 Sexes are separate. Fertilisation is external. Development is indirect.They
are exclusively marine, solitary or colonial, mostly tubicolous.
 Their body is soft, fragile, vermiform, unsegmented, bilaterally
symmetrical, and triploblastic.
 The body is divisible into proboscis, collar, and trunk.
 Body wall with a single-layered epidermis with mucous glands. No dermis.
 Coelom enterocoeles, divisible into protocoel, mesocoel and metacoel.
 Buccal diverticulum, earlier considered as the notochord, present in the
proboscis.
 The alimentary canal is a straight, complete, or U-shaped tube.
 Dorso-lateral pharyngeal gill-slits, when present, one to several pairs.
Ciliary filter feeders.
 Simple, open, and well-developed circulatory system, including a dorsal
heart and 2 longitudinal vessels, one dorsal and one ventral.
 Excretion by a single glomerulus situated in the proboscis.
 Primitive type nervous system consisting mainly of subepidermal nerve
plexus. Dorsal collar nerve cord hollow.
 Reproduction is mainly sexual. Sexes usually separate. Gonads one to
several pairs.
 External fertilization in seawater.
 Development direct or indirect with a free-swimming tornaria larva.
 Examples: Balanoglossus,Saccoglossus etc.

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10. Chordata
 Theyare bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomate with organ-
system level of organisation and circulatory system is closed type.
 They possess a notochord and a nerve cord.

Phylum Chordata can be divided into the following sub-phyla:

 Urochordata
 Cephalochordata
 Vertebrata

Urochordata

 It is also known as Tunicate because the body of an adult is enclosed within

a tunic made up of cellulose-like substance known as tunicin.
 Notochord can be seen only in the larval stage and disappears in adults.
 The nerve cord present in larva is replaced by a dorsal ganglion in adults.
Example: Ascidia, Salpa, Doliolum etc.

Cephalochordata

 Motile adult and larval stage.

 Notochord and tail are present throughout life.
 Numerous well-developed pharyngeal gill slits are present.
 Example: Branchiostoma, Epigonichthys etc.

Vertebrata
The characteristic features of vertebrates include:

 These are advanced chordates and have cranium around the brain.
 The notochord is replaced by a vertebral column in adults. This is why it is
said that ‘all vertebrates are chordates but all chordates are not
vertebrates.
 They consist of three types of muscles-striped, unstriped and cardiac.
 They have a well-developed coelom.

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  The heart is three or four-chambered.
 They have well-developed respiratory and excretory systems.
 Endocrine glands are present in all.
 They are unisexual and reproduce sexually, hagfish being an exception.
Example:Humans.

Classification of Vertebrates:
Vertebrates are classified into 7 classes based on their anatomical and
physiological features. They are:

1. Mammals (Class Mammalia)

This class of organisms has the ability to regulate their body temperature
irrespective of the surrounding ambient temperature. Therefore,
mammals are called endothermic animals and it includes humans and
platypuses.
2. Birds (Class Aves)
From a biological perspective, birds are dinosaurs (more aptly called avian
dinosaurs). This class of organisms ischaracterized by feathers, toothless
beaks and a high metabolic rate. Furthermore, members of class Aves lay
hard-shelled eggs.

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3. Reptiles (Class Reptilia)
Reptiles include tetrapod such as snakes, crocodiles, tuataras and turtles.
The characteristic feature of reptiles is that they are ectothermic in nature.
Snakes are still considered tetrapod though they have no visible limbs. This
is due to the fact that snakes evolved from ancestors that had limbs.
4. Amphibians (Class Amphibia)
Amphibians include ectothermic tetrapod such as frogs toads and
salamanders. The distinguishing feature that separates amphibians from
reptiles is their breeding behavior.

5. Bony fishes (Class Osteichthyes)

This class of fishes is characterized by their skeleton which is composed

primarily of bone rather than cartilage (such as sharks). Class Osteichthyes
is also the largest class of vertebrates today.
6. Cartilaginous fishes (Class Chondrichthyes)
As the name suggests, this class is characterized by the cartilaginous
skeleton. Members include sharks, rays, skates and sawfish. Some sharks
such as the massive Greenland shark can live for several centuries. A
specimen that was tagged in 2016 was found to be at least 273 years old.
7. Jawless fishes (Class Agnetha)
These are very primitive fishes that have not changed much from fossil
records for millions of years. They have a jawless, circular mouth with rows
of small sharp which aid in holding and feeding on other fishes. Most
members of this class are parasites and scavengers.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
CHAPTER – 2
ANIMAL TISSUE

1. Epithelial tissue is made up of layers of tightly packed cells that line the surfaces
of the body for protection, secretion, and absorption.

Examples of epithelial tissue include the skin, the lining of the mouth and
nose, and the lining of the digestive system.

The tissue that covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities
within the body is called epithelial tissue or epithelium. The epithelia are
derived from all three germ layers. The epidermis derived from ectoderm
constitutes the outer portion of the skin. The inner surface of the digestive
tract is lined by an epithelium derived from endoderm. The inner surfaces of
the body cavities are lined by epithelia derived from mesoderm.

Structure:

i. The epithelial tissues consist of variously shaped cells.

ii. The epithelial cells are closely arranged forming a single layer or multiple
layers.

iii. The intercellular spaces between the cells are practically absent.

iv. The epithelial cells are held together by very little amount of intercellular
matrix containing a carbohydrate derivative called hyaluronic acid.

v. The epithelial cells always rest on a thin non-cellular basement membrane

consisting of glycoproteins and collagen fibres. The basement membrane is
formed of two layers – outer thinner basal lamina secreted by the epithelial
cells, and inner thicker fibrous reticular lamina secreted by the underlying
connective tissue.

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 vi. The epithelial tissues are non-vascular. They get nutrition from the blood
capillaries present in the underlying connective tissue and also transfer the
waste matter to the blood.

vii. Although the blood vessels are absent in the epithelial tissues, the nerve
ending may penetrate the epithelium.

viii. The simple epithelia are one cell layer thick. They rest on the basement
membrane. They cover moist surface where there is minimum wear and tear.
They never occur in the surface which is exposed to mechanical or chemical
abrasions because they cannot protect the underlying tissues. Simple epithelia
occur mainly on secretory and absorptive surfaces.

Simple epithelium is further classified into five types based on the form and
structure of the cells into squamous, cuboidal, columnar, ciliated, glandular
and pseudostratified types. The compound epithelia are into two types:
stratified and transitional.

2. Muscle tissue is made up of cells contain contractile filaments that move past
each other and change the size of the cell.

There are three types of muscle tissue: smooth muscle which is found in the inner
linings of organs; skeletal muscle, which is attached to bone and moves the body;
and cardiac muscle which is found only in the heart.

Muscle tissue is composed of long cells called muscle fibers (myocytes) that are
capable of contracting, usually when stimulated by nerve signals. The muscle
tissue is mesodermal in origin. In mammals they make up about 40 % of the body
weight.

General Functions:

The muscle tissues perform the following functions:

i. The muscles support the bones and other structures of the body. They give
shape and beauty to the body.

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ii. The muscle tissue enables the body parts like hands, arms, legs, etc., to move
and helps the organism in locomotion.

iii. The muscle tissues are responsible for the food to pass through the alimentary
canal, for the blood and lymph to flow through the vessels, for the respiratory
gases to flow through the respiratory tracts, for the heart, to pump the blood and
for the propulsion of secretions and waste products through the ducts.

iv. The muscle tissues also help in ingestion, egestion, urination, mating, egg-
laying, parturition, feeding the young ones, maintenance of equilibrium and in
gathering information about the external environment by moving the sense
organs like eyes, nose and pinnae.

v. The muscles also play an important role in gesture and facial expression.

Note:

 There are 639 muscles in the human body.

 The largest muscle of the human body is Gluteus Maximus (Muscle of the
hip).
 The smallest muscle of the human body is Stapedius.

3. Nervous tissue is made up of the nerve cells (neurons) that together form the
nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord.

Nervous tissue is a specialized tissue with the property of excitability and

conductivity i.e., the cells of this tissue are specialized for receiving the stimuli and
to react to stimuli by conducting impulses to various organs in the body which
bring about responses to the stimuli. The nervous tissue is of ectodermal origin.

Structure:

The nervous tissue is formed of four types of cells:

(a) Neurons (Nerve Cells):

A neuron is a structural and functional unit of nervous system.

(b) Neuroglia (Glial Cells):

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The neuroglial cells are usually referred to as glial cells or glia. They are quite
different from nerve cells. The major difference is that glia cells do not participate
directly in synaptic transmission, although their supportive functions help in
synaptic contacts and to maintain the signalling abilities of neurons. Glia is more
numerous than nerve cells in the brain, outnumbering them by a ratio of
approximately 2:1.

(c) Ependymal Cells:

Ependymal cells are the cells which line the ventricles of the brain and the central
canal of spinal cord. They are typically cuboidal and often have cilia which are best
seen in younger brains. They secrete cerebrospinal fluid.

(d) Neurosecretory Cells:

Neurosecretory cells are the special type of nerve cells found in the hypothalamus
of the brain. They release chemical substances which influences the activities of
another structure. For example, the neuro hormones secreted by the
hypothalamus influences the anterior lobe of pituitary gland and stimulate it to
secrete hormones like TSH, STH, FSH, LH, ACTH, etc. The neuro secretory cells
release the chemicals from their axon endings directly into the blood stream
instead of into the synaptic cleft.

4. Connective tissue is made up of many different types of cells that are all
involved in structure and support of the body. Bone, blood, fat, and cartilage are
all connective tissues.

Connective tissue can be densely packed together, as bone cells are, or loosely
packed, as adipose tissue (fat cells) are.

The tissue that either supports other tissues or joins one type of tissue to the
other, muscle to bone or bone to bone is called a connective tissue. It includes
areolar tissue, adipose tissue, reticular tissue, cartilage, bone, tendons, ligaments,
blood and lymph. The connective tissue is mesodermal in origin.

Location:

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Connective tissue is found throughout the body. It occurs in between different
tissues and organs. It also forms sheaths around various organs of the body.

Structure:

The connective tissue comprises of three basic components, viz., matrix, cells and
fibres.

The connective tissue is characterized by the presence of a large amount of non-

living intercellular or extra cellular, amorphous, transparent ground substance
called matrix. The matrix may be fluid (E.g. – blood) or jelly-like (E.g. – cartilage) or
solid (E.g. – bone).

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
CHAPTER – 3
HUMAN BLOOD

Blood -

 Blood is a fluid connective tissue that consists of plasma, blood cells and
platelets.
 It circulates throughout our body delivering oxygen and nutrients to
various cells and tissues.
 It makes up 8% of our body weight. An average adult possesses around 5-6
litres of blood.
 Blood is composed of the blood cells which accounts for 45% of the blood
tissue by volume, with the remaining 55% of the volume composed of
plasma, the liquid portion of the blood.

There are three types of blood cells. They are:

1. Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)

2. White blood cells (Leukocytes)
3. Platelets (Thrombocytes)

1. Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)

 Most abundant cells in the blood

 Account for approximately 40-45% of the blood.
 Nucleus Absent.
 Production of RBCs is controlled by erythropoietin.
 RBC contains haemoglobin (33%).
 The iron found in haemoglobin gives the blood its red colour.
 RBCs cannot repair themselves.
 Life span of 120 days. They are eliminated via the circulatory system once
their life cycle is over.
 The lifespan of RBCs is shortened when a person suffers from chronic
diseases.

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Functions
1. Transport oxygen from the lungs to the cells of the body.
2. Pick up carbon dioxide from other tissues and unload it in the lungs.

2. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)[Account for only about 1% of the blood].

 They are the cells that make up the majority of the immune system.
 It is the part of the body that protects itself against foreign substances and
various types of infections.
 They are made in the bone marrow from multi-potent cells called
hematopoietic stem cells.
 They exist in all parts of the body, including the connective tissue, lymph
system, and the bloodstream.
 Leukopenia is a low white blood cell count that can be caused by damage
to the bone marrow from things like medications, radiation, or
chemotherapy.
 Leucocytosis is a high white blood cell count that can be caused by a
number of conditions, including various types of infections, inflammatory
disease in the body.
 There are five main types of WBCs.: Neutrophils (granulocytes),
Eosinophils (granulocytes), Basophils (granulocytes), Lymphocytes (non-
granulocytes) and Monocytes (non-granulocytes).

WBC-white blood cells are also called leukocytes or leucocytes. They are cells of
the immune system, which is mainly responsible for:

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  Protecting and fighting against invading pathogens.
 Stimulates the production of the progesterone hormone
 Play a vital role in the human reproductive system by producing a network
of blood vessels within the ovary.

A. Neutrophils (granulocytes)
 Most common type of white blood cell.
 Accounts for 62% of Leukocytes
 Multi-lobed Nucleus present.
 Contain very fine cytoplasmic granules.
 Medium-sized white blood cells.
 Also called polymorphonuclear (PMN) because they have a variety of
nuclear shapes.
 Life span of 6 hours to few days.

Functions
1. Kills bacteria through the process of phagocytosis.
2. They also release a burst of super oxides that have the ability to kill many
bacteria at the same time.

B. Eosinophils (granulocytes)
 Have large granules.
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  Nucleus is divided into two lobes (bi-lobed nucleus).
 Accounts for 2.3%.
 Life span of 8–12 days.

Functions
1. Kills parasites and have a role in allergic reactions.
2. Releases toxins from their granules to kill pathogens.

C. Basophils (granulocytes)
 Colourful when stained and looked at under the microscope
 They have a pale nucleus that is usually hidden by granules.
 Bi-lobed or Tri-lobed nucleus present.
 Accounts for 0.4%
 Life span of few hours to few days.

Functions
1. Functions in allergic reactions.
2. Secrete anticoagulants and antibodies that have function against
hypersensitivity reactions in the bloodstream.
3. Basophils contain histamine, which dilates the vessels to bring more
immune cells to the area of injury.
4. Secrete heparin which is an anticoagulant that promotes mobility of other
WBCs by preventing clotting.

D. Lymphocytes (Agranulocytes)
 Small rounded cells.
 Nucleus Present.
 Accounts for 30%.
 Life span of years for memory cells and weeks for all else.

Functions
1. T lymphocytes (T cells) are responsible for cell-mediated immunity.
2. B lymphocytes are responsible for humoral immunity or antibody
production.
3. Function in destroying cancer cells.
4. They present antigens to activate other cells of the immune system.

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E. Monocytes (Agranulocytes)
 Largest of the types of white blood cells
 Kidney shaped nucleus present.
 Accounts for 5.3%
 Life span of few hours to few days.
Functions
1. Destroy old, damaged and dead cells in the body.

3. Platelets (Thrombocytes)
 Nucleus Absent.
 Do not reproduce.
 Small fragments of bone marrow cells.
 150,000–400,000 platelets in each microliter of human blood.

Functions
1. Platelets are the parts of cells that the body uses for clotting.
2. They secrete chemicals that attract neutrophils and monocytes to sites of
inflammation.
3. Dissolve blood clots when they are no longer needed.
4. Digest and destroy bacteria.
.
Functions of the Blood
1. Blood Provides the Body's Cells with Oxygen and Removes Carbon Dioxide
2. 2.Blood Transports Nutrients and Hormones
3. 3.Blood Regulates Body Temperature
4. 4.Blood Brings Waste Products to the Kidneys and Liver

Clotting of Blood: Three important reactions during clotting of blood.

1. Thromboplastin + Prothrombin + Calcium = Thrombin.

2. Thrombin + Fibrinogen = Fibrin.
3. Fibrin + Blood Corpuscles = Clot.

The formation of Prothrombin and Fibrinogen of the blood plasma takes place
with the help of vitamin K. Vitamin K is helpful in making clots of blood. Normally
clotting takes the time from 2 to 5 minutes.

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The compulsory protein in making clots is blood is Fibrinogen.

Composition of Human Blood:

Composition of Blood: Plasma, RBCs, WBCs and platelets

Blood Group System: There are 4 main blood groups (types of blood) – A, B, AB and
O. Your blood group is determined by the genes you inherit from your parents.
Each group can be either RhD positive or RhD negative, which means in total there
are 8 blood groups.

1. ABO blood Group system: The basis of ABO grouping is of two antigens- Antigen
A and Antigen B. The ABO grouping system is classified into four types based on
the presence or absence of antigens on the red blood cells surface and plasma
antibodies.

 Group A – contains antigen A and antibody B.

 Group B –contains antigen B and antibody A.

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  Group AB –contains both A and B antigen and no antibodies (neither A nor
B).
 Group O – contains neither A nor B antigen and both antibodies A and B.

The ABO group system is important during blood donation or blood transfusion as
mismatching of blood group can lead to clumping of red blood cells with various
disorders. It is important for the blood cells to match while transfusing i.e., donor-
recipient compatibility is necessary. For example, a person of blood group A can
receive blood either from group A or O as there are no antibodies for A and O in
blood group A.
Individuals of blood group O are called as universal donors, whereas individuals of
blood group AB are universal recipients.

2. Rh Blood Group System

In addition to the ABO blood grouping system, the other prominent one is the Rh
blood group system. About two-thirds of the population contains the third antigen
on the surface of their red blood cells known as Rh factor or Rh antigen; this
decides whether the blood group is positive or negative. If the Rh factor is
present, an individual is rhesus positive (Rh+ve); if an Rh factor is absent
individual is rhesus-negative (Rh-ve) as they produce Rh antibodies. Therefore,
compatibility between donor and individual is crucial in this case as well.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

CHAPTER – 4

LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT

 Movement is when the living organism moves a body part or parts to bring
without a change in the position of the organisms.
 Locomotion is when the movement of a part of the body leads to change in
the position and location of the organism.
 Both of these are brought about by the joint efforts of the skeletal and
muscular systems. Movement is seen in both vertebrates and invertebrates.
Types of Movements

When we talk about locomotion and movement, there are three types of
movements:
 Amoeboid movement is brought about by pseudopodia which are
appendages which move with movement of protoplasm within a cell.
 Ciliary movement is brought about by appendages called as cilia which
hair-like extensions of the epithelium. Both these kinds of movements are
seen with cells of the lymphatic system.
 Muscular movement is a more complex movement which is brought about
by the musculoskeletal system. This type of movement is seen in the
higher vertebrates.
Note: To understand more about the movements brought about by the
musculoskeletal system, we need to understand the types of muscles and joints.

Joints

They form an integral portion of the locomotive apparatus. A joint is a name given
to two or more bones that articulate with each other to bring about a movement.
Depending on the type of movement they allow, joints can be of three types:
Fixed, slightly moveable and moveable joints.

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Muscles

The muscular system along with the skeletal system forms the skeleton muscular
system that is responsible for the movement and locomotion in vertebrates. The
unit of the muscular system is called a muscle. Muscles are made up
of proteins and fibres and form the major component of the body weight.

Types of Muscles

Muscles found in higher vertebrates are of three types:

 Skeletal muscles

 Smooth muscles

 Cardiac muscles

Skeletal muscles or Striated Muscles

These muscles are voluntary in nature which means their movement is under the
control of our will. They are mainly responsible for bringing about the movement
of posture and location of the organism. They are called striated muscles due to
the presence of striations present on them when seen under the microscope.

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Unstriated or Smooth Muscles

These muscles are involuntary in nature which means their movement is not
under the control of our will. When seen under the microscope, they do not have
any striations on them. These muscles are found in the digestive tract
and reproductive system.

Cardiac Muscles

These muscles are specialized muscles that are found only in the heart. They are
involuntary muscles which have striations on them. They have the property to
contract and relax in a rhythmic manner.

Difference between Locomotion and Movement:

Locomotion Movement

Moving away from the original Movement can happen with or

position of an organism is without moving away from an
locomotion. organism’s original position.

It can either be voluntary or

It is always voluntary.
involuntary.

Locomotion takes place at the A movement takes place at the

organism level. biological level.

Locomotion doesn’t necessarily

Movement requires energy.
require energy

List of Locomotory Organs of Organisms and Animals:

Organism Locomotory Organs

Amoeba Pseudopodia
Hydra Tentacles
Euglena Flagella

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Bacteria Flagella
Paramaecium Cilia
Starfish Tube feet
Snail Muscular feet
Prawn Appendages
Jelly fish Body tube
Earthworm Setae
Fish Myotome muscle and fins
Cockroach Wings and legs
Toad Legs
Bird Legs and wings
Human Leg and hands

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION
CHAPTER-5
SYSTEM OF HUMAN BODY

The main systems of the human body are:

1. Digestive System
2. Circulatory System
3. Excretory System
4. Nervous System
5. Skeletal System
6. Endocrine System
7. Respiratory System

1. Human Digestive System

In Human digestive system, there are many parts that work together. The food that
you eat has bio macro molecules, which are nothing but the carbohydrates (such as
sugars), proteins, lipids (such as fats), and nucleic acids. The process of converting
complex food substances (molecules) into simpler forms to facilitate absorption is
called Digestion.

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Digestive System Process

From the Mouth to the Large Intestine and Anus. The Human digestive system
process can be divided into 6 stages, namely:
Ingestion Motility Secretion Digestion Absorption Excretion

The whole process starts in the oral cavity, where the saliva from the salivary glands
mixes with the food and starts to begin the breakdown of food.

From the mouth, the food passes to the hollow tube-like organ the oesophagus.
From the oesophagus, food then travels to the stomach, where it breaks down
further with the help of the acids and powerful enzymes secreted by the stomach.

This semi-digested food then travels down to the small intestine, where secretions
from the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas further act on the food particles. Most of
the digestion takes place here in the small intestine, where absorption also occurs.
Once most of the absorption of water and digested nutrients is completed in the
small intestine, the small intestine is divided into three parts called the duodenum,
jejunum, and ileum.

The remaining waste products move to the large intestine. The large intestine
divides into appendix, caecum, colon, and rectum. The faecal matter from the large
intestine comes out through the anus.

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Parts of Digestive System

Mouth
The anterior opening of the alimentary canal is the mouth. It leads to an oral cavity,
where teeth tongue and salivary glands are present. Here, ingestion, mastication,
and swallowing of food occur. In humans, there are a total of 32 permanent teeth.
There are four different types of teeth, namely, incisors, canines, premolars, and
molars. These help in the chewing of food.

Salivary Glands
They are exocrine glands that produce saliva in the oral cavity. They secrete an
enzyme called amylase, which helps in the breakdown of starch into maltose. There
are three types of salivary glands, namely:
 Parotid gland
 Submandibular gland
 Sublingual gland

Stomach

 The foods lie approximately for four hours in stomach.

 After reaching the food in stomach gastric glands secretes the gastric juice.
This is a light-yellow acidic liquid.
 HCL acid secreted from the oxyntic cells of the stomach kills all the
bacteria coming with food and accelerates the reaction of enzymes. HCL
acid makes the food acidic by which amylase reaction of the saliva end.
 The enzymes in the gastric juice of stomach are- Pepsin and Renin.
 Pepsin breaks down the protein into peptones.
 Renin breaks down the Caseinogen into Casein found in milk.

Duodenum
As soon as the food reaches the duodenum bile juice from liver combines with it.
Bile juice is an alkaline and it turns the acidic medium of food into alkaline.

Here, Pancreatic juice from pancreas combines with food. It contains three types
of enzymes:

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  Trypsin- It converts the protein and peptone into polypeptides and amino
acid.
 Amylase- It converts the starch into soluble sugar.
 Lipase- It converts the emulsified fats into glycerol and fatty acids.

Small Intestine
The small intestine is a long tube, which loosely coils in the abdomen area. Here,
enzymes from the pancreas and liver further break down the food. Three segments
make up the small intestines, which are the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The
contractions of the small intestine help in the movement of food, along with its
breakdown, after mixing with the digestive secretions. The jejunum and ileum areas
of the small intestine are responsible for the absorption of food into the blood,
though their villi. From the wall of small intestine, intestinal juices secrete. The
following enzymes contain:

(a) Erepsin- It converts the remaining protein and peptone into amino acids.
(b) Maltase-It converts the maltose into glucose.
(c) Sucrase- It converts the sucrose into glucose and fructose.
(d) Lactase- It converts the lactose into glucose and galactose.
(e) Lipase- It converts the emulsified fats into Glycerol and Fatty acids.

Liver

 This the largest gland of the human body. Its weight is approximately 1.5-2
kg.
 Bile is Secreted through liver only. This bile accelerates the reaction of
enzymes present in the intestine.
 Liver converts excess of amino acid into ammonia by deamination. These
ammonias are further converted into urea by ornithine cycle. Urea comes
out from body through kidney.
 Liver converts some quantity of protein into glucose during deficiency of
Carbohydrate.
 In Carbohydrates metabolism liver converts the excess of glucose found in
blood into glycogen and stores it into hepatic Cell as reserve nutrients. If
the necessity of glucose arises the liver convert reserve glycogen into
glucose. Thus, it regulates the quantity of glucose in the blood.

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  In case of decrease of fat in food, liver converts some of the parts of the
carbohydrates into fat.
 The production of fibrinogen protein takes place by liver which helps in
clotting of blood.
 The production of Heparin protein takes place in liver which prohibit the
clotting of blood inside the body.
 The dead RBC is destroyed by the liver only.
 The liver reserves some quantity of iron, copper and vitamin.
 It helps in regulating the body temperature.
 Liver is an important clue in investigating a person’s death that has been
due to poison in food.

Gall Bladder

 Gall Bladder is a pear-shaped sac, in which the bile coming out of liver is
stored.
 Bile comes into the duodenum from gall bladder through the bile duct.
 Secretion of bile into the duodenum takes place by reflex action.
 Bile is a yellowish-green coloured alkaline liquid. Its PH value is 7.7.
 The quantity of water is 85% and the quantity of bile pigment is 12%.

Functions:

 It makes the medium of food alkaline so that pancreatic juice can worked.
 It kills the harmful bacteria coming with food.
 It emulsifies the fats.
 It accelerates the bowel movement of intestine by which digestive juices in
the food mix well.
 It is helpful in the absorption of Vitamin K and other vitamins in fats.

Note:

In case the obstruction in bile duct, liver cells stop taking bilirubin from blood. As a
result, bilirubin spreads throughout the body. This is called jaundice.

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Pancreas

This is the second largest gland of the human body. It acts as simultaneously
endocrine and exocrine type of gland.

Pancreatic juice secretes out of it in which 9.8% water and the remaining parts
contain salt and enzymes. It is alkaline liquid, whose PH value is 7.5-8.3. it contains
the enzymes which can digest all the three types of food materials (like
carbohydrates, fats and protein), therefore it is called complete digestive juice.

Islets of Langerhans

 This is a part of the Pancreas.

 It was discovered by the medical scientist Langerhans.
 From its 𝛃 cell- insulin, from 𝛂 cell- glucagon and from 𝛅 cell –
somatostatin hormones are secreted.

Insulin

 It is secreted by 𝛃-cell of islets of Langerhans.

 It controls the process of making glycogen from glucose.
 Diabetes is caused due to the deficiency of insulin.
 Excessive flow of insulin causes Hyperglycaemia in which one loses the
reproducing capacity and vision deterioration.

Glucagon

 It is secreted by 𝛂-cell of Islets of Langerhans.

 It re-converts the glycogen into glucose.

Somatostatin

 It is secreted by 𝛅-cell of islets of Langerhans.

 This is a polypeptide hormone which increases the duration of assimilation
of food.
 Malfunctioning of Pancreas cause diabetes.

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Large Intestine
The large intestine is a long muscular tube that has different parts, which are
caecum, colon, and rectum. The waste that is left over after digestion of food,
reaches the rectum through the peristaltic movements of the colon.

Digestive System Controls

Hormones and nerves control the human digestive system. The walls of the
alimentary canal have many sensors which regulate the digestive functions. Even
hormones are involved in the digestion process. The main digestive hormone, gastrin
is secreted in response to the presence of food. Gastrin again stimulates the gastric
acid secretion. All these regulate the digestion process.

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2. Human Circulatory System:
The human circulatory system consists of a network of arteries, veins, and
capillaries, with the heart pumping blood through it. Its primary role is to provide
essential nutrients, minerals, and hormones to various parts of the body.
Alternatively, the circulatory system is also responsible for collecting metabolic
waste and toxins from the cells and tissues to be purified or expelled from the
body.

Human Circulatory System Diagram -

Circulatory system diagram highlighting the various pathways of blood (Blue=De-

oxygenated blood & Red=Oxygenated blood)
Features of Circulatory System -
The crucial features of the human circulatory system are as follows:
3. The human circulatory system consists of blood, heart, blood vessels, and
lymph.
4. The human circulatory system circulates blood through two loops (double
circulation) – One for oxygenated blood, another for deoxygenated blood.
5. The human heart consists of four chambers – two ventricles and two auricles.
6. The human circulatory system possesses a body-wide network of blood
vessels. These comprise arteries, veins, and capillaries.

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7. The primary function of blood vessels is to transport oxygenated blood and
nutrients to all parts of the body. It is also tasked with collecting metabolic
wastes to be expelled from the body.

Organs of Circulatory System -

The human circulatory system comprises 4 main organs that have specific roles
and functions:
 Heart
 Blood (Blood is considered as a tissue and not an organ)
 Blood Vessels
 Lymphatic system

Heart
The heart is a muscular organ located the right between the lungs. It is positioned
slightly towards the left in the thoracic region and is enveloped by the
pericardium. Its weight is approximately 300 grams. The human heart is separated
into four chambers; namely, two upper chambers called atria and two lower
chambers called ventricles.

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Heart, a major part of the human circulatory system
 Between right auricle and the right ventricle there is a tricuspid valve.
 Between left auricle and the left ventricle there is a bicuspid valve.
Course of Circulation
Mammals have double circulation. It means blood have to cross two times from
heart before circulating throughout the body.
The way blood flows in the human body is unique. The main advantage of double
circulation is that every tissue in the body has a steady supply of oxygenated
blood, and it does not get mixed with the deoxygenated blood.

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Circulation of blood in humans – Double circulation
The human heart is divided into four chambers:

1. Left Atria
2. Right Atria
3. Left Ventricles
4. Right Ventricles

Further, the heart is connected to the lungs through the pulmonary artery and
vein. In double circulation, there are two pathways in which the blood flows. They
are:

Systemic circulation
Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricles to the tissue
capillaries.

 The oxygen-rich blood is transferred to the aorta for circulating into

various parts of the body.
 Later, the veins and venules collect the deoxygenated blood – which is rich
in carbon dioxide from various parts of the body.
 The deoxygenated blood is pumped back into the superior vena cava and
then to the right atrium.
 Once, after receiving the deoxygenated blood, the right atrium carries
blood to the right ventricle for pulmonary circulation.
Pulmonary circulation
In the pulmonary circulation, the blood circulation starts from the right atrium to
the left atrium. In this pathway:

 The pulmonary artery collects the blood from the right ventricle and
carries to lungs for oxygenation.
 Once, after the purification process, the oxygenated blood is pumped back
to the left atrium through the pulmonary vein which is carried to the left
ventricles.

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  The left ventricles pump the oxygenated blood to the aorta for systemic
circulation.

Cardiac Cycle
Rhythmic systole (Contraction) and diastole (Relaxation) of auricle and ventricle
constitutes a cardiac cycle.
Heart Beat
Heart keeps beating rhythmically throughout the life. There is a node from which
originate contraction of heart.
1. SA node(Sino-auricular node)
It is a specialised area of cardiac muscle fibre in right auricle. SA node is also
known as pacemaker as it generates each wave of cardiac impulse.
2. AV node (Auriculo-ventricular node)
AV node is present close to the interatrial septum near the right AV aperture.
Wave of Contraction is picked up by AV node which spread through.
Artificial Pacemaker
When SA node becomes defective or damaged, the cardiac impulses do not
generate. This can be cured by surgical grafting of an artificial pacemaker an
electric device in the chest of the patient. It stimulates the heart electrically at
regular intervals.
 Systole and Diastole of the heart are collectively called heartbeat.
 In normal condition the heart of the human beats 72 times and in a single
beat it pumps approximately 70 ml blood.
 Blood pressure of a normal human is 120/80. (Systolic-120 and Diastolic-
80)
 Blood pressure is measured by Sphygmomanometer.
 Thyroxin and Adrenaline are the Hormones which independently control
the heartbeat.
 The CO2 present in the blood accelerates the heart beat by reducing the
Ph.

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Blood
Blood is the body’s fluid connective tissue, and it forms a vital part of the human
circulatory system. Its main function is to circulate nutrients, hormones, minerals
and other essential components to different parts of the body. Blood flows
through a specified set of pathways called blood vessels. The organ which is
involved in pumping blood to different body parts is the heart. Blood cells, blood
plasma, proteins, and other mineral components (such as sodium, potassium and
calcium) constitute human blood.
Blood Vessels
Blood vessels are a network of pathways through which blood travels throughout
the body. Arteries and veins are the two primary types of blood vessels in the
circulatory system of the body.
Arteries: Arteries are blood vessels that transport oxygenated blood from the
heart to various parts of the body. The only exception to this is the pulmonary
arteries, which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
Veins: Veins are blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart
from various parts of the body. However, pulmonary veins which carries
oxygenated blood in the entire body.

Lymphatic System
The human circulatory system consists of another body fluid called lymph. It is
produced by the lymphatic system which comprises a network of interconnected
organs, nodes and ducts.
Lymph is a colourless fluid consisting of salts, proteins, water, which transport
and circulates digested food and absorbed fat to intercellular spaces in the tissues.
Unlike the circulatory system, lymph is not pumped; instead, it passively flows
through a network of vessels.

Functions of Circulatory System

The most important function of the circulatory system is transporting oxygen
throughout the body. The other vital functions of the human circulatory system
are as follows:

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1. It helps in sustaining all the organ systems.
2. It transports blood, nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide and hormones
throughout the body.
3. It protects cells from pathogens.
4. The substances present in the blood help repair the damaged tissue.

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3. Excretory System:

The excretory system consists of organs which remove metabolic wastes and
toxins from the body. In humans, this includes the removal of urea from the
bloodstream and other wastes produced by the body. The removal of urea
happens in the kidneys, while solid wastes are expelled from the large intestine.

Parts of the Human Excretory System

In humans, the excretory system takes care of waste generation and elimination.
It comprises of the following structures: 2 Kidneys, 2 Ureters, 1 Urinary bladder
and 1 Urethra

Kidneys
Kidneys are the main organ of the human excretory system. Also, every individual
has a pair of kidneys. They are located one on each side of the spine at the level of
the liver. Kidneys are divided into three regions. Renal cortex which is the outer
layer. Renal medulla which is the inner layer. And lastly, Renal pelvis which
carries the urine from the kidney to the urethra. Each kidney is made up of
approximately 1,30,00000 kidney ducts which are called nephrons.

Function
The main function of kidney is purification of blood plasma i.e., to excrete the
unwanted nitrogenous waste substances through urination.

Haemodialysis- Process of removal of excess urea from the blood of patient using
artificial kidney.
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Note:
 In the normal urine there is 95% water, 2% salt, 2.7% urea and 0.3% uric
acid.
 The colour of the urine is light yellow due to the presence of Urochromes
(formed by the dissociation of haemoglobin) in it.
 Urine is acidic. pH value is 6.
 The stone formed in the kidneys is made up of Calcium Oxalate.

Structure of a Nephron:
The nephron is the functional unit of a kidney. In fact, each kidney consists of
millions of nephrons. They all function together to filter blood and expel waste
products. It consists of the following parts:

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 Bowman’s capsule–It is the first part of the nephron. It is a cup-shaped
structure and receives the blood vessels. Glomerular filtration occurs here.
The blood cells and proteins remain in the blood.

Ultra-filtration- The process of filtration of liquids into the cavity of Bowman’s

capsule.

Function- Bowman's capsule surrounds the glomerular capillary loops

and participates in the filtration of blood from the glomerular capillaries.
Bowman's capsule also has a structural function and creates a urinary space
through which filtrate can enter the nephron and pass to the proximal
convoluted tubule.

 Proximal Convoluted Tubule–The Bowman’s capsule extends downwards to

form the proximal tubule. Water and reusable materials from the blood are
now reabsorbed back into it.

 The loop of Henle– The proximal tubule leads to the formation of a u-shaped
loop called the Loop of Henle. It has three parts: the descending limb, the u-
shaped bend, and the ascending limb. It is in this area in which urine becomes
concentrated as water is reabsorbed. The descending limb is permeable to
water whereas the ascending limb is impermeable to it.

 Distal Convoluted Tubule– The Loop of Henle leads into the distal convoluted
tubule. It is where the kidney hormones cause their effect.

 Collecting Duct– The Distal Convoluted Tubule of each nephron leads to the
collecting ducts. The collecting ducts together form the renal pelvis. Through
renal pelvis, the urine passes into the urethra and then into the bladder.

Ureters -
There is one ureter that comes out of each kidney as an extension of the renal
pelvis. It is a thin muscular tube that carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

Urinary Bladder -

The bladder is a sac-like structure. And a smooth muscle layer line it. It stores the
urine until Micturition (act of expelling urine from the body). The bladder receives

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urine from the ureters, one from each kidney. In addition, the level of placement
of the bladder in the body differs in men and women.

Urethra -
The urethra is a tube that arises from the urinary bladder. Its function is to expel
the urine outside by micturition. In addition, it is shorter in females and longer in
males. Furthermore, in males, it functions as a common path for sperms and
urine. Also, sphincter guards the opening of the urethra.

Other Excretory Organs:

Skin -
The skin is the largest organ in the body. Its primary function is to protect
the different organs of the body. The skin excretes sweat.The skin eliminates
compounds like NaCl, some amount of urea etc.Oil gland and sweat glands found
in the skin respectively secretes sebum and sweat.

Lungs–
The lungs excrete two types of gaseous substances CO2 and water vapour. The
excretion of some substances like garlic, onion and some spices in which vapour
component is present excreted by the lungs.
Liver–
Liver cells play the main role in excretion by converting more and more amino
acids and ammonia of blood into urea.

Functions of the Excretory System

 Eliminating waste products such as urea, uric acid ammonia, and other
chemical products via urine.
 Maintaining the osmotic level of blood and plasma
 Maintaining the electrolyte balance in the body.

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Different Animals and Excretory Parts:

Animal Excretory Parts

Unicellular Animal By diffusion through general body

surface and contractile vacuole

Animals of Porifera Phylum By general body surface

Coelenterates Directly by cells

Flat Worm By flame cells

Animals of Annelida Phylum By nephridia

Arthropods By malpighian tubules

Crustaceans Antennal gland

Mollusca By urinary organ

Vertebrate Mainly by kidneys

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4. Human Nervous System:

The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages
to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body.

One of the most complex organ systems to ever evolve, the human nervous
system consists of two parts, namely:

1. Central Nervous System (consists of the brain and spinal cord)

2. Peripheral Nervous System (includes all the nerves of the body)

1. Central Nervous System:

Central Nervous System (CNS) is often called the central processing unit of the
body. It consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

Brain:

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The brain is one of the important, largest and central organs of
the human nervous system. It is the control unit of the nervous system, which
helps us in discovering new things, remembering and understanding, making
decisions, and a lot more. It is enclosed within the skull, which provides frontal,
lateral and dorsal protection. Brain is covered by membrane called Meninges. It is
situated in a bony box called carninum which protect it from external injury.
The human brain is composed of three major parts:
(a) Forebrain: The anterior part of the brain consists of Cerebrum, Hypothalamus
and Thalamus.
Function of the cerebrum: This is most developed part of the brain. This is the
centre of wisdom, memory, will power, movements, knowledge and thinking.
The analysis and coordination of muscular movement received from sense
organs.
Function of the Thalamus: It is the centre of the pain, cold and heat.
Function of the Hypothalamus: It controls the hormonal secretion of
endocrine glands. Hormones secreted from posterior pituitary gland secrete
through it. This is the centre of hunger, thirst, temperature control, love, hate
etc. blood pressure, metabolism of water, sweat, anger, joy etc are controlled
by it.

(b) Midbrain: The smaller and central part of the brainstem consists of Tectum
and Tegmentum.
(c) Hindbrain: The central region of the brain, composed of Cerebellum, Medulla
and Pons.
Function of Cerebellum:Maintenance of balance and posture. The cerebellum
is important for making postural adjustments in order to maintain balance.
Through its input from vestibular receptors and proprioceptors, it modulates
commands to motor neurons to compensate for shifts in body position or
changes in load upon muscles.
Function of Pons: The pons, while involved in the regulation of functions
carried out by the cranial nerves it houses, works together with the medulla
oblongata to serve an especially critical role in generating the respiratory

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 rhythm of breathing. Active functioning of the pons may also be fundamental
to rapid eye movement (REM).

Function of Medulla: The medulla oblongata plays a critical role

in transmitting signals between the spinal cord and the higher parts of the
brain and in controlling autonomic activities, such as heartbeat and
respiration.

Spinal Cord:
The spinal cord is a cylindrical bundle of nerve fibres and associated tissues
enclosed within the spine and connect all parts of the body to the brain. It begins
in continuation with the medulla and extends downwards. It is enclosed in a bony
cage called vertebral column and surrounded by membranes called meninges.
Function:
 To conduct reflexes below the neck.
 To conduct messages from the skin and muscles to the brain.
 To conduct commands from the brain to muscles of the trunk and limbs.

2. Peripheral Nervous System:

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is the lateral part of the nervous system that
develops from the central nervous system which connects different parts of the
body with the CNS. We carry out both voluntary and involuntary actions with the
help of peripheral nerves.
The peripheral nervous system refers to parts of the nervous system outside the
brain and spinal cord. It includes the cranial nerves, spinal nerves and their roots
and branches, peripheral nerves, and neuromuscular junctions.
PNS includes two types of nerve fibres:

1. Afferent nerve fibres – These are responsible for transmitting messages

from tissues and organs to the CNS.
2. Efferent nerve-fibres – These are responsible for conveying messages from
CNS to the corresponding peripheral organ.

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Classification of the peripheral nervous system:
Somatic neural system (SNS): It is the neural system that controls the voluntary
actions in the body by transmitting impulses from CNS to skeletal muscle cells. It
consists of the somatic nerves.
Autonomic neural system (ANS): The autonomic neural system is involved in
involuntary actions like regulation of physiological functions (digestion,
respiration, salivation, etc.). It is a self-regulating system which conveys the
impulses from the CNS to the smooth muscles and involuntary organs (heart,
bladder and pupil). The autonomic neural system can be further divided into:

1. Sympathetic nervous system

2. Parasympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic Autonomic Nervous System:

It is located near the thoracic and lumbar regions in the spinal cord. Its primary
function is to stimulate the body’s fight or flight response. It regulating the heart
rate, rate of respiration, papillary response and more.

Parasympathetic Autonomic Nervous System:

It is located in between the spinal cord and the medulla. It primarily stimulates the
body’s “rest and digest” and “feed and breed” response.

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Difference between Sympathetic and Parasympathetic nerves:
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
Involved in the fight or flight response. Involved in maintaining homeostasis
and also, permits the rest and digest
response.
The sympathetic system prepares the body for The parasympathetic system aims to
any potential danger. bring the body to a state of calm.
Sympathetic system has shorter neuron Has a comparatively longer neuron
pathways, hence a faster response time. pathway, hence a slower response
time.
Increases heartbeat, muscles tense up. Reduces heartbeat, muscles relax.
The pupil dilates to let in more light. The pupil contracts.
Saliva secretion is inhibited. Saliva secretion increases, digestion
increases.
On “fight and flight” situations, Adrenaline is No such functions exist in “fight or
released by the adrenal glands; more glycogen flight” situations.
is converted to glucose.

Neuron:
A Neuron is a structured and functional unit of the nervous system and unlike
other cells, neurons are irregular in shape and able to conduct electrochemical
signals. The different parts of a neuron are discussed below.

 Dendrite stretches out from the cell body of a neuron, and it is the
shortest fibre in the cell body.
 Axon is the longest thread on the cell body of a neuron and has an
insulating and protective sheath of myelin around it.
 Cell body consists of cytoplasm and nucleus.
 Synapse is the microscopic gap between a pair of adjacent neurons over
which nerve impulses pass, when moving from one neuron to the other.

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Classes of neurons:

Based on their roles, the neurons found in the human nervous system can be
divided into three classes: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons.

Sensory neurons

Sensory neurons get information about what's going on inside and outside
of the body and bring that information into the CNS so it can be processed.
For instance, if you picked up a hot coal, sensory neurons with endings in
your fingertips would convey the information to your CNS that it was really
hot.

Motor neurons

Motor neurons get information from other neurons and convey

commands to your muscles, organs and glands. For instance, if you picked
up a hot coal, its motor neurons innervating the muscles in your fingers
would cause your hand to let go.

Interneurons

Interneurons, which are found only in the CNS, connect one neuron to
another. They receive information from other neurons (either sensory
neurons or interneurons) and transmit information to other neurons
(either motor neurons or interneurons).

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Figure: A Typical Neuron
Nerve:
A nerve is a bundle of axons of a large number of neurons in the peripheral
nervous system. A nerve is a wire-like structure which transmits nerve impulses in
the form of chemical and electrical signals between central nervous system and
sensory or effector organs. Each axon in a nerve is wrapped with a connective
tissue layer called endoneurium. The axon bundle of the nerve is wrapped by a
connective tissue layer called epineurium. A fascicle is a group of neurons.

Types of Nerves
There are three types of nerves in the human body which are classified based on
their functions. These are the sensory nerves, motor nerves and mixed nerves.

Sensory Nerves
These are the nerves that send messages to the brain or the spinal cord from the
sense organs. These are enclosed in the form of a bundle like structures or nerve
fibres in the peripheral nervous system. They carry information from the PNS to
the CNS (Central Nervous System).

Motor Nerves
Motor nerves are those nerves those that carry the messages in the form of a
response from the brain or the spinal cord to other parts of the body such as the
muscles and glands. They are responsible for carrying the information from the
CNS to the PNS.

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Mixed Nerves
Mixed nerves are the nerves that perform both the action of sensory nerves as
well as a motor nerve. They transform electrical impulses from the central
nervous system to the muscles of the body. Generally, the mixed nerves transmit
impulses at the rate of 120 metres per second or 432 kilometres per hour.

Function of Nerves
 The primary function of nerves to conduct an electrochemical impulse and
convey information. These impulses are carried by the individual neurons
that make up the nerve.
 These impulses travel from one neuron to another by crossing a synapse.
The messages are converted from electrical to chemical and then back to
electrical.
 The sensory nerves carry information from the receptor to the central
nervous system where the information gets processed.
 The motor nerves, on the other hand, carry information from the central
nervous system to the muscles.

Nerve Disorders
Nerve disorders include:

1. Pain
2. Muscle Malfunction
3. Changes in sensation
4. Changes in the senses
5. Vertigo
6. Dysarthria
7. Sleeping problems
8. Mental disability

Similarities between Nerve and Neuron

 Both nerve and neuron are structural and functional components of the
nervous system in vertebrates.

 Both nerve and neuron are involved in transmitting nerve impulses

between sensory or effector organs and the central nervous system.

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Difference between Nerve and Neuron

Definition

Nerve: A nerve is a whitish fibre of neuron cells which carry impulses to

the central nervous system and from the central nervous system to the
effectors organs.
Neuron: A neuron is a specialized cell involved in transmitting nerve
impulses.

Found in

Nerve: Nerves are found only in the peripheral nervous system.

Neuron: Neurons are found in both peripheral and central nervous
systems.

Structure

Nerve: A large number of nerve fibres are grouped together to form a

nerve along with blood vessels and lymphatics.
Neuron: A neuron is composed of an axon, cell body, and dendrites.

Significance

Nerve: The nerve acts a conducting zone for transporting signals.

Neuron: The chemical and electronic signals are generated in the neuron.

Types

Nerve: Cranial nerves, spinal nerves, sensory nerves, and motor nerves are
the types of nerves in the body.
Neuron: Sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons are the types
of neurons in the body.

Conclusion

Nerve and neuron are two components of the nervous system of a vertebrate. The
neuron is the cell that makes up the nervous system. The nerve is a bundle of

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neurons. The neuron is responsible for generating nerve impulses in the form of
chemical and electrical signals whereas nerves provide the environment for
conducting the nerve impulses. Thus, the main difference between nerve and
neuron is their application in the nervous system in vertebrates.

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5. Human Skeletal System:
The skeletal system functions as the basic framework of a body and the entire
body are built around the hard framework of Skeleton. It is the combination of all
the bones and tissues associated with cartilages and joints. Almost all the rigid or
solid parts of the body are the main components of the skeletal system.

Skeletal System Anatomy -

This skeletal system can be divided into the axial and appendicular systems. In an
adult body, it is mainly composed of 206 individual bones which are organized into
two main divisions:

 Axial skeleton
 Appendicular skeleton

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1. Axial skeleton -
The axial skeleton runs along the body’s central axis; therefore, it is called the
central core of the human body. The axial skeleton is composed of 80 bones and it
consists of:
2. Skull
3. Hyoid
4. Auditory ossicles
5. Ribs
6. Sternum
7. Vertebral column
 Skull Bone -

 The skull is composed of 22 bones that are fused together except for
the mandible. These 21 fused bones are separate in children to allow
the skull and brain to grow, but fuse to give added strength and
protection as an adult.
 The mandible remains as a movable jaw bone and forms the only
movable joint in the skull with the temporal bone.
 The bones of the superior portion of the skull are known as the
cranium and protect the brain from damage.
 The bones of the inferior and anterior portion of the skull are known as
facial bones and support the eyes, nose, and mouth.

 Hyoid-

 The hyoid is a small, U-shaped bone found just inferior to the

mandible.
 The hyoid is the only bone in the body that does not form a joint with
any other bone, it is a floating bone.
 The hyoid’s function is to help hold the trachea open and to form a
bony connection for the tongue muscles.

 Auditory Ossicles-

 The malleus, incus, and stapes-known collectively as the auditory

ossicles are the smallest bones in the body.

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  Found in a small cavity inside of the temporal bone, they serve to
transmit and amplify sound from the eardrum to the inner ear.

 Ribs-

 The sternum, or breastbone, is a thin, knife-shaped bone located along

the midline of the anterior side of the thoracic region of the skeleton.
 The sternum connects to the ribs by thin bands of cartilage called the
costal cartilage.

 Sternum-
 There are 12 pairs of ribs that together with the sternum form the
ribcage of the thoracic region.
 The first seven ribs are known as “true ribs” because they connect the
thoracic vertebrae directly to the sternum through their own band of
costal cartilage.
 Ribs 8, 9, and 10 all connect to the sternum through cartilage that is
connected to the cartilage of the seventh rib, so we consider these to
be “false ribs.”
 Ribs 11 and 12 are also false ribs, but are also considered to be
“floating ribs” because they do not have any cartilage attachment to
the sternum at all.

 Vertebral column-
Twenty-six vertebrae form the vertebral column of the human body. They are
named by region:
 Cervical (neck) - 7 vertebrae
 Thoracic (chest) - 12 vertebrae
 Lumbar (lower back) - 5 vertebrae
 Sacrum - 1 vertebra
 Coccyx (tailbone) - 1 vertebra

With the exception of the singular sacrum and coccyx, each vertebra is named for
the first letter of its region and its position along the superior-inferior axis. For
example, the most superior thoracic vertebra is called T1 and the most inferior is
called T12.

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2. Appendicular skeleton -
The appendicular skeleton is composed of 126 bones and it comprises of the-

1. Pelvic girdle
2. Upper Limbs
3. Lower Limbs
4. Shoulder Girdle or the Pectoral

Skeletal System Physiology -

The primary functions of the skeletal system include movement, support,

protection production of bloodcells, storage of minerals and endocrine regulation.

Support

The primary function of the skeletal system is to provide a solid framework to

support and safeguard the human body and its organs. This helps in maintaining
the overall shape of the human body.

Protection
The skeletal system also helps to protect our internal organs and other delicate
body organs, including the brain, heart, lungs and spinal cord by acting as a buffer.
Our cranium (skull) protects our brain and eyes, the ribs protect our heart and
lungs and our vertebrae (spine, backbones) protect our spinal cord.
Movement
Bones provide the basic structure for muscles to attach themselves onto so that
our bodies are able to move. Tendons are tough inelastic bands that attach our
muscle to that particular bone.

Storage
The bone matrix of the skeletal system is mainly involved in storing or preserving
different types of essential minerals which are required to facilitate growth and
repair of the body cells and tissues. The cell-matrix acts as our calcium bank by
storing and releasing calcium ions into the blood cell when required.
Regulation of Endocrine glands

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  The bone cells present within the skeletal system plays an important role
in releasing the synthesized hormones from the respective endocrine
glands for the further requirement by the body for different metabolisms.
 Apart from these functions, the skeletal system also contributes to the
regulation of blood sugar.
Note:
 The muscles and bones are joined together by tendon.
 The muscle which joins bone to bone is called ligaments.
 The total number of bones in a human body- 206
 The total number of bones in Childhood- 300
 The largest bone of the body- Femur
 The smallest bone of the body- Stapes

The total number of bones in vertebral column, initially-33

 1.Cervical Region-------------- 7 Vertebras

 2.Thoracic Region-------------12 Vertebras
 3.Lumber Region---------------5 Vertebras
 4.Sacral Region-----------------5 Vertebras
 5.Caudal Region----------------4 Vertebras

The name and number of bones of some specific Regions:

 Ear bones- Malleus (2), Incus (2) and Stapes (2)

 Palm- Meta Carpals (10)
 Thigh- Femur (2)
 Knee- Patella (2)
 Wrist- Carpals (16)
 Fingers- Phalanges (28)
 Ankle- Tarsal (14)

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6. Human Endocrine and Exocrine System:
Hormones are chemicals that affect a lot of the bodily functions ranging from
hunger, reproduction and growth to much more complicated functions like human
emotions and behaviour. These hormones are produced in our body through nine
primary glands and these glands, along with other organs that provide auxiliary
functions make up the endocrine system.
Let us have a detailed look at the endocrine system notes and explore the major
endocrine glands in the human body.

Endocrine Glands

Endocrine glands secrete their respective substances directly into the bloodstream
rather than through a duct. These endocrine glands belong to the body’s control
system and they produce hormones which help to regulate the functions of cells
and tissues. Some glands are specific to either male (testes) or female (ovaries).

Major Endocrine Gland:

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8. Pituitary gland -
 The pituitary gland is the size of a pea. It hangs on a stalk at the base of
the brain. It consists of an anterior portion that produces hormones and a
posterior portion that has many neural links.
 This gland is regarded as the master gland as it controls the functions of all
the other glands (such as the adrenal, thyroid glands) in the endocrine
system.
 The pituitary gland stimulates the adrenal gland to secrete cortisol, a
steroid hormone controls a range of activities from controlling the body’s
metabolism to stimulating blood pressure.
 The pituitary gland also secretes prolactin, which stimulates the
production of milk.

Function of Hormones Secreted by Pituitary Gland

A healthy adult human’s pituitary gland consists of two parts – the Anterior and
the Posterior parts.
(a) Anterior Pituitary Hormones
The anterior pituitary is responsible for the synthesis and secretion of several
key hormones in the body. These hormones include:
Human Growth Hormone (HGH): Responsible for the growth and repair of all cells
in the body.
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH): Influences the thyroid gland for the release
of thyroxine, its own hormone. TSH is also called Thyrotropin.
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): Influences the adrenal gland to release of
Cortisol or the “stress hormone”. ACTH is also known as corticotropin.
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH): Collectively
known as Gonadotropins, LH and FSH control the sexual and reproductive
characteristics in males and females.
Prolactin (PRL): Produces milk in the breast. Though it is present at all times, the
secretion is increased during and just after pregnancy.
Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH): Involved in the stimulation of the
production of melanin by skin and hair.

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(b) Posterior Pituitary Hormones
The posterior pituitary is responsible for the storage and secretion of two very
important hormones:
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): Controls the water balance of the body by affecting
reabsorption of water by the kidneys
Oxytocin: Controls certain aspects of pregnancy and childbirth such as uterine
contraction and production of milk.

9. Thyroid gland -
 The thyroid glands can be found at the front of the neck. It sits low in the
throat, between the windpipes. Brownish red, it has blood vessels coursing
through it.
 The hormones secreted by it are- Thyroxine(T3) and Triiodothyronine(T4).
Function of Thyroxine:
Thyroxine is the main hormone secreted into the bloodstream by the thyroid
gland. It plays vital roles in digestion, heart and muscle function, brain
development and maintenance of bones.
Diseases caused by the deficiency of Thyroxin:
(a) Cretinism- Cretinism is a condition of severe physical and mental retardation
due to iodine deficiency, and specifically due to deficiency of thyroid hormones
during early pregnancy.
(b) Myxedema-Myxedema crisis is a life-threatening extreme form of
hypothyroidism with a high mortality rate if left untreated. Myxedema crisis is
commonly seen in older patients, especially women, and is associated with signs
of hypothyroidism, hypothermia, hyponatremia, hypercarbia, and hypoxemia.
(c) Hypothyroidism-Hypothyroidism is a common condition where the thyroid
doesn't create and release enough thyroid hormone into your bloodstream. This
makes your metabolism slow down. Also called underactive thyroid,
hypothyroidism can make you feel tired, gain weight and be unable to tolerate
cold temperatures.
(d) Goitre- The most common cause of goiters worldwide is a lack of iodine in the
diet.

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10. Parathyroid glands -
 The parathyroid glands consist of four small glands that are located behind
the thyroids in the neck.
 They influence the calcium levels in the body by producing a hormone
called Parathyroid Hormone.
 Sometimes, when the gland produces excess parathyroid hormones, it can
have negative effects such as brittle bones and kidney stones.
Two hormones are secreted by it:
(a) Parathyroid hormone or parathormone- This hormone is secreted when there
is a deficiency of calcium in the blood.
(b) Calcitonin- This hormone is released when there is excess of calcium in the
blood is present.
Hence, Hormone secreted by parathyroid gland controls the quantity of calcium
in blood.

11. Adrenal glands -

 Adrenal glands, also known as suprarenal glands, are small, triangular-
shaped glands located on top of both kidneys.
 These glands produce over 150 hormones that regulate different functions in
the body.
 The most well-known is Adrenaline, which triggers the flight or fight
response. In other words, this is a stress hormone that helps the organism to
either face a dangerous situation or to avoid it altogether.
 There are two parts of this gland- outer part is cortex and inner part is
medulla.
Hormones secreted by cortex and their function:
(a) Glucocorticoids- This controls the metabolism of carbohydrate, protein and
fat.
(b) Mineralocorticoids- Its main function is reabsorption of ion by kidney ducts
and to control the quantity of other on in the body.
(c) Sex hormone- It controls the sexual behaviour and secondary sexual
characters.

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Hormones secreted by Medulla and their function:
(a) Epinephrine- In case of sudden stop of heart beat, epinephrine is helpful in re-
starting the heartbeat.
(b) Nor epinephrine-norepinephrine, also called noradrenaline, substance that is
released predominantly from the ends of sympathetic nerve fibers and that acts
to increase the force of skeletal muscle contraction and the rate and force of
contraction of the heart.

12. Gonads and their hormones-

The gonads are the sex organs. Male testes produce Androgens, while female
ovaries produce Estrogen and Progesterone.

Exocrine Gland –
Exocrine glands are the glands of external secretion. These are those that secrete
substances on the body surface through a duct. Mucous gland, Digestive gland,
Salivary glands, mammary glands, sweat glands, are some of the exocrine glands.

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The structure of the exocrine glands is divided into two parts:

1. Ductal portion -
The ductal portion is tubular in shape. It is a single, thick, cuboidal cell wall that
helps in the movement of the secretion. The duct may be branched or
unbranched. It can also be found as a simple coiled structure.

2. Glandular portion -
The glandular portion is responsible for the production of the secreted substance.
It is a circular or elongated cluster of cells. The cells found in the glandular portion
depend upon the substance secreted.
Examples- Serous cells secrete Proteins, Mucous cells secrete Fluids.

Functions of Exocrine Glands:

 Regulate body temperature
 Lubrication
 Lactation
 Helps in digestion
 Helps in reproduction

Types of Exocrine Glands:

The exocrine glands are of three types:

 Holocrine Glands
 Merocrine or Eccrine Glands
 Apocrine Glands

Holocrine Glands -
These are released by the rupture of the plasma membrane. Produced in the
cytoplasm of the cell, these destroy the cells and secrete the product in the
lumen.

Merocrine or Eccrine Glands -

The substance is secreted directly into the duct through the cellular channels.
There is no rupturing of cell wall involved.
Apocrine Glands -

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They bud off a part of their cellular cytoplasm and membrane and release the
substance into the ductal system.

Examples of Exocrine Glands -

 Lacrimal Glands- include tear ducts near each eye.
 Pancreas- Secretes pancreatic juice along with the digestive enzymes into
the stomach.
 Salivary Glands- secrete saliva along with digestive enzymes.
 Liver- secretes bile that contains salts and digestive substances.
 Mammary Glands- secrete breast milk.
 Eccrine Sweat Glands- release salty water through perspiration.

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7. Human Respiratory System:
Human Respiratory System is a network of organs and tissues that help us
breathe. The primary function of this system is to introduce oxygen into the body
and expel carbon-dioxide from the body.

The human respiratory system consists of a group of organs and tissues that help
us to breathe. Aside from the lungs, there are also muscles and a vast network of
blood vessels that facilitate the process of respiration.

Respiratory System Diagram showing different parts of the Respiratory Tract

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Features of the Human Respiratory System:
 The energy is generated by the breakdown of glucose molecules in all living
cells of the human body.
 Oxygen is inhaled and is transported to various parts and is used in the
process of burning food particles (breaking down glucose molecules) at the
cellular level in a series of chemical reactions.
 The obtained glucose molecules are used for discharging energy in the form
of ATP- (adenosine triphosphate).

Respiratory System Parts and Functions:

Nose -
Humans have exterior nostrils, which are divided by a framework of cartilaginous
structure called the septum. This is the structure that separates the right nostril
from the left nostril. Tiny hair follicles that cover the interior lining of nostrils act
as the body’s first line of defence against foreign pathogens.

Larynx -
Two cartilaginous chords lay the framework for the larynx. It is found in front of
the neck and is responsible for vocals as well as aiding respiration. When food is
swallowed, a flap called the epiglottis folds over the top of the windpipe and
prevents food from entering into the larynx.

Pharynx -
The nasal chambers open up into a wide hollow space called the pharynx. It is a
common passage for airas well as food. It functions by preventing the entry of
food particles into the windpipe. The epiglottis is an elastic cartilage, which serves
as a switch between the larynx and the oesophagus by allowing the passage of air
into the lungs, and food in the gastrointestinal tract.

Trachea -
The trachea or the windpipe rises below the larynx and moves down to the neck.
The walls of the trachea comprise C-shaped cartilaginous rings which give
hardness to the trachea and maintain it by completely expanding. The trachea

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extends further down into the breastbone and splits into two bronchi, one for
each lung.

Bronchi -
The trachea splits into two tubes called the bronchi, which enter each lung
individually. The bronchi divide into secondary and tertiary bronchioles, and it
further branches out into small air-sacs called the alveoli. The alveoli are single-
celled sacs of air with thin walls. It facilitates the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide molecules into or away from the bloodstream.

Lungs -
Lungs are the primary organs of respiration in humans and other vertebrates.
They are located on either side of the heart, in the thoracic cavity of the chest.
Anatomically, the lungs are spongy organs with an estimates total surface area
between 50 to 75 sq. meters. The primary function of the lungs is to facilitate the
exchange of gases between the blood and the air. Interestingly, the right lung is
quite bigger and heavier than the left lung.

Respiratory Tract -
The respiratory tract in humans is made up of the following parts:
 External nostrils – For the intake of air.
 Nasal chamber – This is lined with hair and mucus to filter the air from dust
and dirt.
 Pharynx – It is a passage behind the nasal chamber and serves as the
common passageway for both air and food.
 Larynx – Known as the sound box as it houses the vocal cords, which
are paramount in the generation of sound.
 Epiglottis – It is a flap-like structure that covers the glottis and prevents the
entry of food into the windpipe.
 Trachea – It is a long tube passing through the mid-thoracic cavity.
 Bronchi – The trachea divides into left and right bronchi.
 Bronchioles – Each bronchus is further divided into finer channels known as
bronchioles.
 Alveoli – The bronchioles terminate in balloon-like structures known as the
alveoli.

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  Lungs – Humans have a pair of lungs, which are sac-like structures and
covered by a double-layered membrane known as pleura.

Respiratory System Functions -

The functions of the human respiratory system are as follows:
 Inhalation and Exhalation.
 Exchange of Gases between Lungs and Bloodstream.
 Exchange of Gases between Bloodstream and Body Tissues.
 The Vibration of the Vocal Cords.
 Olfaction or smelling.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

CHAPTER-5

NUTRIENTS

Nutrients are the compounds in food that provide us with energy that facilitates
repair and growth and helps to carry out different life processes.
Not all nutrients provide energy but are necessary for some form or the other.
Types of Nutrients:
 Macronutrients-which are required by the body in large amounts.
 Micronutrients-which are required by the body in small amounts.

Macronutrients provide energy to a living being for the function of the metabolic
system. They provide massive energy has it is converted used to obtain
energy. Macronutrients include fats, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Micronutrient provides essential components for metabolism to be carried out.
They also build and repair damaged tissues in order to control the body process.
Micronutrients include calcium, iron, vitamins, iron, minerals and vitamin C.

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Important Nutrients in Food:

There are several nutrients that cannot be synthesized by the body and have to be
taken externally through food. These are vital for the proper functioning of the
body.
The Important nutrients and their functions include are mentioned below:
Carbohydrates: It is one of the main sources of energy for human beings. It
comprises of three types of carbohydrates and they include fibre, sugar, and
starch. They are usually low calories and thus help in maintaining a healthy diet.

On the basis of the number of forming units, three major classes of carbohydrates
can be defined:
 Monosaccharides-Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrate which
cannot be hydrolysed further.
Example- Glucose, Fructose, Ribose, Arabinose.
 Oligosaccharides-Oligosaccharides on hydrolysis give 2-10 units of
monosaccharides. They are further classified as a disaccharide, trisaccharide.
Example- Sucrose, Trehalose, Maltose, Lactose.
 Polysaccharides-Polysaccharides on hydrolysis give a large number of
monosaccharide units.
Example- Starch, Glycogen, Chitin etc.

Calcium -
It is a mineral that is vital for building strong bones and teeth. In very fewer
quantities it is also needed to our nerves, muscles work and heart. Lack of
calcium leads to a disease called Osteoporosis.
Sources:pudding, milk, yoghurt and fresh leafy green vegetables.
Deficiency diseases:
 Hypocalcemia (occurs when the blood has low levels of calcium).
 Osteoporosis (Lack of calcium leads to a disease).
 A long-term calcium deficiency can lead to dental changes, cataracts,
alterations in the brain, and osteoporosis (bones to become brittle).

Sodium -
Sources: Foods like milk and fresh vegetables contain sodium.

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 Lack of sodium might lead to high blood pressure.
Deficiency Diseases:
 Hyponatremia (low levels of sodium in the blood).
 In severe cases, the brain may swell, which can lead to headaches,
seizures, coma.

Cholesterol -
It is essential for the brain, nerves, and development of cells. It plays an
important role in the forming of enzymes and hormones.
Sources: cheese, milk, chicken, beef, fish.
Deficiency Diseases: Hypo- cholesterolemia (Presence of abnormally low
levels of cholesterol in the blood).
Fats -
It is one of the most important sources of calories. One gram of fat consists
of 9 calories. It is almost twice of calories that we get from carbohydrates
and proteins.
Sources: Fat is usually found in foods that we use in cooking, as spreads on
Bread, Snacks, and Pastries etc.
Deficiency Diseases: Fat deficiency leads to skin disorders, neurological
dysfunction, retarded growth, hair loss and many more.
Iron–
It is a constituent of our red blood cells. Its function is to carry oxygen from our
lungs to organs, muscles, and cells.
Sources: Spinach, Soybeans and other Leafy vegetables.
Deficiency diseases:
 Anaemia (where blood lacks adequate healthy red blood cells. Red blood
cells carry oxygen to the body's tissues).
 In a pregnant woman, iron deficiency puts the baby at risk of
developmental delays.

Protein-
They are made of amino acids.
Sources: Animal-based foods (Meat, Poultry, Fish, Eggs, and Dairy foods). Plant-
based foods (Fruits, Vegetables, Grains, Nuts, and Seeds) often lack one or more
essential amino acid.

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Deficiency Diseases:

 Marasmus (severe deficiency of protein and calories that affect infants and
very young children, often resulting in weight loss and dehydration).
 Kwashiorkor (severe deficiency of protein in diets that contain calories
mostly from carbohydrates such as yams, rice and bananas. It usually
affects older children).
Deficiency diseases caused by other Minerals:
 Bad teeth and bones due to Phosphorus.
 Goiter, enlarged thyroid gland due to Iodine.

Vitamin (Invented by Hopkins and Coined by Funk) -

A vitamin is an organic compound, which means that it contains carbon. It is also
an essential nutrient that the body may need to get from food. No Calorie is
obtained from it, but it is very important in regulating chemical reactions in the
metabolism of the body.

On the basis of Solubility, Vitamins are two types:

 Water Soluble: Vitamin-B, Vitamin-C
 Fat Soluble: Vitamin-A, Vitamin-D, Vitamin-E and Vitamin-K

Deficiency Diseases -
Deficiency diseases are diseases that are caused by the lack of certain essential
nutrients, especially vitamins in diet over a prolonged period of time.

Following is a list of major deficiency diseases that occur due to lack of essential
minerals and vitamins:
Types of Vitamins Deficiency Diseases
A (Retinol) Night blindness
B1 (Thiamine) Beri-Beri
B2 (Riboflavin) Retarded growth, bad skin
B12 (Cyanocobalamin) Anaemia
C (Ascorbic acid) Scurvy
D (Calciferol) Rickets
K (Phylloquinone) Excessive bleeding due to injury

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Note:
 Cobalt is found in Vitamin -B12.
 Synthesis of Vitamin-D takes place by the ultra violet rays present in the
sunlight through cholesterol of skin.
 Vitamin -K and -B12 are synthesized in our colon by the bacteria.
 Vitamin-A is mainly stored in liver.

Deficiency Symptoms in Plants –

Nutrient deficiency occurs when a plant lacks sufficient quantity of an essential
nutrient required for growth. Without sufficient essential nutrients, plants will
not grow well and show various symptoms to express the deficiency.

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 WBCS EXECUTIVE EXAMINITION

CHAPTER – 6

HUMAN DIESEASES

Diseases Caused by Bacteria:

Type Of
Causative Mode Of
Disease Transmission
Organism Details
Agent
Affected
Anthrax
Bacillus Contact Most Causes skin
anthraces with animals infections and
infected including Gastrointestinal
meat humans (GI) infection that
are fatal

Cholera Vibrio cholerae Water/food Humans  Effects small

intestine.
 The classic
symptom is
large amounts
of watery
diarrhea
 Vomiting and
muscle cramps
may also
occur.

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Diphtheria
Corynebacterium Air/direct Humans  Sore throat
diphtheriae contact and fever.
neck may swell
in part due to
large lymph
nodes.
 Inflammation
of nerves,
kidney
problems, and
bleeding
problems due
to low blood
platelets.

Pneumonia Streptococcus Air borne Humans Pneumonia is an

pneumoniae droplets of inflammatory
sneeze condition of the
lung affecting
primarily the
microscopic air
sacs known as
alveoli.

Plague Yersinia pestis Air/direct Humans The symptoms of

contact plague depend on
the concentrated
areas of infection
in each person:
bubonic plague in
lymph
nodes,septicemic
plague in blood
vessels,
pneumonic plague

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 in lungs.

Diseases Caused by Viruses:

Type Of
Causative Mode Of
Disease Organism Details
Agent Transmission
Affected

AIDS HIV Virus Blood Exchange Humans Severely weakens

and immunity and makes
primates way for a number of
other pathogens.

Chicken Pox Varicella Air/Contact Humans  Chickenpoxes a

zoster virus highly contagious
(VZV) disease.
 The disease
results in a
characteristic
skin rash that
forms small,
itchy blisters.
 Less severe than
small pox.
Almost
eradicated after
the invention of
vaccination.

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Small Pox Variola Air/contact/wat Humans One of the highly
er dreaded diseases
that is highly
contagious.

Chikunguny Chikungunya
AAAedes mosquitoes Humans Causes severe joint
a pains. Animal
Virus reservoirs of the
virus include
monkeys, birds,
cattle, and rodents.
This is in contrast to
dengue, for which
primates are the
only hosts

Dengue Flavivirus Female Aedes Humans High fever,

mosquito headache, vomiting,
muscle and joint
pains, and a
characteristic skin
rash.
In a small proportion
of cases, the disease

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 develops into the
life-threatening
dengue hemorrhagic
fever, resulting in
bleeding, low levels
of blood platelets.
Blood plasma
leakage.

Diseases Caused by Protozoan’s:

Type Of
Mode Of
Disease Causative Agent Organism Details
Transmission
Affected

Kala-ajar Leismaniadonovani Sand-flies Bone High Fever

Marrow

Sleeping Trypanosoma Tse-Tse-flies Human Brain Fever with

Sickness severe sleep

Malaria Plasmodium Female RBC and Fever with

Anopheles Liver Shivering

Diarrhoea Entamoeba Contaminated Intestine Mucous and

histolytica food and Diarrhoea
drinking water

Pyorrhea Entamoeba Gum recession Gums Bleeding

gingivelis and bone from gums
deterioration

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“SCIENCE IS A VERY EASY SUBJECT & YOU ARE TOO SMART TO DEAL
WITH IT.
YOU ARE PRECIOUS.
YOU ARE UNIQUE
TOPPER’S GROUP IS WITH YOU, SO NEVER FEAR A BIT
YES! YOU CAN AND YOU WILL DO IT!!”

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