Alice wants to send a message to Bob with

confidentiality and integrity. The steps are as

follows:
1. Alice encrypts the message using Bob’s ________ key.
2. Alice then signs the ________ of the message with her ________ key.
3. Bob decrypts the message using his ________ key.
4. Bob verifies Alice's signature using her ________ key.
a) public, hash, private, public, private
b) private, message, public, private, public
c) public, hash, private, private, public
d) public, hash, private, public, public
explain this question and tell me how to remenber this
To answer the question:
Alice wants to send a message to Bob with confidentiality and integrity. The steps are as
follows:
1. Alice encrypts the message using Bob’s ________ key.
2. Alice then signs the ________ of the message with her ________ key.
3. Bob decrypts the message using his ________ key.
4. Bob verifies Alice's signature using her ________ key.
Let's break down each step and fill in the blanks, then match to the correct answer choice.

Step-by-Step Explanation

1. Alice encrypts the message using Bob’s ________ key.

Purpose: Ensure only Bob can read the message (confidentiality).
How: Alice uses Bob's public key to encrypt the message. Only Bob's private key can
decrypt it, so only Bob can read it [1] [2] .
2. Alice then signs the ________ of the message with her ________ key.
Purpose: Ensure the message is from Alice and hasn't been tampered with (integrity and
authenticity).
How: Alice creates a hash (digest) of the message and signs it with her private key. This is
a digital signature [2] [3] .

3. Bob decrypts the message using his ________ key.

How: Bob uses his private key to decrypt the message encrypted with his public key [1] [2] .

4. Bob verifies Alice's signature using her ________ key.

How: Bob uses Alice's public key to verify the signature. If the signature is valid, he knows it
was Alice who signed it [2] [3] .

Filling the Blanks

1. Bob’s public key.
2. hash of the message with her private key.
3. His private key.
4. Alice's public key.

Matching to the Choices

Let's compare with the options:

a) public, hash, c) public, hash, d) public, hash,

b) private, message,
Step private, public, private, private, private, public,
public, private, public
private public public

1 public private public public

2 hash, private message, public hash, private hash, private

3 public private private public

4 private public public public

Our filled-in answers match option d:

public, hash, private, public, public
How to Remember This
Encryption for confidentiality:
Encrypt with the recipient's public key, decrypt with their private key.
(You want only the recipient to read it, so use their public key; only their private key can
unlock it.) [1] [2]
Signing for integrity/authenticity:
Sign with your own private key, verify with your public key.
(Only you can create the signature; anyone with your public key can check it.) [3] [2]
Hashing:
Sign the hash, not the whole message.
(Efficient and secure—hash the message, then sign the hash.)
A simple mnemonic:
> "Encrypt with their public, sign with your private."

Summary Table
Task Key Used (by Alice) Key Used (by Bob) Purpose

Encrypt message Bob's public key Bob's private key Confidentiality

Sign message hash Alice's private key Alice's public key Integrity & authenticity

Final Answer
Correct option: d) public, hash, private, public, public
Mnemonic:
Encrypt with their public key, sign with your private key. Decrypt with your private key, verify
with their public key.
⁂

<q>Alice then signs the ________ of the message

with her ________ key.
Purpose: Ensure the message is from Alice and hasn't been tampered with (integrity and
authenticity).
How: Alice creates a hash (digest) of the message and signs it with her private key. This is a
digital signature.</q> explain more
When the question says, "Alice then signs the ________ of the message with her ________ key," it is
describing the process of creating a digital signature to guarantee the integrity and
authenticity of the message.
Detailed Explanation
Step 1: Hashing the Message
Alice first takes the original message and runs it through a hash function (such as SHA-256).
This hash function produces a digest (a fixed-length string unique to the content of the
message).
The hash acts like a digital fingerprint: even a tiny change in the message will produce a
completely different hash [4] [5] [6] .
Step 2: Signing the Hash with Her Private Key
Alice then uses her private key to encrypt (sign) this hash value.
The result is the digital signature.
Only Alice has access to her private key, so only she could have created this signature [4] [7]
[8] [6] .

Why Hash First?

Hashing is used because messages can be very large, but hash functions reduce them to a
small, fixed size, making the signing process efficient.
Hash functions are also highly sensitive to changes, so any alteration in the message will
produce a different hash, making tampering easy to detect [9] [5] .
What Does This Achieve?
Authenticity: Since only Alice's private key can create the signature, and her public key
can verify it, Bob knows the message is from Alice.
Integrity: If the message is changed, the hash will not match, so Bob will know the message
was tampered with [7] [5] .
Non-repudiation: Alice cannot deny having sent the message, because only her private
key could have created that signature [5] .
Verification by Bob
When Bob receives the message and the signature, he uses Alice's public key to decrypt
the signature, revealing the original hash Alice signed.
Bob then hashes the received message himself.
If both hashes match, the message is authentic and unaltered [7] [8] [6] .

How to Remember This

"Sign the hash with your private key."
Hash for efficiency and tamper-evidence; private key for authenticity.
Or, as a mnemonic:
> "Hash then sign, to prove it's mine."
Summary Table
Step What Alice Does Tool Used Purpose

Hash the message Creates a digest of the message Hash function Detect tampering

Sign the hash Encrypts the hash (digest) Her private key Prove authenticity

This process is fundamental to digital signatures and is used in protocols like DSA and RSA [4]
[6] .

i dont know anythiing about the concepts used in

the questions like nothingliterlly so explain in very
muhc detail like to explaining to a 14 year old and
give simplified explainations of all the terms
Absolutely! Let’s break down all the concepts in the question as if you’re learning them for the
first time, using simple language and examples.

1. What is a Data Point?

A data point is just a single piece of information. Imagine you have a list of numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6. Each of these numbers is a data point [10] . In computer science, data points can be anything:
numbers, words, or even pictures.

2. What is a Tree in Computer Science?

A tree is a way to organize data in a structure that looks like an upside-down tree:
The top part is called the root.
Each point (called a node) can have branches going down to other nodes, called children.
The nodes at the very bottom, with no children, are called leaves [11] [12] .
Think of a family tree: your grandparents at the top, your parents below them, and you at the
bottom.

3. What is a Merkle Tree?

A Merkle Tree is a special kind of tree used in computers and blockchains (like Bitcoin) to make
sure data hasn’t been changed or tampered with [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] .
Leaf nodes at the bottom contain the hashes (see next section) of the actual data (like your
numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).
Parent nodes above them contain the hash of their children combined.
 The root node at the very top contains a single hash that represents all the data below it.
This way, if even one piece of data changes, the hash at the top changes, making it easy to spot
tampering [13] [14] [17] .

4. What is a Hash / Hash Function?

A hash function is like a magical blender for data:
You put in any data (a number, a word, a file).
It spits out a unique, fixed-length string of letters and numbers called a hash [18] [19] [20] .
If you change even a tiny bit of the input, the hash changes a lot.
Hashes are like fingerprints for data.
Example:
Hash of "Hello" might be "AB12".
Hash of "hello" (lowercase) might be "Z9X7".
Hashes are used in Merkle Trees to represent data securely and efficiently.

5. What is Tree Traversal?

Traversal means visiting every node in a tree in some order. There are different ways to do this.
The one in your question is post-order traversal.

Post-Order Traversal
Visit the left child (if any)
Visit the right child (if any)
Visit the current node (root of this subtree)
Repeat this for every node
In simple terms:
You go all the way to the left bottom, then right bottom, then visit their parent, and keep
repeating until you reach the top [21] [22] .

6. Putting It All Together: The Example in the Question

You have 6 data points: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
First, each one is hashed (let’s just call them 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 for now).
Then, pairs are combined and hashed:
1 and 2 become 12
3 and 4 become 34
 5 and 6 become 56
Next, those pairs are combined:
12 and 34 become 1234
56 stays as 56 (since there’s no pair left)
Finally, 1234 and 56 are combined to make 123456
So the tree looks like this:

123456
/ \
1234 56
/ \ / \
12 34 5 6
/ \ / \
1 2 3 4

Post-order Traversal of This Tree:

Go all the way left: 1, 2
Combine: 12
Next left: 3, 4
Combine: 34
Combine: 1234
Next right: 5, 6
Combine: 56
Combine: 5656 (hash of 56 and 56)
Finally, combine everything at the top: 12345656
So the order is:
1, 2, 12, 3, 4, 34, 1234, 5, 6, 56, 5656, 12345656

7. Why Use Merkle Trees?

Efficiency: You can check if data is correct without looking at all the data.
Security: If a single data point changes, the root hash changes, so you know something’s
wrong.
Blockchains: Used to keep transactions secure and easy to verify [23] [14] [15] [16] [17] .
Summary Table
Term Simple Explanation

Data Point A single piece of information (like the number 1)

Tree A way to organize data with a root and branches (like a family tree)

Merkle Tree A tree where each node is a hash; used for secure data verification

Hash A unique fingerprint for data; changes a lot if the data changes

Post-order Traversal Visit left, then right, then parent; repeat for all nodes

In Short:
A Merkle Tree is a way to organize and check data using hashes. Post-order traversal is a
method to visit all parts of the tree in a specific order: left, right, then parent. This makes it easy
to check if any part of the data has changed, which is why it’s used in things like blockchains.
If you want an analogy:
Imagine checking your homework in steps: check each answer, then check each section,
then check the whole homework. If any answer is wrong, the final check will show
something is off!
If you have more questions or want an even simpler analogy, just ask!
⁂

how do i even build a merkle tree

Here’s a very simple, step-by-step explanation of how to build a Merkle tree, as if you’re
learning it for the first time:

What is a Merkle Tree?

A Merkle tree is a way to organize and check lots of data (like files, messages, or transactions)
using something called a hash.
Hash: A hash is like a fingerprint for data. If you change even one letter, the hash changes
completely.
Merkle tree: It’s a tree structure where every leaf (bottom) node is a hash of your data, and
every parent node is a hash of its children’s hashes. The very top node is called the root
hash, which represents all the data below it [24] [25] [26] .
Step-by-Step: How to Build a Merkle Tree
Let’s say you have 6 data points:
data1, data2, data3, data4, data5, data6

1. Hash Each Data Point (Leaves)

Hash each piece of data.
Example:
hash1 = hash(data1)
hash2 = hash(data2)
hash3 = hash(data3)
hash4 = hash(data4)
hash5 = hash(data5)
hash6 = hash(data6)

2. Pair Up and Hash Again (Parents)

Take each pair of hashes and combine them, then hash that combination:
hash12 = hash(hash1 + hash2)
hash34 = hash(hash3 + hash4)
hash56 = hash(hash5 + hash6)

3. Repeat Until You Reach the Top

Now, pair up the new hashes:
hash1234 = hash(hash12 + hash34)
hash5656 = hash(hash56 + hash56) (if you have an odd number, you duplicate the last
one to make a pair)
Finally, hash the last two:
root_hash = hash(hash1234 + hash5656)

4. The Root Hash

The very top hash is called the Merkle root. This single value represents all your data. If any
piece of data changes, the root hash will also change [24] [26] .

Visual Example
Here’s a simple drawing (like the one in your image):

root_hash
/ \
hash1234 hash5656
 / \ / \
hash12 hash34 hash56 hash56
/ \ / \ / \
h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6

h1 = hash(data1)
h2 = hash(data2)
... and so on.

Why Use a Merkle Tree?

Quickly verify data: You only need a few hashes to check if a piece of data is correct.
Detect changes: If any data changes, the root hash changes.
Used in blockchains: Like Bitcoin and Ethereum, to keep transactions safe and easy to
check [27] .

Super Simple Python Example

Here’s a tiny Python example to show you the process [26] :

import hashlib

def hash_data(data):
return hashlib.sha256(data.encode('utf-8')).hexdigest()

def build_merkle_tree(leaves):
layer = [hash_data(leaf) for leaf in leaves]
while len(layer) &gt; 1:
if len(layer) % 2 == 1: # duplicate last if odd
layer.append(layer[-1])
layer = [hash_data(layer[i] + layer[i+1]) for i in range(0, len(layer), 2)]
return layer[^4_0] # root hash

leaves = ["data1", "data2", "data3", "data4", "data5", "data6"]

root = build_merkle_tree(leaves)
print("Merkle Root:", root)

In Summary
Hash every data point.
Pair up hashes, hash again.
Repeat until one hash remains (the root).
That’s your Merkle tree!
If you want to see it visually, look at the diagram in your image or above.
If you want to try it, run the Python code!
Remember:
> "Hash, pair, hash again, repeat until one remains!" [25] [26]
If you want an even simpler analogy or have more questions, just ask!
⁂

Which of the following is used to refer to a block

in a blockchain?
a) Future nonce
b) Block size
c) Previous Block Hash
d) Transaction Timestamp
Answer: (c)
Detailed solution:
In a blockchain, each block contains a previous block hash. This hash pointer links the current
block
to the previous one, ensuring the integrity and immutability of the blockchain.
The correct answer is:
c) Previous Block Hash

Detailed Explanation

What is a Block in Blockchain?

A block in a blockchain is like a page in a digital ledger. It contains a list of transactions and
some special information at the top (called the block header) [28] [29] [30] .

How Are Blocks Connected?

Each block has a unique code called a hash. But more importantly, every block (except the very
first one) also stores the hash of the previous block. This is called the previous block hash [28]
[31] [32] [30] .

Why is the Previous Block Hash Important?

It links each block to the one before it, forming a chain (hence the name "blockchain").
If someone tries to change information in an old block, its hash will change, and the next
block will no longer match up. This makes the blockchain secure and tamper-proof [28] [31]
[32] [30] .
Why Not the Other Options?
Future nonce: The nonce is a number used for mining, but it’s not used to refer to or link
blocks.
Block size: This just tells you how big the block is, not which block came before.
Transaction timestamp: This tells you when a transaction happened, but not how blocks
are connected.

Summary Table
Option What it Does in Blockchain Used to Refer to a Block?

Future nonce Mining, proof-of-work No

Block size Shows how much data is in the block No

Previous Block Hash Links to the previous block (chain linkage) Yes

Transaction timestamp Records time of transaction No

In Simple Words:
A blockchain is like a chain of blocks, and each block knows about the one before it by storing
its hash. This is called the previous block hash, and it’s what keeps the chain together and
secure [28] [31] [32] [30] .
So, the answer is (c) Previous Block Hash.
⁂

Which of the following does not align with the

primary design goals of cryptocurrency
development?
a) Decentralization of control and decision-making
b) Immutability of transaction records
c) Centralized control over transactions
d) Transparency and accessibility of transaction data
Answer: (c)
Detailed solution:
Centralized control over transactions: This contradicts the essence of cryptocurrencies, which
are
designed to operate without central authority or intermediaries.
i dont know anythiing about the concepts used in the questions like nothingliterlly so explain in
very muhc detail like to explaining to a 14 year old and give simplified explainations of all the
terms
Let’s break down the concepts in this question as if you’re learning them for the first time, step
by step and in simple language.

What is Cryptocurrency?
Cryptocurrency is a kind of digital money. It’s not printed like cash, but exists only on
computers. The most famous example is Bitcoin. You can send it to anyone, anywhere, and it
doesn’t need a bank or government to control it.

What Are the Main Goals of Cryptocurrency?

Cryptocurrencies were designed to solve problems with traditional money and banking. Here are
the main ideas:

1. Decentralization
What it means: No single person, company, or government is in charge.
Why it matters: Instead of a bank having all the power, everyone using the cryptocurrency
helps run it together.
Example: If you use Bitcoin, there isn’t a “Bitcoin boss.” The system runs by agreement of all
its users.

2. Immutability
What it means: Once a transaction (like sending money) is recorded, it can’t be erased or
changed.
Why it matters: This stops people from cheating by changing records later.
Example: If you send 1 Bitcoin to a friend, that record is permanent.

3. Transparency and Accessibility

What it means: Anyone can see the list of transactions (but not always who did them), and
anyone can use the system.
Why it matters: This makes cheating or hiding things very hard.
Example: You can look up all Bitcoin transactions online, even if you don’t use Bitcoin.

What is Centralized Control?

Centralized control means one person or group is in charge—like a bank or government. In
regular banking, the bank can block your transactions, freeze your account, or reverse
payments. Cryptocurrencies are designed to avoid this, so no one person or group can control or
block what you do with your money.
Which Option Does NOT Fit?
Let’s look at the options:

Is This a Goal of
Option What it Means
Cryptocurrency?

a) Decentralization of control and No one is the boss; everyone

YES
decision-making helps run it

Records can’t be changed or

b) Immutability of transaction records YES
erased

c) Centralized control over transactions One person/group is the boss NO

d) Transparency and accessibility of

Anyone can see/use the system YES
transaction data

Option (c) does NOT fit.

Cryptocurrencies are designed to avoid centralized control. They want to be open, fair, and run
by everyone, not just one group.

In Simple Words
Cryptocurrencies are like digital money that everyone controls together, not just a bank or
government.
Their main goals are:
No single boss (decentralization)
Records can’t be changed (immutability)
Everyone can see and use it (transparency and accessibility)
Centralized control (one boss) is the opposite of what cryptocurrencies are about.

So, the answer is (c): Centralized control over transactions does NOT align with the main
goals of cryptocurrency.
⁂

Which of the following is the primary goal of a

consensus algorithm in a distributed system?
a) To ensure that all nodes process transactions at the same speed
b) To guarantee that all nodes in the system agree on a single value or state
c) To minimize the number of nodes required for network communication
d) To prevent malicious attacks by encrypting all data transmitted between nodes
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
The primary goal of a consensus algorithm is to ensure that all nodes in a distributed system
agree
on a single value or state, even if some nodes may fail or act maliciously. This is crucial for
maintaining consistency and reliability across the system
i dont know anythiing about the concepts used in the questions like nothingliterlly so explain in
very muhc detail like to explaining to a 14 year old and give simplified explainations of all the
terms
Let’s break down the concepts in this question in the simplest way possible, as if you’re learning
them for the first time.

What is a Distributed System?

A distributed system is a group of computers (called nodes) that work together over a
network.
Imagine a group of friends, each with their own phone, working together to solve a puzzle.
They need to agree on what the puzzle looks like, even if some friends are slow, make
mistakes, or lose connection.

What is Consensus?
Consensus means “agreement.”
In a distributed system, consensus is about making sure all the computers (nodes) agree on
something important—like the answer to the puzzle, or the order of transactions in a
cryptocurrency.

What is a Consensus Algorithm?

A consensus algorithm is a set of rules or steps that all the computers follow to reach
agreement, even if:
Some computers are slow.
Some computers make mistakes.
Some computers try to cheat or lie.
Why is this important?
If the computers don’t agree, the system can break, lose data, or be attacked by hackers.
In things like Bitcoin or blockchains, consensus makes sure everyone’s copy of the data is
the same.
Let’s Look at the Options

a) To ensure that all nodes process transactions at the same speed

This is about speed, not agreement.
In real life, some computers are faster than others, but that’s not the main problem
consensus solves.

b) To guarantee that all nodes in the system agree on a single value or state
This is the correct answer!
The main job of a consensus algorithm is to make sure everyone agrees, even if some
computers are slow, broken, or dishonest.

c) To minimize the number of nodes required for network communication

This is about reducing how many computers talk to each other, but that’s not the main goal
of consensus.

d) To prevent malicious attacks by encrypting all data transmitted between nodes

Encryption is about keeping data secret. Consensus is about agreement, not secrecy.

In Simple Words
Consensus algorithm: A way for all the computers in a group to agree on the same thing,
even if some of them are broken or trying to cheat.
Why is it important? It keeps everything fair, correct, and working smoothly, even if there
are problems.

Real-Life Example
Imagine a group chat where everyone needs to agree on what movie to watch.
Some people might be offline, some might try to trick others, but the group needs a way to
make a decision everyone can accept.
A consensus algorithm is like a fair voting system that helps the group agree, no matter
what.

Summary Table
Term Simple Explanation

Distributed system Many computers working together over a network

Node One computer in the group

 Term Simple Explanation

Consensus Agreement among all computers

Consensus algorithm Rules to help all computers agree, even if some fail or cheat

So, the answer is (b):

The primary goal of a consensus algorithm is to guarantee that all nodes in the system agree on
a single value or state.
⁂

i dont know anythiing about the concepts used in

the questions like nothingliterlly so explain in very
muhc detail like to explaining to a 14 year old and
give simplified explainations of all the terms
I WANT YOU TO CREATE A PDF FOR THIS ALSONG WITH EXPLAINTIONS OF ALL QUESTIONS
LIKE I HAVE MENTIONED ABOVCE
Here’s a detailed, beginner-friendly explanation of all the terms and concepts from the questions
above, written for someone with no background in cryptography or blockchain—just like
explaining to a 14-year-old. At the end, you’ll find simple guidance on how to turn this into a PDF
for your own use.

1. How Do Alice and Bob Send Secure Messages?

Question:
Alice wants to send a message to Bob with confidentiality and integrity. What steps do they
follow?
Simple Explanation:
Imagine Alice wants to send a secret note to Bob, and she wants to make sure:
Only Bob can read it (confidentiality).
Bob knows the note is really from Alice and no one changed it (integrity).
Here’s how they do it:
Encryption: Alice locks the note in a box using a key only Bob can unlock (Bob’s public
key). Only Bob, with his private key, can open it.
Digital Signature: Alice signs the note using her own special stamp (her private key). Bob
can check the stamp using Alice’s public key to make sure it’s really from her and hasn’t
been changed.
Key Terms:
Public key: Like a padlock you can give to anyone to lock messages for you.
 Private key: Like the only key that can open your padlock.
Hash: A short, unique code for any message—if the message changes, the code changes.
Digital signature: A special code made with your private key that proves a message is
really from you.

2. What is a Merkle Tree?

Question:
How do you build a Merkle tree?
Simple Explanation:
A Merkle tree is like a family tree for data. It helps you quickly check if any piece of data has
changed.
Step 1: Take your data (like a list of numbers or files) and make a hash (unique code) for
each one.
Step 2: Pair up the hashes and make a new hash for each pair.
Step 3: Keep pairing and hashing until you have just one hash at the top—the “root” of the
tree.
Why use it?
If even one piece of data changes, the root hash changes, so you know something’s been
tampered with.

3. What Connects Blocks in a Blockchain?

Question:
Which of the following is used to refer to a block in a blockchain?
Simple Explanation:
A blockchain is a chain of blocks, each with a list of transactions. Each block has a special code
(hash) of the previous block, like a chain where each link is connected to the one before it. This
keeps the chain secure and in order.
Previous Block Hash: This is the code that links each block to the one before it.

4. What Are the Main Goals of Cryptocurrency?

Question:
Which of the following does not align with the primary design goals of cryptocurrency
development?
Simple Explanation:
Cryptocurrencies (like Bitcoin) are digital money designed to:
Be decentralized: No single person or company is the boss.
 Be immutable: Once a transaction is made, it can’t be changed.
Be transparent: Anyone can see the transactions.
Centralized control (one person or company in charge) is the opposite of what cryptocurrencies
are about.

5. What is a Consensus Algorithm?

Question:
Which of the following is the primary goal of a consensus algorithm in a distributed system?
Simple Explanation:
A consensus algorithm is a way for many computers (nodes) in a network to agree on something,
even if some are slow, broken, or trying to cheat.
Goal: Make sure all the computers agree on the same thing, like the order of transactions.

Key Terms Explained

Term Simple Explanation

Cryptography The science of keeping information secret and safe using codes [33] [34] .

Encryption Turning a message into a secret code so only the right person can read it [34] .

Decryption Turning the secret code back into the original message [34] .

Hash A short, unique fingerprint for any data—changes completely if the data changes [35] .

Public Key A code you can share with everyone so they can send you secret messages [35] .

Private Key A secret code only you know, used to open messages sent to you [35] .

Digital Signature A special code made with your private key to prove a message is really from you [35] .

Blockchain A chain of blocks, each with a list of transactions, linked by hashes [36] .

Merkle Tree A tree of hashes used to quickly check if any data has changed [35] .

Consensus Algorithm Rules that help all computers in a network agree on the same thing [36] .

Decentralization No single person or company is in charge—everyone helps run the system [36] [34] .

Immutability Once something is recorded, it can’t be changed or erased [36] .

Transparency Anyone can see the records or transactions [36] .

How to Create a PDF

You can easily turn these notes into a PDF:
1. Copy the text above.
2. Paste it into a Word processor (like Microsoft Word, Google Docs, or any text editor).
 3. Format it as you like (add titles, bold important terms, etc.).
4. Save or Export as PDF:
In Word: Go to File > Save As > Choose PDF.
In Google Docs: File > Download > PDF Document (.pdf).
5. If you want to make it interactive or add images, you can use tools like Explain
Everything [37] .

Recommended Resources for Beginners

If you want to learn more, here are some beginner-friendly resources:
Crypto101 (free online book): Explains cryptography basics in simple language [38] .
Understanding Cryptography by Christof Paar: A very beginner-friendly book [39] .
MIT OpenCourseWare: Blockchain and Money: Free video lectures on blockchain and
cryptography basics [40] .
Coursera’s Introduction to Cryptography: Free and paid online courses for beginners [39] .

If you follow these steps, you’ll have a detailed, easy-to-understand PDF about cryptography
and blockchain basics—perfect for beginners!
⁂

QUESTION 1
Total mark: 10 X 1 = 10
If the current block reward for Bitcoin is 6.25 BTC, and the difficulty adjustment mechanism is
such that,
on average, a new block is found every 10 minutes, how much Bitcoin will be mined per day (24
hours)?
a) 75 BTC
b) 144 BTC
c) 900 BTC
d) 1,080 BTC
Answer: (c)
Detailed solution:
The block reward is 6.25 BTC.
There are 144 blocks mined in a 24-hour period (24 hours × 60 minutes / 10 minutes per block).
In one day, the total Bitcoin mined would be 144 × 6.25=900 BTC.
Here’s a step-by-step, beginner-friendly explanation for your question about how much
Bitcoin is mined per day, with all terms explained as if you’re new to the topic.
Question
If the current block reward for Bitcoin is 6.25 BTC, and the difficulty adjustment mechanism
is such that, on average, a new block is found every 10 minutes, how much Bitcoin will be
mined per day (24 hours)?
a) 75 BTC
b) 144 BTC
c) 900 BTC
d) 1,080 BTC
Answer: (c) 900 BTC

Detailed Explanation

1. What is a Block in Bitcoin?

A block is like a page in a digital notebook. It contains a list of recent Bitcoin transactions.
Every 10 minutes, on average, a new block is created and added to the chain of previous
blocks (the “blockchain”).

2. What is a Block Reward?

The block reward is the amount of new Bitcoin given to the miner who successfully creates
(mines) a new block.
As of now, the reward is 6.25 BTC for each block.

3. How Many Blocks Are Mined Per Day?

There are 24 hours in a day.
Each hour has 60 minutes.
A new block is mined every 10 minutes.
So, the number of blocks per day is:

4. How Much Bitcoin is Mined in One Day?

Each block gives a reward of 6.25 BTC.
There are 144 blocks per day.
So, total Bitcoin mined per day:
5. Why Not the Other Options?
75 BTC: This would mean only 12 blocks per day, which is incorrect.
144 BTC: This would mean only 1 BTC per block, which is not the current reward.
1,080 BTC: This would mean 6.25 BTC per block but 173 blocks per day, which is too many.
900 BTC is correct because it matches the real math.

Key Terms Explained

Term Simple Explanation

Bitcoin (BTC) A type of digital money.

Block A record of recent transactions, like a page in a ledger.

Block Reward The amount of new Bitcoin given to the miner who creates a new block.

Mining The process of creating new blocks by solving puzzles with computers.

Blockchain A chain of blocks, each containing transaction records, linked together securely.

Summary Table
Step Value

Minutes in a day 1,440

Minutes per block 10

Blocks per day 144

BTC per block 6.25

Total BTC mined per day 900

Final Answer
900 BTC is mined per day when the block reward is 6.25 BTC and one block is found every 10
minutes [41] [42] [43] .

If you want to create a PDF of this explanation:

1. Copy this answer.
2. Paste it into a Word document or Google Doc.
3. Save or export as PDF (in Word: File > Save As > PDF; in Google Docs: File > Download >
PDF Document).
If you need a full PDF with all your detailed beginner explanations for all questions, let me know
and I can provide the content for you to copy and use!
 ⁂

Which of the following best defines a

permissioned blockchain?
a) Anyone can join and validate transactions without approval.
b) Only authorized participants can write and validate transactions.
c) It always uses proof-of-work (PoW) for consensus.
d) A permissioned blockchain does not need cryptographic hash operations
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
A permissioned blockchain restricts the ability to write or validate transactions to authorized
participants. This controlled access enhances security and privacy within the network.
The correct answer is (b) Only authorized participants can write and validate transactions.

Detailed Explanation (Beginner-Friendly)

What is a Permissioned Blockchain?

A permissioned blockchain is a special type of blockchain where only certain people or
organizations are allowed to participate fully. Think of it like a private club:
Only people with permission can join, see, or change things in the club.
You need to be invited or approved to take part in important activities, like adding new
records or checking if transactions are correct.

Key Features:
Restricted Access: Not everyone can join. Only people or companies who have been
approved (authorized) can participate [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] .
Controlled Writing and Validation: Only these authorized participants can add new
transactions or approve (validate) them [44] [49] [45] [46] [47] [48] .
Extra Security and Privacy: Because access is controlled, these blockchains are often used
by businesses or groups that want to keep their information private and secure [44] [49] [48] .
Examples: Used by banks, companies, or groups of companies working together.

Why Not the Other Options?

a) Anyone can join and validate transactions without approval:
This describes a public or permissionless blockchain, like Bitcoin or Ethereum, where anyone
can join and participate [50] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] .
c) It always uses proof-of-work (PoW) for consensus:
Permissioned blockchains can use many different ways to agree on transactions (called
 consensus algorithms), not just PoW. In fact, they often use faster or more energy-efficient
methods [44] [49] [48] .
d) A permissioned blockchain does not need cryptographic hash operations:
This is incorrect. Permissioned blockchains still use cryptographic hashes to keep data
secure and tamper-proof, just like other blockchains [44] [49] [45] [46] [47] [48] .

In Simple Words
A permissioned blockchain is like a private, members-only club where only approved people
can write or check the records. This makes it more secure and private than public blockchains,
where anyone can join.
So, the best definition is:
> Only authorized participants can write and validate transactions.
⁂

Which of the following combinations is correctly

used to compute Bitcoin's current block hash?
a) Previous block’s hash, Merkle root, block reward, nonce, timestamp, and block size
b) Previous block’s hash, timestamp, nonce, Merkle root, difficulty bits, and block version
c) Block creator’s public key, Merkle root, timestamp, block reward, nonce, and difficulty level
d) Previous block’s hash, nonce, Merkle root, height, timestamp, and difficulty bits
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
Please refer to the Week 3 Lecture 13.
The correct answer is (b) Previous block’s hash, timestamp, nonce, Merkle root, difficulty
bits, and block version.

Detailed Solution

What is a Block Hash in Bitcoin?

A block hash is a unique digital fingerprint for a block in the Bitcoin blockchain. It is calculated
by taking specific pieces of information from the block (called the block header) and running
them through a cryptographic hash function (SHA-256, twice).
What Information is Included in the Block Header?
According to Bitcoin’s protocol and developer documentation, the block header contains exactly
six fields:

Field Description

Version The version number of the block (shows protocol changes)

Previous block hash The hash of the previous block (links blocks together)

Merkle root The hash of all transactions in this block, combined in a Merkle tree

Timestamp When this block was created (in seconds since 1970-01-01)

Difficulty bits The current mining difficulty target (in compact format, called "bits")

Nonce A number miners change to try to find a valid hash

These six fields are combined (concatenated) and then hashed twice with SHA-256 to produce
the block hash [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] .

Why is Option (b) Correct?

Option (b) lists all six required fields for the block header, and no unnecessary or incorrect fields:
Previous block’s hash
Timestamp
Nonce
Merkle root
Difficulty bits
Block version
This exactly matches the block header structure used to compute the hash [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] .

Why Not the Other Options?

Option (a): Includes block reward and block size, which are not part of the block header.
Option (c): Includes block creator’s public key and block reward, which are not in the block
header.
Option (d): Includes "height" (block’s position in the chain), which is not a field in the block
header.

Summary Table
Field in Block Header Included in Option (b)? Included in Other Options?

Previous block’s hash Yes Yes (a, d), No (c)

Timestamp Yes Yes (a, b, d), Yes (c)

 Field in Block Header Included in Option (b)? Included in Other Options?

Nonce Yes Yes (a, b, c, d)

Merkle root Yes Yes (a, b, c, d)

Difficulty bits Yes No (a, c), Yes (d)

Block version Yes No (a, c, d)

In Simple Terms
To compute a Bitcoin block’s hash, you use these six things from the block header:
Version
Previous block’s hash
Merkle root
Timestamp
Difficulty bits
Nonce
Put them together, hash them twice, and you get the block’s unique hash.
So, the correct answer is (b).
⁂

BRUH I AM COMPLETE NOOB IN BLOCK I DONT

GET PLS CREATE A DLOW CHAR LIK TO SEXPLAIN
AND CORNNECT ALL TERMS LIKE BLVB HASH
BIVOCIN FUCK IT
Absolutely! Here’s a “dumb low-char like-to-sexplain” (super simple, meme-style, and
connected) guide to blockchain, Bitcoin, block hash, and all the core terms you see in your
assignments. This is written as if you’re totally new and want everything in plain, relatable
language.

🟦 BLOCKCHAIN: THE BIG DIGITAL NOTEBOOK

Imagine a GIANT notebook that everyone can see and write in, but nobody can erase or
rip out pages [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] .
Each page = a block.
The notebook = the blockchain.
🟩 BLOCK: THE PAGE

A block is like a page in the notebook.

It stores a bunch of transactions (like “Alice paid Bob 1 Bitcoin”).
When the page is full, it gets “stamped” with a special code (the hash) and added to the
notebook [57] [61] [58] [60] .

🟨 HASH: THE SECRET CODE

A hash is like a magic fingerprint for a block/page [62] [63] [64] .
It’s made by running all the block’s data through a math blender (SHA-256).
If you change even one letter in the block, the hash changes completely [62] [63] [64] .
Why? To make sure nobody can secretly change history. If they do, the hash won’t match!

🟧 CHAIN: HOW BLOCKS ARE LINKED

Every new block remembers the hash of the previous block [57] [58] [63] [60] .
This is like each page saying, “I come after THIS page.”
If someone tries to change an old page, all the next pages will notice something’s wrong
because the chain of hashes breaks.

🟪 MINING: THE BLOCK LOTTERY

Mining = competing to write the next page in the notebook [62] [57] [61] [65] .
Miners are like students racing to solve a puzzle (find a special number called a nonce).
The puzzle: “Find a nonce so that the hash of this block starts with a bunch of zeros.”
First to solve gets to add the block and wins Bitcoin as a reward [62] [57] [61] .

🟥 BITCOIN: THE MAGIC INTERNET MONEY

Bitcoin is just digital money tracked in the blockchain notebook.
Every transaction is recorded in a block.
No one can cheat, spend twice, or fake coins because everyone checks the notebook and
the hashes.

🟫 DECENTRALIZED: NO BOSS, NO BANK

The notebook is not kept in one place.

Copies are everywhere (on thousands of computers called “nodes”) [56] [57] [58] [65] [59] .
Everyone checks everyone else’s work. No single person or bank is in charge.
🟦 CONSENSUS: EVERYONE AGREES

Before a new page/block is added, everyone must agree it’s legit.

This is called consensus.
In Bitcoin, consensus is reached by “proof of work” (solving the mining puzzle) [62] [57] [58]
[64] [60] .

🟩 WHY IS THIS SAFE?

If you try to cheat and change an old page, your hash won’t match, and everyone will reject
your version.
To successfully cheat, you’d have to redo all the puzzles faster than everyone else—
basically impossible unless you own most of the computers.

🟨 TL;DR: HOW IT ALL CONNECTS

Blockchain = Big notebook

Block = Page in the notebook
Hash = Magic code/fingerprint for each page
Chain = Each page links to the previous with its hash
Mining = Solving puzzles to add new pages
Bitcoin = Digital money tracked in the notebook
Decentralized = No one is the boss; everyone checks everyone
Consensus = Everyone agrees before adding a new page

🟦 VISUAL MEME

Blockchain: 📒
Block: 📄
Hash: 🧬
Chain: 🔗
Mining: ⛏️💰
Bitcoin: ₿
Decentralized: 🌍🤝
Consensus: 👍👍👍
🟧 EXAMPLE: “ALICE SENDS BOB 1 BITCOIN”

1. Alice says: “I want to send 1 BTC to Bob.”

2. This gets written on a new page (block) with other transactions.
3. Miners race to solve the puzzle (find the right nonce).
4. First miner to solve it adds the page, gets Bitcoin reward, and everyone updates their copy.
5. The new page is linked to the last one by the hash.
6. The notebook grows, and everyone can check the math.

🟩 WHY DOES EVERYONE TALK ABOUT HASHES?

Hashes make it impossible to secretly change the past.
They’re like digital security seals.
If you change the past, the seal breaks and everyone knows.

🟦 FINAL VIBE

> Blockchain is just a super-secure, public notebook where everyone can see every transaction,
no one can cheat, and the math keeps everyone honest.

If you want this in a PDF, just copy-paste this into a Word or Google Doc and export!
If you want even more memes or analogies, just ask!
⁂

“Mining = Solving puzzles to add new pages” WHAT

KINFOF PUZZLES MAN
Here’s a super simple, noob-friendly explanation of what kind of “puzzles” Bitcoin miners
solve—like you asked, “WHAT KINFOF PUZZLES MAN”—with all jargon broken down:

🟧 What Kind of Puzzle Do Bitcoin Miners Solve?

It’s Not a Math Test, It’s a Guessing Game!

The puzzle isn’t a tricky math question like in school.
Instead, it’s more like a lottery or guessing game with computers.
What Are They Trying to Do?
Miners want to add a new page (block) to the blockchain notebook.
To do this, they must find a special code called a hash that starts with a certain number of
zeros (like “000000…”).
The only way to find it is to keep guessing different numbers (called a nonce) and check if
the hash fits the rule.

How Does It Work?

1. The miner takes all the data for the new block (transactions, previous block’s hash, etc.).
2. They add a random number (the nonce).
3. They run all this through a magic math blender (the SHA-256 hash function).
4. They check if the result (the hash) starts with enough zeros.
If yes: They win! They get to add the block and earn Bitcoin.
If no: They change the nonce and try again. And again. And again. Millions of times per
second.
> It’s like rolling dice over and over, hoping to get a super rare combination.

Why Is This Hard?

There’s no shortcut or trick. The only way is to try as many nonces as possible, as fast as
possible.
The network makes it harder or easier by changing how many zeros you need at the start
(this is called the difficulty).

Why Do This?
This “proof of work” shows you really did a lot of work (computing power).
It keeps the blockchain safe from cheaters, because it’s too expensive and slow to fake a
block.

🟦 TL;DR (Too Long; Didn’t Read)

Puzzle: Find a number (nonce) so that the hash of the block starts with a bunch of zeros.
How: Keep guessing numbers and checking the hash until it works.
Why: To prove you did the work and earn Bitcoin.
🟩 Analogy

> It’s like a lottery where you keep buying tickets (trying nonces) until you get the winning
number (the hash with the right number of zeros).

🟪 Example
Let’s say you want a hash that starts with “0000”. You try:
Nonce = 1 → Hash = “a3b7…”
Nonce = 2 → Hash = “f9c2…”
Nonce = 3 → Hash = “0000f5e…”
Bingo! You found a winner.
But in real life, you might need to try trillions of numbers before you get lucky.

🟥 Key Words

Hash: The magic fingerprint of the block.

Nonce: The random number you keep changing to try to win.
Difficulty: How hard it is (how many zeros you need).
Proof of Work: Showing you did all this guessing work.

So, the “puzzle” is just: Guess a number until the hash starts with enough zeros. That’s it!
It’s hard because there’s no shortcut—just pure guessing and checking, super fast, with
computers [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] [72] [73] [74] [75] .
⁂

HOW FINALLY GIVE ME ALFOWSHCART SHOING

HOW OES IT ALL CONNECT
Here’s a noob-friendly, step-by-step flowchart (with simple explanations) showing how
blockchain works and how all the key terms connect. This is designed for absolute beginners,
using plain language and emoji cues.

🟦 BLOCKCHAIN FLOWCHART: HOW IT ALL CONNECTS

1. User Wants to Make a Transaction

Alice wants to send 1 Bitcoin to Bob.
2. Transaction Creation
Alice creates a transaction:
“Send 1 BTC to Bob”
She signs it with her private key (proves it’s really her).

3. Transaction Broadcast
The transaction is sent out to the network (all the computers, called nodes).

4. Transaction Pool
The transaction waits in a “pool” with other new transactions, waiting to be added to the
blockchain.

5. Block Formation
Miners (special nodes) group transactions together into a block (like a new page in a
notebook).

6. Mining (Proof of Work Puzzle)

Miners race to solve a puzzle:
They must find a special number (nonce) so that the block’s hash (digital fingerprint)
starts with a bunch of zeros.
This is called Proof of Work.

7. Block Validation
The first miner to solve the puzzle broadcasts their new block to the network.
Other nodes check:
Are all transactions valid?
Does the hash fit the rules?

8. Block Added to Blockchain

If the block is valid, it’s added to the chain (the blockchain).
Each block contains:
The hash of the previous block (links the chain together)
The new transactions
The Merkle root (a hash that summarizes all transactions in the block)
The nonce, timestamp, etc.
9. Blockchain Updated
All nodes update their copy of the blockchain with the new block.

10. Transaction Complete

Bob receives the Bitcoin!
The transaction is now permanent and can’t be changed (immutable).

🟩 HOW THE TERMS CONNECT (with Emoji)

Step What Happens Key Terms (Emoji)

1 Alice wants to pay Bob User 👩‍💻, Transaction 💸

2 Alice signs the transaction Private Key 🔑, Digital Signature ✍️

3 Transaction sent to network Nodes 🌐, Broadcast 📡

4 Transaction waits in pool Transaction Pool 🏊‍♂️

5 Miners make a block Block 📦, Miner ⛏️

6 Miners solve puzzle (Proof of Work) Nonce 🎲, Hash 🧬, Difficulty 🚦

7 Block is checked by others Validation ✅, Consensus 🤝

8 Block added to blockchain Blockchain 📒, Previous Hash 🔗

9 All nodes update their copy Distributed Ledger 📚

10 Bob gets Bitcoin, record is permanent Immutability 🔒, Transparency 👀

🟨 SIMPLE VISUAL FLOW

[Start]
↓
Alice creates transaction → Signs with private key
↓
Transaction broadcast to network
↓
Miners collect transactions → Form a block
↓
Miners race to solve puzzle (find nonce so hash starts with zeros)
↓
Winner broadcasts new block
↓
Network checks block is valid
↓
Block added to blockchain (linked by previous hash)
↓
All nodes update their copy
↓
Transaction confirmed, Bob gets Bitcoin!
 ↓
[End]

🟧 KEY CONCEPTS (Noob Definitions)

Blockchain: A public notebook where everyone can see and verify every transaction.
Block: A page in the notebook, full of transactions.
Hash: A digital fingerprint for a block.
Nonce: A random number miners guess to solve the puzzle.
Proof of Work: The puzzle miners solve to add a block.
Miner: A computer that tries to solve the puzzle and add blocks.
Consensus: Agreement among all nodes that a block is valid.
Immutability: Once something is written, it can’t be changed.
Distributed Ledger: Everyone has a copy of the notebook.

🟪 TL;DR

> Blockchain is a public, digital notebook. Transactions are grouped into blocks. Miners
solve puzzles to add blocks. Each block links to the previous one, making a chain. Everyone
has a copy. Once added, blocks can’t be changed. This keeps everything honest, open, and
secure.

If you want this as a PDF flowchart, just copy this answer into Word/Google Docs, add
arrows/boxes as you like, and export as PDF!
If you want a hand-drawn style or a diagram, let me know!
⁂

“nonce” ??
Here’s a simple, beginner-friendly explanation of what a nonce is in blockchain and why it
matters:

What is a Nonce? (Noob Level)

Nonce stands for “number used once.”
In blockchain (especially Bitcoin), it’s a special number that miners keep changing to try to
“win” the right to add a new block to the blockchain [76] [77] [78] [79] .
Why Do We Need a Nonce?
When miners want to add a new block, they must solve a puzzle:
Find a special hash (digital code) for the block that starts with a certain number of zeros.
The only way to do this is to keep trying different numbers (the nonce) in the block’s data
until the hash fits the rule [80] [81] [76] [77] [79] .

How Does It Work? (Step by Step)

1. Miner collects transactions to make a new block.
2. Miner sets the nonce to 0.
3. Miner hashes (calculates the digital fingerprint) of the block’s data + nonce.
4. Miner checks:
Does the hash start with the required number of zeros?
YES: The miner wins, adds the block, and gets a reward.
NO: Miner adds 1 to the nonce and tries again.
5. Repeat steps 3-4, sometimes billions or trillions of times, until someone finds a winning
nonce [76] [77] [82] [79] .

Why is the Nonce Important?

It’s the key to mining: Only by changing the nonce can miners get different hashes and try
to find a valid one.
It makes the network secure and fair: You can’t cheat or shortcut the process; you must do
the work [77] [82] [79] .
It helps prevent double-spending and keeps the blockchain tamper-proof [77] [82] .

Two Types of Nonce

1. Block Nonce:
Used in mining to find a valid hash for a new block (what we just explained) [76] [77] [82]
[79] .

2. Transaction Nonce (like in Ethereum):

A counter that increases with each transaction from an account, to stop replay or
duplicate transactions [83] [77] .
Analogy
> Nonce is like a lottery ticket number. Miners keep buying new tickets (trying new nonces)
until someone wins (finds a hash that fits the rule).

TL;DR
Nonce = Number used once.
Miners keep changing it to try to find a winning block hash.
It’s what makes mining possible and keeps blockchain secure.

In MCQ terms:
> In Bitcoin mining, the nonce is a value miners iterate through to generate a valid hash [82] [79] .

If you want a flowchart or a meme-style summary, just ask!

⁂

QUESTION 5
In the Bitcoin, block identifier refers to
a) SHA1 (128 bits) of the future block header
b) Double SHA256 of the current block header
c) Double SHA256 of the difficulty bits only
d) Triple SHA256 of the future block header
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
The Bitcoin block identifier (block hash) contains Double SHA256 on the current block header.
This
means performing SHA256 twice. Please refer to the Week 3 Lecture 13.
The correct answer is (b) Double SHA256 of the current block header.

Detailed Explanation

What is a Block Identifier in Bitcoin?

The block identifier (also called the block hash) is a unique code that identifies each block
in the Bitcoin blockchain.
This identifier is used to reference, search for, and link blocks together in the chain [84] [85] .
How is the Block Hash Computed?
The block hash is calculated by applying the SHA-256 cryptographic hash function twice
(double SHA-256) to the current block’s header [84] [86] [87] [88] .
The block header contains important fields: version, previous block hash, Merkle root,
timestamp, difficulty bits, and nonce [86] [89] [88] .
In simple steps:
1. Take the block header (not the whole block, just the header).
2. Run it through SHA-256 once.
3. Take the result and run it through SHA-256 again.
4. The final output is the block’s unique identifier (block hash) [84] [85] [87] [88] .

Why Not the Other Options?

SHA1 (128 bits) of the future block header:
Bitcoin uses SHA-256 (256 bits), not SHA1, and not for future blocks [84] [86] [85] .
Double SHA256 of the difficulty bits only:
Only hashing the difficulty bits would not uniquely identify a block. The hash must be over
the entire block header [86] [89] [88] .
Triple SHA256 of the future block header:
Bitcoin uses double (not triple) SHA-256 and always on the current block header [84] [86] [85]
[87] .

Summary Table
Option Description Correct? Why/Why Not

Wrong hash function, wrong bits, wrong

a SHA1 (128 bits) of future block header No
block

Double SHA256 of current block

b Yes Matches Bitcoin protocol [84] [86] [85] [87] [88]
header

c Double SHA256 of difficulty bits only No Not unique, incomplete

d Triple SHA256 of future block header No Wrong hash count, wrong block

In Simple Words
> The Bitcoin block identifier (block hash) is made by taking the block’s header, running it
through SHA-256 twice (double SHA-256), and using the result as the block’s unique code [84]
[85] [87] [88] .

So, the correct answer is (b): Double SHA256 of the current block header.
 ⁂

In a Merkle tree with n transactions (n is a power

of 2), if one transaction is invalid, how many
recalculations are needed to detect and correct the invalid transaction?
a) n/2
b) log2 (n) + 1
c) n−1
d) 3log2 (n)
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
The Merkle tree recalculates the hashes at each level up to the root for verification. This requires
recalculating one hash at each of the log2 (n) levels, plus one final hash for the root.
The correct answer is (b) log₂(n) + 1.

Detailed Solution (Beginner-Friendly)

What is a Merkle Tree?

A Merkle tree is a special kind of tree used in blockchain to organize and verify lots of
transactions efficiently. Each transaction is at the bottom (leaf), and pairs of transactions are
combined and hashed upward until you reach one final hash at the top (the root).

What Happens If One Transaction Is Invalid?

Suppose you have n transactions (n is a power of 2, like 8, 16, 32, etc.). If one transaction is
invalid (let’s say, someone tries to cheat), you need to check which one is wrong by recalculating
the hashes up the tree.

How Many Hashes Need to Be Recalculated?

Each level of the tree, from the invalid transaction (leaf) up to the root, needs to be
recalculated.
The number of levels in a balanced binary tree with n leaves is log₂(n).
At each level, you recalculate the hash for the parent node.
Finally, you also need to recalculate the hash for the root.
So, total recalculations = log₂(n) (for each level) + 1 (for the root).
Example
Let’s say n = 8 (so log₂(8) = 3):
If transaction 5 is invalid, you recalculate:
1. Its parent hash (level 1)
2. The next parent up (level 2)
3. The next parent up (level 3)
4. Finally, the root hash (add 1)
Total recalculations = 3 + 1 = 4

Why Not the Other Options?

n/2: This would mean recalculating half the tree, which is not needed.
n−1: That would be recalculating almost every node, which is not efficient.
3log₂(n): This is more than needed; only one hash per level is required.

Summary Table
Option Meaning Correct?

a) n/2 Half the nodes No

b) log₂(n) + 1 One per level + root Yes

c) n−1 All but one node No

d) 3log₂(n) Three per level No

In Simple Words
> To detect and correct an invalid transaction in a Merkle tree, you only need to recalculate the
hashes along the path from the bad transaction up to the root—one at each level, plus the root
itself. That’s log₂(n) + 1 recalculations.

So, the answer is (b) log₂(n) + 1.

⁂
“The number of levels in a balanced binary tree with n
leaves is log₂(n).” why balanced binary tree
The statement "The number of levels in a balanced binary tree with n leaves is log₂(n)" refers
specifically to balanced binary trees because of how such trees are structured and how this
relates to efficiency in computer science.

Why "Balanced" Binary Tree?

1. What is a Balanced Binary Tree?

A binary tree is a structure where each node has at most two children.
A balanced binary tree is one where the tree is as "even" as possible—meaning the left and
right branches at every node are roughly the same height [90] .
In a perfectly balanced tree, all the leaves (nodes at the bottom) are at the same level or
within one level of each other.

2. Why Does log₂(n) Levels Matter?

In a balanced binary tree, every time you go down a level, the number of possible nodes
doubles.
Level 0: 1 node (the root)
Level 1: 2 nodes
Level 2: 4 nodes
Level 3: 8 nodes
... and so on.
If you have $ n $ leaves and the tree is balanced, the number of levels needed to fit all
leaves is $ \log_2(n) $ [91] [92] [93] .
For example, if $ n = 8 $, then $ \log_2(8) = 3 $ levels are needed.

3. Why Not Unbalanced?

In an unbalanced tree, some branches can be much longer than others, so the number of
levels could be much greater than $ \log_2(n) $.
Only in a balanced tree do you get the minimal possible height for the given number of
leaves, making operations like search, insert, and verify as fast as possible [90] [92] [93] .
4. Why is This Important in Computer Science?
Many algorithms (like binary search, Merkle trees, etc.) rely on cutting things in half at each
step, which is why $ \log_2(n) $ comes up so often [91] .
Balanced trees ensure that these operations remain efficient, with time complexity
proportional to $ \log_2(n) $.

Summary Table
Tree Type Number of Levels (for n leaves) Why?

Balanced Binary Tree $ \log_2(n) $ Each level doubles the nodes

Unbalanced Tree Can be up to n Some branches much longer than others

In Simple Words
> Balanced binary trees are used because they keep the number of levels (or steps) as small as
possible—specifically, $ \log_2(n) $ for $ n $ leaves. This makes searching, verifying, and
updating very fast and efficient [91] [90] [92] [93] .

References:
- [91] Reddit: Why is log₂ common in computer science?
- [90] GeeksforGeeks: Balanced Binary Tree
- [92] GeeksforGeeks: Properties of Binary Tree
- [93] StackOverflow: Proof that the height of a balanced binary-search tree is log(n)
⁂

QUESTION 7
Which of the following Bitcoin script opcode is needed to remove the second-to-top stack item?
a) OP_DELETE
b) OP_2POP
c) OP_DEQUE
d) OP_NIP
Answer: (d)
Detailed solution:
Bitcoin Script uses specific opcodes like OP_DROP, OP_NIP, etc., to manipulate the stack.
OP_NIP
is explicitly designed to remove the second-to-top stack item.
The correct answer is (d) OP_NIP.
Detailed Solution

What is Bitcoin Script?

Bitcoin Script is a simple programming language used to define the conditions under which a
Bitcoin transaction can be spent. It works like a stack: you push and pop data items, and use
opcodes (special instructions) to manipulate the stack.

What is the Stack?

Think of the stack as a pile of plates:
The top plate is the last one you put on (top stack item).
The second-to-top plate is just below the top one.

What Does OP_NIP Do?

OP_NIP is a Bitcoin Script opcode.
Its job is to remove the second-to-top item from the stack.
After OP_NIP runs, only the top item remains, and the one just below it is gone.
Example:
Suppose the stack looks like this (top at the right):

[bottom] A B [top]

If you use OP_NIP, the stack becomes:

[bottom] B [top]

(The "A" is removed.)

Why Not the Other Options?

OP_DELETE, OP_2POP, OP_DEQUE are not valid or standard Bitcoin Script opcodes for this
operation.
OP_DROP removes only the top stack item, not the second-to-top.
Only OP_NIP is defined to remove the second-to-top stack item [94] [95] .

Reference Table (from Bitcoin Script documentation)

Opcode What it does

OP_DROP Removes the top stack item

OP_NIP Removes the second-to-top stack item

 Opcode What it does

OP_2DROP Removes the top two stack items

OP_OVER Copies the second-to-top item to the top

OP_TUCK Copies the top item below the second-to-top

In Simple Words
OP_NIP is the opcode you use in Bitcoin Script to remove the second-to-top item from the stack.
So, the answer is (d) OP_NIP. [94] [95]
⁂

If a Merkle tree has 8 transactions, how many

hashes are required to compute the Merkle root?
a) 8
b) 15
c) 16
d) 7
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
In a Merkle tree with 8 transactions, 7 additional hashes are needed to compute the Merkle root
as
pairs of transaction hashes are combined recursively at each level. The total hashes, including
the
leaves, are 15: 8 leaf hashes and 7 parent hashes.
The correct answer is (b) 15.

Detailed Solution
A Merkle tree is a binary tree used in blockchains to efficiently summarize and verify large sets
of transactions. Each transaction is hashed and placed at the bottom of the tree (the leaves).
These hashes are then paired, combined, and hashed again at each level until only one hash
remains at the top—the Merkle root.

Step-by-Step Calculation for 8 Transactions

Let’s break down the structure for 8 transactions (where 8 is a power of 2):
1. Leaf Level (Bottom)
Each transaction is hashed.
Number of leaf hashes: 8

2. First Parent Level

Pair up the 8 leaf hashes to get 4 parent hashes (each parent is the hash of two children).
Number of hashes at this level: 4

3. Second Parent Level

Pair up the 4 hashes to get 2 parent hashes.
Number of hashes at this level: 2

4. Root Level (Top)

Pair the 2 hashes to get 1 Merkle root.
Number of hashes at this level: 1

Total Hashes
Add all the hashes together:
Leaf hashes: 8
First parent level: 4
Second parent level: 2
Root: 1
Total = 8 + 4 + 2 + 1 = 15 hashes

Summary Table
Level Number of Hashes

Leaves 8

First parents 4

Second parents 2

Root 1

Total 15
Why Not the Other Options?
a) 8: Only counts the leaves, not the parent or root hashes.
c) 16: Too many (would be true if you mistakenly counted an extra level).
d) 7: This is the number of non-leaf (parent and root) hashes, not the total.

References
Gemini Cryptopedia: Merkle Trees & Merkle Roots [96]
Decentralized Thoughts: What is a Merkle Tree? [97]
GeeksforGeeks: Blockchain Merkle Trees [98]

In Simple Words
If a Merkle tree has 8 transactions, you need 15 hashes (8 for the transactions themselves, and
7 more for the parent and root nodes) to compute the Merkle root.
So, the answer is (b) 15.
⁂

so what do we do at the merkle root

At the Merkle root in a blockchain, you have a single hash that acts as a unique “fingerprint” for
all the transactions in that block. Here’s what you do with it and why it matters:

What Do We Do at the Merkle Root?

1. Store the Merkle Root in the Block Header

The Merkle root is placed in the block header (the summary section at the top of each
block).
This connects the block’s header to all the transactions inside the block [99] [100] .

2. Use It to Verify Transactions Efficiently

If someone wants to check if a specific transaction is included in a block, they don’t need to
look at every transaction.
Instead, they can use a Merkle proof: a short path of hashes from the transaction up to the
Merkle root.
By comparing the calculated root with the one in the block header, anyone can verify if the
transaction is really part of the block—quickly and with minimal data [101] [102] [103] [104] [100] .
3. Ensure Data Integrity and Tamper Detection
If any transaction inside the block changes, the Merkle root will also change.
This means if someone tries to tamper with a transaction, it will be detected immediately
because the Merkle root won’t match what’s in the block header [100] [105] [99] .

4. Enable Lightweight Clients (SPV)

Lightweight wallets (SPV clients) don’t download all transactions. They just check the block
headers and ask for Merkle proofs to verify transactions.
This saves time, bandwidth, and storage, making it possible to use Bitcoin securely on
phones or small devices [101] [103] [104] .

Why Not Just Hash All Transactions at Once?

If you hashed all transactions together, you’d need the whole block to verify a single
transaction.
The Merkle tree structure lets you prove inclusion with just log₂(n) hashes, not all n hashes,
making verification much faster and more efficient—especially for large blocks [101] [103] [104]
[100] .

In Simple Words
> The Merkle root is used to quickly prove that a transaction is included in a block, to detect
tampering, and to make verification efficient for everyone on the network.

Summary:
The Merkle root is stored in the block header.
It lets anyone verify transactions efficiently.
It protects against tampering.
It enables lightweight clients to work securely.
If the Merkle root doesn’t match, you know something in the block’s transactions has been
changed or is missing [100] [105] [99] .
⁂

QUESTION 10
What happens if the number of transactions in a Merkle tree is odd?
a) The tree cannot be built
b) Dummy (duplicate) hashes are added to adjust
c) Transactions are left out of the block
d) The Merkle root is ignored
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
If the number of transactions is odd, pairs cannot be formed for the suitable structure of the
Merkle
tree. To fix this, dummy (duplicate) hashes are added to make the number of transactions even,
allowing the tree to be constructed properly. Please refer to the Week 3 Lecture 14.
The correct answer is (b) Dummy (duplicate) hashes are added to adjust.

Detailed Solution

What happens if the number of transactions in a Merkle tree is odd?

A Merkle tree is a binary tree used to efficiently summarize and verify the integrity of large sets
of data (like transactions in a block). For the tree to be built properly, each level must have an
even number of nodes so that every node can be paired and hashed with another.
If the number of transactions (leaf nodes) is odd:
You cannot pair up the last transaction with another, since there’s no partner for it.
How is this solved?
The standard way is to duplicate the last transaction’s hash (or node) so it forms a pair
with itself. This way, every node at every level always has a partner, and the tree can be
built up to a single Merkle root at the top [106] [107] [108] [109] [110] .

Example:
Suppose you have 5 transactions: T1, T2, T3, T4, T5.
1. Hash each transaction:
H1, H2, H3, H4, H5
2. Pair up and hash:
H1 + H2 → H12
H3 + H4 → H34
H5 is alone, so it is duplicated: H5 + H5 → H55
3. Next level:
H12 + H34 → H1234
H55 is alone, so it is duplicated: H55 + H55 → H5555
4. Final level:
H1234 + H5555 → Merkle root
This duplication process happens at any level of the tree where there is an odd number of
nodes, not just at the bottom [106] [107] [108] [109] [110] .
Why Not the Other Options?
a) The tree cannot be built:
Incorrect. The tree can always be built by duplicating the last hash.
c) Transactions are left out of the block:
Incorrect. No transactions are left out; all are included.
d) The Merkle root is ignored:
Incorrect. The Merkle root is always calculated and used.

In Simple Words
> If there’s an odd number of transactions in a Merkle tree, the last transaction’s hash is
duplicated so that every node can be paired. This ensures the tree can be built properly and the
Merkle root can be calculated.

So, the answer is (b): Dummy (duplicate) hashes are added to adjust.
⁂

Number of questions: 10
Total mark: 10 X 1 = 10
QUESTION 1
What is a "fork" in the context of Bitcoin?
a) A change in the Bitcoin protocol that leads to the creation of a new version of the blockchain
b) A new type of cryptocurrency that does not rely on blockchain technology
c) A collaborative process for miners to resolve conflicts in the blockchain
d) None of the above
Answer: (a)
Detailed solution:
result
in
In the context of Bitcoin, a "fork" refers to a change in the protocol or rules of the network,
which
can
the
creation
Please refer to the Week 4 Lecture 16.
Here is the answer and detailed solution for your query:
QUESTION 1
What is a "fork" in the context of Bitcoin?
a) A change in the Bitcoin protocol that leads to the creation of a new version of the blockchain
b) A new type of cryptocurrency that does not rely on blockchain technology
c) A collaborative process for miners to resolve conflicts in the blockchain
d) None of the above
Answer: (a)

Detailed Solution
A fork in Bitcoin refers to a change in the protocol or the rules that govern the Bitcoin network.
When a fork occurs, it can result in the creation of a new version of the blockchain. This happens
if some participants (miners or nodes) adopt the new rules, while others continue following the
old rules. The blockchain then splits into two separate chains from the point of the fork, each
following its own set of rules. This process can create a new cryptocurrency (for example,
Bitcoin Cash was created from a Bitcoin hard fork) [111] [112] [113] [114] [115] .
There are two main types of forks:
Hard Fork: A major change that is not backward-compatible, resulting in two separate
blockchains and potentially two different cryptocurrencies.
Soft Fork: A minor, backward-compatible change that does not split the blockchain.
Why is option (a) correct?
Because it captures the essence of a fork: a protocol change that can lead to a new blockchain
version.
Why are the other options incorrect?
(b) A fork is not about creating a new type of cryptocurrency without blockchain; it is about
modifying the existing blockchain protocol.
(c) While forks can happen due to disagreements among miners, the definition is not about a
collaborative process but about a protocol change.
(d) "None of the above" is incorrect, as (a) is correct.

Summary:
A fork in Bitcoin is a change in the protocol that can create a new version of the blockchain,
sometimes resulting in a new cryptocurrency if the network splits [111] [112] [113] [114] [115] .
⁂
Suppose a miner initially receives 100 bitcoins as
a reward for successfully mining a block at time
Jan, 2009.
The reward for mining a block is halved approximately every four years (or after every 210,000
blocks).
Based on this halving process, which of the following statements are correct? (Please note that
once the
reward is halved, it will remain the same until four years have been completed or after every
210,000 blocks.)
a) In Jan 2013, the miner will receive 50 bitcoins for adding a new block.
b) In Jan 2018, the miner will receive 25 bitcoins for adding a new block.
c) In Jan 2021, the miner will receive 12.5 bitcoins for adding a new block.
d) In Jan 2024, the miner will receive 6.25 bitcoins for adding a new block.
Answer: (a), (b), and (c)
Detailed solution:
The Bitcoin block reward halves approximately every 4 years (after 210,000 blocks). From Jan
2009
reward was 100 bitcoins(same for 2010, 2011, and 2012); By Jan 2013, the reward was 50
bitcoins(same for 2014, 2015, and 2016); by Jan 2018 it was 25 bitcoins(same for 2017, 2019,
and
2020); and by Jan 2021 it was 12.5 bitcoins(same for 2022, 2023, and 2024). By Jan 2024, the
halving
to 6.25 bitcoins will not yet have occurred, making the last statement incorrect.
210,000 blocks why this absurd no.
Let's break down your query into two parts:

1. Why is the halving interval set to 210,000 blocks in Bitcoin?

What is the 210,000 Blocks Halving Rule?

In Bitcoin, the block reward (the number of new bitcoins miners get for adding a block) is
cut in half every 210,000 blocks.
This is programmed into the Bitcoin software by its creator, Satoshi Nakamoto.

Why 210,000 Blocks?

Block time: Bitcoin aims for a new block every 10 minutes.
Blocks per year:
1 hour = 6 blocks (60 minutes / 10 minutes per block)
1 day = 144 blocks (6 blocks/hour × 24 hours)
1 year ≈ 52,560 blocks (144 × 365)
 210,000 blocks ≈ 4 years:
210,000 blocks / 144 blocks per day ≈ 1,458 days ≈ 4 years
So, the halving is designed to happen about every 4 years, but it’s measured in blocks, not
calendar time.
This keeps the schedule consistent, even if blocks are found a little faster or slower than exactly
10 minutes.

Why Halving at All?

To control inflation: Reducing the reward slows down the creation of new bitcoins.
To make Bitcoin scarce: There will never be more than 21 million bitcoins.
To mimic gold: Like gold gets harder to mine over time, Bitcoin gets harder to "mine" (earn)
over time.

2. Which statements about block rewards are correct?

Given Statements:
a) In Jan 2013, the miner will receive 50 bitcoins for adding a new block.
b) In Jan 2018, the miner will receive 25 bitcoins for adding a new block.
c) In Jan 2021, the miner will receive 12.5 bitcoins for adding a new block.
d) In Jan 2024, the miner will receive 6.25 bitcoins for adding a new block.

Correct Answers: (a), (b), and (c)

Why?
Jan 2009: Reward starts at 100 BTC (as per your question, though in reality it was 50 BTC).
First halving: After 210,000 blocks (~4 years, so around Jan 2013), reward halves to 50
BTC.
Second halving: After another 210,000 blocks (~Jan 2017), reward halves to 25 BTC.
Third halving: After another 210,000 blocks (~Jan 2021), reward halves to 12.5 BTC.
Fourth halving: Would occur after another 210,000 blocks (~Jan 2025), so by Jan 2024
the reward is still 12.5 BTC (not yet halved to 6.25 BTC).
So, in Jan 2024, the reward is still 12.5 BTC, not 6.25 BTC.

Summary Table
Year Block Reward (BTC)

Jan 2009 100 (per your Q)

Jan 2013 50
 Year Block Reward (BTC)

Jan 2018 25

Jan 2021 12.5

Jan 2024 12.5

After next halving (2025) 6.25

References
Cleartax: What is Bitcoin Halving [116]
EY: The Bitcoin Halving Explained [117]
Reddit: Why is Bitcoin's Supply Limited to 21 Million [118]

In Simple Words
210,000 blocks = about 4 years. After every 210,000 blocks, the reward for mining a block
is cut in half.
This keeps new bitcoins rare and valuable, and is why there will never be more than 21
million bitcoins.
In Jan 2013, 2018, and 2021, the rewards were 50, 25, and 12.5 BTC, respectively. In Jan
2024, the reward is still 12.5 BTC, because the next halving to 6.25 BTC will happen later in
2024.
That’s why (a), (b), and (c) are correct!
⁂

How does the Bitcoin network prevent double

spending?
a) A centralized authority will be used to verify each transaction before it is added to the
blockchain.
b) Relying on a proof-of-work consensus mechanism ensures that only one valid transaction is
accepted.
c) All transactions are stored in a centralized database that tracks each Bitcoin's status.
d) By limiting Bitcoin transactions to one per user per day.
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
The proof-of-work consensus mechanism in Bitcoin prevents double-spending by requiring
miners to solve
cryptographic puzzles to add new blocks. This ensures transactions are verified by multiple
miners and
nodes, making it nearly impossible for double spending to occur.
The correct answer is (b) Relying on a proof-of-work consensus mechanism ensures that
only one valid transaction is accepted.

Detailed Solution (Beginner-Friendly)

What is Double Spending?

Double spending is when someone tries to spend the same Bitcoin twice—like making two
payments with the same digital coin. In digital systems, copying data is easy, so without
protection, someone could try to cheat by sending the same Bitcoin to two people at once.

How Does Bitcoin Prevent Double Spending?

1. Decentralized Network
Bitcoin doesn’t have a central authority (like a bank) to check every transaction. Instead, it
uses a network of thousands of computers (nodes) that all keep a copy of the Bitcoin ledger
(blockchain) [119] .

2. Proof-of-Work (PoW) Consensus

When someone sends Bitcoin, the transaction is broadcast to the whole network.
Miners compete to bundle transactions into a new block by solving a hard puzzle (this is
the "proof-of-work") [120] [121] .
The first miner to solve the puzzle gets to add the new block to the blockchain and earns a
reward.
All nodes check that the transactions in the block are valid—especially that each Bitcoin is
only spent once (no double spending) [122] [123] .

3. Only One Valid Transaction Accepted

If someone tries to double spend, only one of the transactions can be included in the
blockchain. The other will be rejected by the network because the coins have already been
spent [122] [120] .
Once a transaction is in a confirmed block, it is considered final and secure.

4. Why Proof-of-Work Helps

Proof-of-work makes it very hard and expensive for anyone to cheat, because they would
need to control more than half of the network’s mining power to trick the system [124] [121]
[120] .

The network always accepts the "longest" chain (the one with the most proof-of-work),
which makes it almost impossible for a cheater to rewrite history and double spend [124] [119] .
Why Not the Other Options?
a) Centralized authority:
Bitcoin is decentralized—there is no central authority checking transactions [119] .
c) Centralized database:
Bitcoin uses a distributed ledger, not a centralized database [120] [119] .
d) One transaction per user per day:
There is no such limit in Bitcoin; users can make as many transactions as they want.

In Simple Words
> Bitcoin prevents double spending by using proof-of-work, where miners and nodes check
that each Bitcoin is only spent once, and only valid transactions are added to the blockchain.

So, the answer is (b): Relying on a proof-of-work consensus mechanism ensures that only
one valid transaction is accepted.
⁂

Which of the following is a challenge of the

permissionless model in blockchain?
a) Ensuring that all participants trust a central authority
b) Reaching agreement (consensus) across a decentralized network of participants without a
trusted
third-party
c) Limiting the number of participants to improve scalability
d) Preventing participants from accessing the blockchain
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
Please refer to the Week 4 Lecture 18.
The correct answer is (b) Reaching agreement (consensus) across a decentralized network of
participants without a trusted third-party.

Detailed Solution

What is a Permissionless Blockchain?

A permissionless blockchain (like Bitcoin or Ethereum) is a type of blockchain where anyone
can join, participate, and validate transactions without needing approval from a central
authority [125] [126] .
What is the Main Challenge?
The biggest challenge in a permissionless model is:
How do you get thousands of strangers, all over the world, who don’t trust each other,
to agree on what the “truth” is (which transactions are valid and in what order)?
This is called reaching consensus—making sure everyone agrees on the same version of
the blockchain, even though there’s no trusted third-party or central boss [127] [125] [126] .

Why Is This Hard?

There’s no central authority to break ties or resolve disputes.
Anyone can join, including attackers or people who want to cheat.
The network must use special algorithms (like Proof of Work or Proof of Stake) to make it
hard to cheat but still allow everyone to participate [127] [125] [126] .
This process can be slow, use a lot of energy, and is technically complex [125] [128] [126] .

Why Not the Other Options?

a) Ensuring that all participants trust a central authority:
Permissionless blockchains are specifically designed to avoid central authorities [125] [126] .
c) Limiting the number of participants to improve scalability:
Permissionless blockchains are open to anyone; limiting participants goes against their core
idea [125] .
d) Preventing participants from accessing the blockchain:
Permissionless means everyone can access and participate [125] [126] .

In Simple Words
> The main challenge of permissionless blockchains is getting everyone to agree on the same
version of the blockchain (consensus) without needing to trust a central authority or third party.

So, the answer is (b): Reaching agreement (consensus) across a decentralized network of
participants without a trusted third-party.
⁂

QUESTION 6
Which of the following is not a failure that blockchain tries to handle , as rather an attack that a
blockchain
can try to defend to ensure prevention?
a) Crash Fault
b) Double Spending
c) Byzantine Fault
d) Link Fault
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
Please refer to the Week 4 Lecture 18.
The correct answer is (b) Double Spending.

Detailed Solution

Understanding the Question

The question asks:
Which of the following is not a failure that blockchain tries to handle (i.e., is not a system or
network failure), but rather an attack that blockchain tries to defend against?
Let's look at each option:

a) Crash Fault
Crash faults happen when a node (computer in the network) suddenly stops working or
"crashes."
This is a type of system failure that blockchains are designed to handle, so the network
keeps working even if some computers go down [129] [130] [131] .

b) Double Spending
Double spending is when someone tries to spend the same digital coin more than once—a
form of fraud or attack, not a system failure [132] [131] .
Blockchains use consensus algorithms (like Proof of Work or BFT) to defend against this
attack and ensure that each coin can only be spent once [130] [132] [131] .

c) Byzantine Fault
Byzantine faults are when nodes act in unexpected or even malicious ways, like sending
conflicting information or lying [130] [131] .
This is a classic type of system failure in distributed networks, and blockchain consensus
mechanisms are specifically designed to handle this [130] [131] .

d) Link Fault
Link faults are failures in the communication links between nodes (e.g., network outages or
dropped messages).
Blockchains are designed to tolerate these kinds of network failures [129] .
Summary Table
Option Type Blockchain Handles/Defends?

Crash Fault Failure Handles

Double Spending Attack Defends against

Byzantine Fault Failure Handles

Link Fault Failure Handles

Final Explanation
Crash faults, Byzantine faults, and link faults are all types of failures that can happen in a
distributed system or blockchain network. Blockchain protocols are designed to handle
these so the system keeps working even if some nodes fail or misbehave [129] [130] [131] .
Double spending is not a system failure but an attack where someone tries to cheat the
system by spending the same coin twice. Blockchains are specifically designed to defend
against this attack using consensus and cryptographic proofs [132] [131] .

Therefore, the correct answer is (b) Double Spending, as it is an attack (not a failure) that
blockchain defends against to ensure prevention.
⁂

QUESTION 7
Which of the following best describes Safety and Liveness in Bitcoin?
a) Safety ensures transactions are irreversible, while Liveness ensures transactions are
eventually added.
b) Safety guarantees quick transaction confirmation, while Liveness prevents forks.
c) Safety prevents double-spending, while Liveness speeds up block creation.
d) Safety ensures blocks are always valid, while Liveness ensures no transaction delays.
Answer: (a)
Detailed solution:
Safety ensures that once a transaction is confirmed, it cannot be reversed, preventing issues like
double-spending. Liveness ensures that transactions will eventually be added to the blockchain,
even
if there are delays or forks
The correct answer is (a) Safety ensures transactions are irreversible, while Liveness ensures
transactions are eventually added.
Detailed Solution

What is Safety in Bitcoin?

Safety means that once a transaction is confirmed and added to the blockchain, it cannot
be reversed or removed. This prevents problems like double-spending, where someone
tries to spend the same Bitcoin twice.
In other words, safety guarantees that the blockchain’s record is stable and trustworthy—
nothing bad or incorrect will happen (e.g., confirmed transactions won’t disappear or be
changed) [133] [134] [135] [136] .

What is Liveness in Bitcoin?

Liveness means that if you make a valid transaction, it will eventually be included in the
blockchain. Even if the network is slow or there are temporary forks, your transaction won’t
be stuck forever—it will get added at some point.
Liveness ensures that the system keeps moving forward and good things eventually
happen (e.g., all valid transactions will be processed and added to the ledger) [137] [134] [135]
[136] .

Why is (a) Correct?

Safety ensures transactions are irreversible: Once a transaction is buried deep enough in
the blockchain, it is considered permanent and cannot be undone.
Liveness ensures transactions are eventually added: All valid transactions will, at some
point, be included in the blockchain, even if there are network delays or temporary forks.

Why Not the Other Options?

(b) Safety guarantees quick confirmation; Liveness prevents forks:
Safety is not about speed, and liveness does not specifically prevent forks.
(c) Safety prevents double-spending; Liveness speeds up block creation:
Liveness is not about speed, but about eventual inclusion of transactions.
(d) Safety ensures blocks are always valid; Liveness ensures no transaction delays:
Liveness does not guarantee zero delay, just that transactions will eventually be included.

In Simple Words
Safety: Once a transaction is confirmed, it can’t be reversed or changed.
Liveness: Every valid transaction will eventually be included in the blockchain.

So, the correct answer is (a): Safety ensures transactions are irreversible, while Liveness
ensures transactions are eventually added.
 ⁂

What is the main purpose of the Proof of Work

(PoW) mechanism in Bitcoin?
a) To validate transactions with the need for a central authority.
Lecture
b) To speed up transaction processing times by reducing the time needed to add new blocks.
c) To make it easier for miners to add new blocks without computational work.
19.
d) To secure the network and prevent fraudulent transactions through computational difficulty.
The main purpose of the Proof of Work (PoW) mechanism in Bitcoin is:
d) To secure the network and prevent fraudulent transactions through computational
difficulty.

Detailed Solution

What is Proof of Work (PoW)?

Proof of Work is a consensus mechanism used in Bitcoin and other blockchains. It requires
miners to solve complex mathematical puzzles (computational problems) to add new blocks to
the blockchain. This process is called "mining" [138] [139] [140] [141] .

Why is PoW Important?

Network Security:
PoW makes it extremely difficult and costly for attackers to manipulate the blockchain, such
as by attempting double-spending or rewriting transaction history. To change a block, an
attacker would have to redo the PoW for that block and all subsequent blocks, which would
require enormous computational resources [138] [139] [140] [141] [142] .
Decentralization:
PoW allows anyone to participate in mining, ensuring that no single entity can easily control
the network. This helps maintain a decentralized system [138] [143] .
Fraud Prevention:
Because solving the PoW puzzle is hard, but verifying the solution is easy, only legitimate
miners who have put in the required computational effort can add new blocks. This prevents
fraudulent transactions from being accepted by the network [138] [139] [140] [141] .
Why Not the Other Options?
a) To validate transactions with the need for a central authority:
Incorrect—PoW enables validation without a central authority [143] .
b) To speed up transaction processing times by reducing the time needed to add new
blocks:
Incorrect—PoW is not designed to make block creation faster; in fact, it intentionally slows
down block creation to about one block every 10 minutes [138] [140] .
c) To make it easier for miners to add new blocks without computational work:
Incorrect—PoW is specifically about requiring computational work, not making it easier [138]
[140] [142] .

In Simple Words
> PoW keeps Bitcoin secure and trustworthy by making it hard to cheat. Miners must do real,
expensive work to add new blocks, and this work is easy for everyone else to check. This
prevents fraud, attacks, and manipulation—without needing a central authority.

So, the correct answer is (d): To secure the network and prevent fraudulent transactions
through computational difficulty.
⁂

What is the correct order of events when adding a

new block to the Bitcoin blockchain?
a) Block Mining → Block Propagation → Block Flooding → Transaction Flooding
b) Transaction Flooding → Block Mining → Block Propagation → Block Flooding
c) Transaction Flooding → Block Flooding → Block Propagation → Block Mining
d) Block Propagation → Block Mining → Block Flooding → Transaction Flooding
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
Please refer to the Week 4 Lecture 19.
The correct order of events when adding a new block to the Bitcoin blockchain is:
b) Transaction Flooding → Block Mining → Block Propagation → Block Flooding

Detailed Solution
Let's break down each step in the order:
1. Transaction Flooding
When users want to make Bitcoin transactions, they broadcast ("flood") their transactions to
the network.
These transactions are sent to all nodes and collected in a pool called the mempool [144]
[145] .

All miners and nodes receive these pending transactions and store them until they are
included in a block.

2. Block Mining
Miners select transactions from the mempool to form a new candidate block [146] [145] .
Miners then compete to solve a cryptographic puzzle (Proof of Work) to "mine" the block.
The first miner to solve the puzzle gets to add the new block to the blockchain and earns
the block reward and transaction fees.

3. Block Propagation
Once a miner successfully mines a block, the new block is broadcast ("propagated") to the
rest of the network [147] [148] .
Each node that receives the new block validates it and then passes it on to its peers,
ensuring the entire network learns about the new block quickly.

4. Block Flooding
The process of block propagation is often called "block flooding," where the new block
spreads rapidly through the network until all nodes have received and validated it [147] [148] .
This ensures all copies of the blockchain are updated and consistent.

Why is this the correct order?

Transaction Flooding must happen first, so miners have transactions to include in their
blocks.
Block Mining comes next, as miners create a new block from the pool of transactions.
Block Propagation and Block Flooding follow, so the new block is shared with the entire
network and added to everyone's copy of the blockchain.

Summary Table
Step Description

Transaction Flooding Users broadcast transactions to the network

Block Mining Miners collect transactions and mine a new block

 Step Description

Block Propagation The new block is broadcast to all nodes

Block Flooding The block rapidly spreads to the entire network for validation and sync

So, the correct order is:

Transaction Flooding → Block Mining → Block Propagation → Block Flooding (option b) [144]
[147] [145] .

Which of the following statements is incorrect

regarding Proof of Work (PoW) in the context of
forks, attacks, and the monopoly problem?
a) PoW forks can occur when two miners independently solve the puzzle at the same time,
leading to a brief divergence in the blockchain.
b) While PoW encourages miners to follow the longest chain, it does not prevent attacks like
51% attacks, where malicious miners can control the blockchain.
c) The Monopoly Problem refers to a situation where a single miner or group controls a majority
of the network’s hashing power, undermining decentralization.
d) Proof of Work ensures complete decentralization by preventing any miner from controlling
the majority of the hashing power.
Answer: (d)
Detailed solution:
Please refer to the Week 4 Lecture 20.
The incorrect statement regarding Proof of Work (PoW) in the context of forks, attacks, and the
monopoly problem is:
d) Proof of Work ensures complete decentralization by preventing any miner from
controlling the majority of the hashing power.

Detailed Solution
Let's analyze each statement:

a) PoW forks can occur when two miners independently solve the puzzle at the
same time, leading to a brief divergence in the blockchain.
This is correct.
In PoW, if two miners find a valid block at the same time, the blockchain temporarily splits
(forks) into two branches. Eventually, one branch becomes longer and is accepted as the
main chain, while the other is discarded. [149]
b) While PoW encourages miners to follow the longest chain, it does not prevent
attacks like 51% attacks, where malicious miners can control the blockchain.
This is correct.
PoW does not make 51% attacks impossible. If a miner or group controls more than half the
network’s hashing power, they can potentially manipulate the blockchain, perform double-
spending, or censor transactions. [150] [151]

c) The Monopoly Problem refers to a situation where a single miner or group

controls a majority of the network’s hashing power, undermining decentralization.
This is correct.
The Monopoly Problem is when mining power gets concentrated in the hands of a few,
which threatens the decentralized nature of blockchain. [150] [151] [149]

d) Proof of Work ensures complete decentralization by preventing any miner from

controlling the majority of the hashing power.
This is incorrect.
PoW does not guarantee complete decentralization. In reality, mining power can and does
become concentrated (for example, in large mining pools or areas with cheap electricity).
This means a single miner or group can control the majority of hashing power, which is the
basis for the 51% attack and the monopoly problem. [150] [151] [149]

Summary Table
Statement Correct? Reason

a Yes Forks can occur if two miners solve at the same time.

b Yes PoW does not prevent 51% attacks.

c Yes Monopoly problem is real in PoW systems.

d No PoW does not ensure complete decentralization; mining power can concentrate.

Therefore, the incorrect statement is (d):

Proof of Work ensures complete decentralization by preventing any miner from controlling the
majority of the hashing power.
In practice, PoW cannot guarantee this, and centralization of mining power is a known risk.
⁂
What is/are the limitations of using the consensus
algorithm Proof of Work (PoW)?
a. A lot of mining power is wasted as only one gets success in mining at a time
b. PoW is typically used for permissioned blockchain
c. It is used for blockchain mining
d. High costs and difficulty in supporting large-scale adoption
Answer: (a) and (d)
Detailed solution:
Please refer to the slide Week 5 slide. The PoW has limitations of wastage of power, high costs,
and
large-scale adoption.
The correct answers are (a) A lot of mining power is wasted as only one gets success in
mining at a time and (d) High costs and difficulty in supporting large-scale adoption.

Detailed Solution
Proof of Work (PoW) is the consensus algorithm used in Bitcoin and many other blockchains.
While it is secure and proven, it has significant limitations:

(a) A lot of mining power is wasted as only one gets success in mining at a time
Explanation:
In PoW, thousands of miners compete to solve a mathematical puzzle, but only the first one
to solve it gets to add the new block and receive the reward. All the computational work
done by the other miners is wasted. This leads to a huge waste of energy and computing
resources [152] [153] [154] .
Environmental Impact:
This wasted effort translates into high electricity usage and environmental concerns, as all
miners are constantly running powerful hardware but only one gets rewarded.

(d) High costs and difficulty in supporting large-scale adoption

Explanation:
Because PoW requires massive amounts of computational power, it is expensive to operate.
The costs include not only electricity but also specialized hardware (like ASICs) and
infrastructure. As the network grows, these costs and energy demands increase, making it
hard to scale PoW blockchains for large numbers of users and transactions [155] [156] [152]
[153] [154] .

Scalability Issues:
PoW blockchains like Bitcoin have limited transaction throughput (number of transactions
per second) and can become slow and expensive to use as more people join the network.
Why Not the Other Options?
(b) PoW is typically used for permissioned blockchain:
This is incorrect. PoW is mainly used in permissionless (public) blockchains like Bitcoin and
Ethereum (before Ethereum 2.0). Permissioned blockchains usually use more efficient
algorithms like PBFT or PoA [152] [154] .
(c) It is used for blockchain mining:
This is a true statement about what PoW is, not a limitation. PoW is indeed used for mining,
but this is not a drawback.

Summary Table
Option Limitation of PoW? Explanation

(a) Yes Wasted mining power, high energy use

(b) No PoW is for permissionless, not permissioned blockchains

(c) No Describes PoW mining, not a limitation

(d) Yes High costs, hard to scale for many users

In Simple Words
PoW wastes a lot of energy because only one miner wins and the rest do useless work.
PoW is expensive and hard to scale for big networks because of high costs and slow
transaction speeds.
So, the correct answers are (a) and (d).
⁂

Which of the following is/are not applicable for

PoET(Proof of Elapsed Time) consensus
a. Each participant in the blockchain network waits a random amount of time
b. The first participant to finish becomes the follower for the new block
c. Trusted execution platform and attestation are used to verify that the proposer has really
waited
d. The first participant to finish becomes the leader for the new block.
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
POET uses a trusted execution platform, say as Intel SGX and H/W attestation. Please refer to
the slide for
details.
The correct answer is (b) The first participant to finish becomes the follower for the new
block.
Detailed Solution

What is PoET (Proof of Elapsed Time)?

PoET is a consensus algorithm designed to be energy-efficient and fair, mainly used in
permissioned blockchains like Hyperledger Sawtooth. It works by having each participant (node)
in the network wait for a randomly assigned period of time (the "elapsed time") in a secure,
trusted execution environment (like Intel SGX) [157] [158] [159] [160] [161] .

How Does PoET Work?

1. Random Wait:
Each node is assigned a random wait time using secure hardware (trusted execution
environment) [157] [158] [159] [160] .
2. Waiting:
All nodes "sleep" for their assigned time. The node with the shortest wait time wakes up
first.
3. Leader Election:
The first node to finish waiting becomes the leader and gets the right to propose (create)
the new block [158] [159] [160] [161] .
4. Attestation:
The network uses trusted hardware and attestation to verify that the node really waited as
required and didn't cheat [157] [158] [159] [160] .

Why is Option (b) Not Applicable?

(b) The first participant to finish becomes the follower for the new block
This is incorrect for PoET.
In PoET, the first node to finish waiting becomes the leader (not a follower) and
proposes the new block [158] [159] [160] [161] .
Followers are not relevant in this context; only the leader proposes the block.

Why Are the Other Options Applicable?

(a) Each participant in the blockchain network waits a random amount of time:
This describes the core process of PoET [157] [158] [159] [160] [161] .
(c) Trusted execution platform and attestation are used to verify that the proposer has
really waited:
PoET relies on secure hardware (like Intel SGX) to guarantee fairness and prevent
cheating [157] [158] [159] [160] [161] .
(d) The first participant to finish becomes the leader for the new block:
This is exactly how PoET selects the block proposer [158] [159] [160] [161] .
Summary Table
Option Applicable to PoET? Why?

a Yes All nodes wait a random time [157] [158] [159] [160] [161]

b No First to finish becomes leader, not follower [158] [159] [160] [161]

c Yes Uses trusted hardware and attestation [157] [158] [159] [160] [161]

d Yes First to finish becomes leader [158] [159] [160] [161]

In summary:
> In PoET, the first participant to finish waiting becomes the leader (not the follower) for the new
block.
Thus, (b) is not applicable for PoET.
⁂

How an attacker could manipulate the transaction

history of an existing blockchain whose ledger
cannot be
modified, only it is possible to append?
a. The attacker hard-forked the network and created a new blockchain network.
b. The attacker modified the smart contract and recovered the investor's cryptocurrency.
c. The attacker gained control of more than 51% of the network’s computing power.
d. The attacker gained control of less than 49% of the network’s computing power.
Answer: (c)
Detailed solution:
Refer to the Week 5 Lecture slide for 51% attack.
The correct answer is (c) The attacker gained control of more than 51% of the network’s
computing power.

Detailed Solution

How can an attacker manipulate transaction history in an append-only

blockchain?
Blockchains are designed so that existing blocks (and their transaction history) cannot be
modified—only new blocks can be appended. However, if an attacker gains control of more
than 51% of the network’s computing (hashing) power, they can perform what is known as a
51% attack [162] [163] [164] [165] [166] [167] .
What does a 51% attack enable?
The attacker can build a longer, alternative chain by mining blocks faster than the rest of the
network.
They can reverse their own transactions (double-spending), effectively rewriting recent
transaction history by making their chain the “longest” and thus the valid one according to
the consensus rules [168] [169] [162] [164] [165] [166] [167] .
They can censor transactions, preventing some or all new transactions from being added
to the blockchain.
They cannot change blocks that are too far in the past or create coins from nothing, but
they can manipulate recent history as long as they maintain majority control.

Why not the other options?

a) Hard-forking the network: This creates a new blockchain, but does not change the
transaction history of the existing chain.
b) Modifying smart contracts: This does not rewrite the blockchain’s transaction history; it
only changes future contract behavior.
d) Gaining less than 49% of power: With less than 50%, the attacker cannot reliably
outpace the honest network and cannot manipulate history [170] [165] .

Summary Table
Option What it Means Can it rewrite transaction history?

a Hard-fork No (creates a new chain, not change old)

b Modify contract No (does not rewrite history)

c 51% attack Yes (can rewrite recent history)

d <49% power No (cannot reliably outpace network)

In Simple Words
> If an attacker controls more than half of the blockchain’s computing power, they can rewrite
recent transaction history by building a longer chain, enabling double-spending and reversing
their own transactions. This is called a 51% attack and is the main way to manipulate an append-
only blockchain ledger [162] [163] [164] [165] [166] [167] .
So, the answer is (c): The attacker gained control of more than 51% of the network’s
computing power.
⁂
What is the role of the Ethereum Virtual Machine
(EVM)?
a. To directly connect the Ethereum nodes
b. To execute smart contracts in a decentralized manner
c. To directly mine blocks
d. To disrupt the Ethereum network and cause failures
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
The EVM executes smart contracts and ensures decentralized agreement on computations.
The correct answer is (b) To execute smart contracts in a decentralized manner.

Detailed Solution

What is the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM)?

The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) is the core component of the Ethereum blockchain that
acts as a decentralized computer. Its main role is to execute smart contracts—which are self-
executing programs written in languages like Solidity—across all Ethereum nodes [171] [172] [173]
[174] [175] .

How Does the EVM Work?

Smart contract code is compiled into bytecode that the EVM can understand and
execute [176] [172] .
Every Ethereum node runs its own instance of the EVM, ensuring that all nodes execute the
same instructions and reach the same result, maintaining consensus and integrity across the
network [171] [177] [174] .
The EVM uses a system called "gas" to measure and limit the computational resources each
contract execution requires, preventing abuse and ensuring fair use of network
resources [172] [173] [175] .

Why is the EVM Important?

Decentralized Execution: The EVM ensures that smart contracts are executed identically
on all nodes, without relying on any single computer or central authority [171] [172] [174] .
Security and Trust: By enforcing the same rules and logic everywhere, the EVM makes
Ethereum a "world computer" where anyone can deploy and interact with smart contracts,
knowing the outcome will be the same across the entire network [176] [171] [177] [174] .
Foundation for DApps: The EVM enables the creation and operation of decentralized
applications (DApps) that run on the Ethereum blockchain [173] [174] [175] .
Why Not the Other Options?
a) To directly connect the Ethereum nodes:
The EVM does not handle networking or node connections; it only executes code.
c) To directly mine blocks:
Mining is handled by Ethereum's consensus mechanism, not the EVM.
d) To disrupt the Ethereum network and cause failures:
The EVM is designed to ensure reliable, secure execution—not to cause failures.

In Simple Words
> The EVM is like a giant, shared computer inside Ethereum that runs smart contracts and
makes sure everyone gets the same results, no matter which computer they use.

So, the correct answer is (b): To execute smart contracts in a decentralized manner.
⁂

To execute smart contracts in a decentralized

manner
wtf does it mean
Here’s a super simple, beginner-friendly explanation of what it means to “execute smart
contracts in a decentralized manner” (like the EVM does):

What is a Smart Contract?

A smart contract is a computer program stored on a blockchain.
It’s like a digital agreement: “If X happens, then do Y.”
Example: “If Alice sends 1 ETH to the contract, then give Bob a digital ticket.”

What Does "Decentralized Manner" Mean?

Decentralized means not controlled by one person, company, or computer.
Instead, many computers (nodes) all over the world run the same program and check the
same rules.
No single person or company can secretly change the rules or cheat.
How Does This Work in Practice?
1. You send a transaction to a smart contract (for example, to buy something or play a
game).
2. All the computers (nodes) in the blockchain network see your transaction.
3. Every node runs the smart contract code (using the EVM in Ethereum) to check what
should happen.
4. If the contract rules are met, the action happens automatically (like sending tokens,
recording a win, etc.).
5. Everyone sees the same result—no one can secretly change it or cheat.

Why Is This Important?

No middleman: You don’t need a bank, lawyer, or company to “approve” your transaction.
Trustless: You don’t have to trust any single person or company. The code and the network
enforce the rules.
Tamper-proof: Once a smart contract is on the blockchain, it can’t be changed or deleted
by anyone.
Automatic: The contract executes itself when the conditions are met—no waiting for
someone to push a button.

Real-Life Analogy
> Imagine a vending machine in a public place.
> - You put in money and push a button.
> - The machine checks if you paid enough, and if so, it gives you a snack.
> - No shopkeeper needed, no way to cheat the rules.
> - Everyone can see the machine and how it works.
A decentralized smart contract is like a vending machine that everyone can see and trust, and
no one can secretly change.

TL;DR
Smart contracts: Programs that run on the blockchain to do things automatically.
Decentralized manner: Many computers run the contract, so no one can cheat or control it.
EVM’s role: Makes sure smart contracts run the same way for everyone, everywhere, with
no middleman or single boss.

In short:
> “To execute smart contracts in a decentralized manner” means running digital agreements on
many computers worldwide, so no one can cheat, change, or control the contract—it’s
automatic, fair, and trustworthy [178] [179] [180] [181] [182] [183] .
 ⁂

QUESTION 5
Which of the following syntax is correct to write data in a smart contract using solidity
a. myContract.methods.store("10").set()
b. myContract.methods.write("10").send()
c. myContract.methods.store("10").send()
d. myContract.methods.write("10").set()
The correct answer is (c) myContract.methods.store("10").send().

Detailed Solution

How Do You Write Data to a Smart Contract in Solidity?

When you want to write data (change the state) in a smart contract on Ethereum using Solidity,
you typically use web3.js (a JavaScript library) to interact with the contract from your
application.
The correct syntax to call a function that changes contract data (for example, a function
called store) is:
myContract.methods.store("10").send()

myContract is your contract instance.

methods.store("10") calls the store function with the value "10".
.send() actually sends the transaction to the blockchain, which writes data and costs
gas [184] .

Why Are the Other Options Incorrect?

a) myContract.methods.store("10").set()
.set() is not a valid web3.js function for sending transactions.
b) myContract.methods.write("10").send()
write is not
a standard function name unless your contract specifically defines it. The
common pattern is store or another function name you wrote.
d) myContract.methods.write("10").set()
Neither write nor .set() are standard for writing data using web3.js.
How Does It Work?
.send() is used for functions that change the blockchain (write data).
.call() is used for functions that read data (no change, no gas needed).

Summary Table
Option Correct? Why?

a) myContract.methods.store("10").set() No .set() is not valid in web3.js

b) myContract.methods.write("10").send() No write is not the function name in this context

c) myContract.methods.store("10").send() Yes Standard syntax for writing data in web3.js [184]

d) myContract.methods.write("10").set() No Both write and .set() are incorrect here

In Simple Words
> To write data in a Solidity smart contract using web3.js, use .methods.&lt;function&gt;
(arguments).send().
> For example: myContract.methods.store("10").send()

So, the correct answer is (c) myContract.methods.store("10").send().

⁂

i mean explain to mea mthe meaning and ccopet

used hear and rthe meaning of each term i ma
beginner
Absolutely! Here’s a beginner-friendly explanation of the concepts and terms used in your
smart contract Solidity syntax question:

Original Question
Which of the following syntax is correct to write data in a smart contract using Solidity?
a. myContract.methods.store("10").set()
b. myContract.methods.write("10").send()
c. myContract.methods.store("10").send()
d. myContract.methods.write("10").set()
Correct answer: (c) myContract.methods.store("10").send()
Explanation of Each Term and Concept

1. Smart Contract
A smart contract is a computer program that runs on a blockchain (like Ethereum).
It can automatically execute rules and logic, like “if Alice pays 10 coins, send her a ticket.”
In Solidity (the main programming language for Ethereum smart contracts), you write
functions that can read or change data on the blockchain.

2. Solidity
Solidity is a programming language used to write smart contracts for Ethereum.
It looks a bit like JavaScript or C++.

3. myContract
This is a JavaScript object (from a library like Web3.js) that represents your deployed smart
contract.
It lets your website or app talk to the smart contract on the blockchain.

4. .methods
This is a property of the contract object that gives access to the functions (methods)
defined in your smart contract.
Example: If your Solidity contract has a function called store, you can call it from JavaScript
as myContract.methods.store.

5. store("10")
This is calling the smart contract function named store and passing it the value "10".
In Solidity, you might have a function like this:
function store(uint256 value) public {
// save value to blockchain
}

"10" is the value you want to store.

6. .send()
.send() is used when you want to write data to the blockchain (change the blockchain’s
state).
It creates a transaction, which costs gas (a small fee paid in Ether).
Example: myContract.methods.store("10").send({from: userAddress})

.send() is for writing/changing data (like saving a number).

7. .call() (not in your options, but important)
.call() is used to read data from the blockchain (no changes, no gas needed).
Example: myContract.methods.get().call()
.call() is for reading data (like checking a number).

8. .set() and .write()

These are not standard functions for sending transactions in Web3.js.
You must use .send() to write/change data on the blockchain.

Putting It All Together

To write data to a smart contract, you use:
myContract.methods.store("10").send()

This means: Call the store function with "10" as input, and send a transaction to the
blockchain.
The other options are incorrect because:
.set() is not a valid Web3.js method.
write is not the function name in this example.

Quick Reference Table

Term/Syntax Meaning/Use

myContract Your smart contract object in JavaScript

.methods Access to functions in your contract

store("10") Call the store function with input "10"

.send() Write/change data on the blockchain (costs gas)

.call() Read data from the blockchain (no gas needed)

.set(), .write() Not standard Web3.js methods for sending transactions

In Simple Words
> To change or write data in a smart contract on Ethereum, you use .send().
> To only read data, you use .call().
> The correct way to write data is:
> myContract.methods.store("10").send()

If you want more examples or a visual guide, just ask!

⁂
QUESTION 6
2.5 ether equals
a. 25 × 108 Gwei
b. 25 × 1010 Gwei
c. 25 × 107 Gwei
d. 25 × 109 Gwei
Answer: (a)
Detailed solution:
Ether to Wei converter: https://eth-converter.com/.
Let’s break this down step by step, explaining every term and calculation as if you’re a
complete beginner:

Question
2.5 ether equals
a. 25 × 10⁸ Gwei
b. 25 × 10¹⁰ Gwei
c. 25 × 10⁷ Gwei
d. 25 × 10⁹ Gwei
Correct answer: (a) 25 × 10⁸ Gwei

What are Ether, Wei, and Gwei?

Ether (ETH): The main currency of Ethereum, like how “rupees” or “dollars” are for their
countries.
Wei: The smallest possible unit of Ether.
1 Ether = 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 (10¹⁸) Wei.
Gwei: A common smaller unit of Ether, used especially for gas fees.
1 Gwei = 1,000,000,000 (10⁹) Wei.
1 Ether = 1,000,000,000 (10⁹) Gwei.

How Do You Convert Ether to Gwei?

1 Ether = 1,000,000,000 Gwei (10⁹ Gwei)
So, to convert any amount of Ether to Gwei:
Multiply the number of Ether by 1,000,000,000 (10⁹).
Example:
If you have 2 Ether:
2 × 1,000,000,000 = 2,000,000,000 Gwei
Step-by-Step Calculation for 2.5 Ether
1. Write the conversion formula:
1 Ether = 1,000,000,000 Gwei (10⁹ Gwei)
2. Multiply 2.5 by 1,000,000,000:
2.5 × 1,000,000,000 = 2,500,000,000 Gwei
3. Express 2,500,000,000 in scientific notation:
2,500,000,000 = 25 × 100,000,000 = 25 × 10⁸

Why is the Answer (a) 25 × 10⁸ Gwei?

2.5 Ether = 2,500,000,000 Gwei
2,500,000,000 = 25 × 10⁸
That matches option (a).

Why Not the Other Options?

b. 25 × 10¹⁰ Gwei: This would be 250,000,000,000 Gwei (way too much).
c. 25 × 10⁷ Gwei: This would be 250,000,000 Gwei (too little).
d. 25 × 10⁹ Gwei: This would be 25,000,000,000 Gwei (ten times too much).

Table for Quick Reference

Unit How Many in 1 Ether

Wei 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 (10¹⁸)

Gwei 1,000,000,000 (10⁹)

Summary
Ether is the main currency.
Gwei is a smaller unit, used for fees.
2.5 Ether = 2,500,000,000 Gwei = 25 × 10⁸ Gwei
Correct answer: (a) 25 × 10⁸ Gwei

If you ever get confused, just remember:

> 1 Ether = 1,000,000,000 Gwei (10⁹ Gwei)
> So, multiply the number of Ether by 1,000,000,000 to get Gwei!
⁂
wtf is gas price
Here’s a clear, beginner-friendly explanation of what “gas price” is in Ethereum and how it
works:

What is Gas Price? (Explained Like You’re New)

What is Gas?
On Ethereum, “gas” is like fuel for your car—but instead of driving, it’s used to run
transactions or smart contracts on the blockchain.
Every action (like sending ETH, swapping tokens, or running a smart contract) needs some
amount of gas to get done.

What is Gas Price?

Gas price is the amount of money you’re willing to pay for each unit of gas.
It’s like saying, “I’ll pay this much for every drop of fuel I use.”
Gas price is measured in Gwei (where 1 Gwei = 0.000000001 ETH).

How Does It Work?

Each transaction needs a certain amount of gas (depending on how complex it is).
You set the gas price (how much ETH you’ll pay per unit of gas).
Total fee you pay = gas used × gas price.

Why Does Gas Price Matter?

Higher gas price = faster transaction.
Miners/validators pick transactions with higher gas prices first, so if you want your
transaction done quickly, you offer a higher gas price.
Lower gas price = cheaper, but slower.
If you offer too little, your transaction might be delayed or not included at all [185] [186] [187]
[188] [189] [190] [191] [192] .

How is Gas Price Decided?

It changes all the time, based on how busy the network is (supply and demand).
When lots of people want to use Ethereum, gas prices go up.
When it’s quiet, gas prices go down.
Example
Sending ETH: Needs 21,000 gas units.
If gas price is 20 Gwei, total fee = 21,000 × 20 Gwei = 420,000 Gwei (or 0.00042 ETH).

Extra: Base Fee & Tip

Since Ethereum’s London upgrade, gas price is split into:
Base fee: Minimum price set by the network (changes block to block).
Priority fee (tip): Extra you add to get miners to pick your transaction faster [185] [186]
[187] [190] .

TL;DR
Gas price = how much you’ll pay per unit of gas to run your transaction.
Set higher for faster transactions, lower for cheaper ones.
Measured in Gwei (tiny fractions of ETH).
Fee you pay = gas used × gas price.

In short:
> Gas price is the “price per drop of fuel” you offer to get your Ethereum transaction done. The
higher you set it, the faster your transaction will go through! [185] [186] [187] [188] [189] [190] [191] [192]
⁂

Which JSON-RPC method is used to query the

balance of an Ethereum account?
a. eth_sendTransaction
b. eth_getBalance
c. eth_getBlockByNumber
d. eth_getTransactionByHash
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
The eth_getBalance method retrieves the current balance of a specified Ethereum account.
The correct answer is (b) eth_getBalance.

Detailed Solution
What is JSON-RPC?
JSON-RPC is a protocol that allows you to interact with Ethereum nodes by sending specific
commands (called "methods") and getting responses in a standard format.

How do you check an Ethereum account's balance?

To query (check) the balance of an Ethereum account, you use the eth_getBalance method.
eth_getBalance takes two parameters:

1. The Ethereum account address (like 0x123...)

2. The block number or a tag (like "latest" for the most recent balance)
Example request:

{
"jsonrpc":"2.0",
"method":"eth_getBalance",
"params": ["0x95222290DD7278Aa3Ddd389Cc1E1d165CC4BAfe5", "latest"],
"id":1
}

This will return the current balance (in wei) of the specified Ethereum account [193] [194] [195] [196] .

What do the other options do?

a) eth_sendTransaction: Used to send (broadcast) a transaction, not to check balances.
c) eth_getBlockByNumber: Used to get details about a specific block, not account
balances.
d) eth_getTransactionByHash: Used to get details about a specific transaction, not
account balances.

Summary Table
Method Purpose

eth_getBalance Get the balance of an Ethereum account

eth_sendTransaction Send a transaction to the network

eth_getBlockByNumber Get details of a block by its number

eth_getTransactionByHash Get details of a transaction by its hash

So, the correct JSON-RPC method to query the balance of an Ethereum account is:
(b) eth_getBalance [193] [194] [195] [196] .
⁂
Which of the consensus algorithms requires
miners to show a proof of sending coins to a
verifiably un
spendable address?
a. Proof of Work (PoW)
b. Proof of Stake (PoS)
c. Proof of Burn (PoB)
d. Proof of Elapsed Time (PoET)
explain all options
The consensus algorithm that requires miners to show a proof of sending coins to a verifiably
unspendable address is:
c. Proof of Burn (PoB)

Explanation of All Options

a. Proof of Work (PoW)

How it works: Miners compete to solve complex mathematical puzzles using computational
power. The first to solve the puzzle gets to add the next block to the blockchain and
receives a reward.
What is required: Proof that computational work has been done (i.e., finding a valid hash).
No coin burning involved.
Reference: PoW is about expending energy and computational resources, not burning
coins [197] [198] .

b. Proof of Stake (PoS)

How it works: Validators are chosen to create new blocks based on how many coins they
have "staked" (locked up) in the network. The more you stake, the higher your chance to be
selected.
What is required: Proof that you have locked up (staked) coins as collateral.
No coin burning involved.
Reference: PoS relies on staking, not destroying coins [198] .
c. Proof of Burn (PoB) [Correct Answer]
How it works: Miners must "burn" (destroy) coins by sending them to a special address
that no one can access (a verifiably unspendable address). This permanently removes the
coins from circulation.
What is required: Proof that you have sent (burned) coins to an unspendable address. The
more coins you burn, the higher your chance to add a new block.
Why do this? It’s like showing your commitment to the network. Burning coins is a way to
“pay” for the right to participate in mining, without wasting energy.
Reference: PoB is explicitly based on burning coins to unspendable addresses as a way to
gain mining rights [199] [200] .

d. Proof of Elapsed Time (PoET)

How it works: Each participant waits for a randomly assigned time in a secure environment
(like Intel SGX). The first to finish waiting gets to add the next block.
What is required: Proof that you waited the required random time, verified by trusted
hardware.
No coin burning involved.
Reference: PoET is about time and trusted execution, not burning coins [201] .

Summary Table
Consensus Algorithm How It Works Is Coin Burning Required?

Proof of Work (PoW) Solve computational puzzles No

Proof of Stake (PoS) Lock up (stake) coins as collateral No

Proof of Burn (PoB) Burn coins to unspendable address Yes

Proof of Elapsed Time (PoET) Wait random time in TEE No

In Simple Words
Proof of Burn is the only consensus algorithm here where miners must destroy (burn) their
coins by sending them to an address that nobody can ever use, proving their commitment
to the network [199] [200] .
So, the correct answer is (c) Proof of Burn (PoB).
⁂
explain proof of stake again
Here’s a clear, beginner-friendly explanation of Proof of Stake (PoS), using simple language
and examples, and covering all the key points from your search results:

What is Proof of Stake (PoS)?

Proof of Stake (PoS) is a way for a blockchain network (like Ethereum 2.0, Cardano, or
Avalanche) to agree on which transactions and blocks are valid, without needing huge amounts
of energy.

How Does Proof of Stake Work?

1. Staking Coins
People who want to help run the network (called validators) must lock up some of their own
coins (called their stake) as a deposit.
Example: On Ethereum, you need to lock up 32 ETH to become a validator [202] [203] [204]
[205] .

2. Choosing Validators
The network randomly picks one validator (with higher chances if you have more coins
staked) to create the next block of transactions.
The more coins you stake, the higher your chance of being chosen—but it’s never a
guarantee [206] [207] [202] [205] .

3. Validating and Adding Blocks

The chosen validator checks if all the transactions in the new block are correct.
If everything is fine, the validator adds the block to the blockchain and earns a reward (like
more coins or transaction fees) [202] [203] [205] .

4. Punishment for Cheating

If a validator tries to cheat (for example, by adding a fake transaction), they lose some or
all of their staked coins. This is called a slashing penalty [206] [202] [204] .
This risk encourages validators to be honest.

5. Other Validators Double-Check

Often, other validators also check the new block. If most agree it’s correct, the block is
finalized [206] [202] [203] .
Why Use Proof of Stake?
Energy Efficient:
Unlike Proof of Work (PoW), which needs lots of computers solving puzzles (using lots of
electricity), PoS just requires you to lock up coins, so it’s much greener [202] [203] [205] .
Security:
To attack the network, you’d need to own most of the coins, which would be extremely
expensive [202] [204] [205] .
Rewards for Good Behavior:
Validators earn rewards for helping the network, but risk losing their stake if they cheat.

Key Terms
Stake: Coins locked up as a deposit to become a validator.
Validator: A person or computer that checks transactions and adds new blocks.
Slashing: Losing part of your staked coins as a punishment for cheating.
Consensus: Agreement among validators about which blocks are valid.

Simple Analogy
> Imagine a club where you must deposit money to vote on important decisions. If you vote
honestly, you get a reward. If you try to cheat, you lose your deposit. The more you deposit, the
more likely you are to be chosen to vote.

How is it Different from Proof of Work (PoW)?

PoW: Miners use computers to solve hard puzzles; more computing power = higher chance
to add blocks.
PoS: Validators are chosen based on how many coins they’ve staked; more coins = higher
chance, but less energy used [202] [203] [205] .

In Summary
Proof of Stake lets people help run a blockchain by locking up coins.
The network randomly picks validators to add new blocks, with chances based on how
much they’ve staked.
Validators earn rewards for being honest, but lose coins if they cheat.
It’s secure, energy-efficient, and helps keep the blockchain running smoothly [202] [203] [204]
[205] .

If you want a visual or step-by-step example, just ask!

⁂
so basicllty why is it required in a nutshell
Here’s a nutshell answer to “why is blockchain required?”—explained simply and directly:

Why is Blockchain Required? (In a Nutshell)

Blockchain is needed to let people or organizations share, store, and update important data
or value (like money, ownership, or records) in a way that is:
Decentralized: No single person, company, or government is in charge. Everyone in the
network has a copy, so no one can secretly change or delete anything [208] [209] [210] [211] [212]
[213] [214] .

Tamper-proof: Once something is recorded, it can’t be changed or erased without

everyone noticing. This prevents cheating, fraud, and mistakes [210] [215] [211] [212] [213] [214] .
Trustless: You don’t need to trust any single party. The system uses math, cryptography,
and consensus (agreement among many computers) to make sure everyone sees the same,
correct data [208] [209] [210] [211] [212] [213] [214] .
Transparent: Anyone can see the records and verify them, making it harder to hide bad
behavior or errors [209] [210] [212] [214] .
Efficient: It removes the need for middlemen (like banks, notaries, or central databases),
making transactions and record-keeping faster and cheaper [215] [211] [216] [212] [214] .

Real-World Example
If you send money to a friend with a bank, the bank can make mistakes, charge fees, or
even block your transaction. With blockchain, the transaction is direct, fast, and can’t be
changed or blocked by any single person.
For things like property records, supply chains, or digital identity, blockchain makes sure the
records are always correct, visible, and can’t be secretly changed.

One-Line Summary
> Blockchain is required to create a secure, shared, and tamper-proof record of transactions
or data, without needing to trust any single authority or middleman.

In short:
Blockchain lets many people safely share and update data, money, or ownership—without
anyone being able to cheat, hide, or secretly change the records [208] [209] [210] [215] [211] [216] [212]
[213] [214] .

⁂
What is/are the primary distinction between crash
faults and Byzantine faults?
a. Crash faults involve deliberate malicious behavior
b. Byzantine faults involve deliberate malicious behavior
c. Crash faults require at least 3F + 1 node for consensus (here, F is the number of crash faults)
d. Byzantine faults can never partition the network
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
Byzantine faults involve nodes behaving maliciously, whereas crash faults occur when nodes fail
passively.
The correct answer is (b) Byzantine faults involve deliberate malicious behavior.

Detailed Solution

Crash Faults vs. Byzantine Faults: Primary Distinction

Crash Faults
Definition: A crash fault occurs when a node (computer/server) in a distributed system
simply stops working or "crashes." It does not send any more messages or participate in the
system.
Behavior: The node fails passively—it just goes silent, but does not send out wrong or
misleading information.
Example: Imagine a computer in a network suddenly loses power and shuts down. It
doesn't try to trick anyone; it just stops responding.

Byzantine Faults
Definition: A Byzantine fault occurs when a node acts in an arbitrary or malicious way. It
could send conflicting, incorrect, or even intentionally misleading messages to different
nodes.
Behavior: The node can fail actively and maliciously—it might lie, cheat, or try to disrupt
consensus on purpose.
Example: Imagine a computer in a network that is hacked and starts sending different
(possibly false) information to different computers, trying to confuse them or disrupt the
system.
Key Distinction
Crash faults are about nodes failing quietly (passively).
Byzantine faults are about nodes possibly behaving in a deliberately malicious or
unpredictable way [217] [218] [219] [220] [221] .

Why the Other Options Are Incorrect

a. Crash faults involve deliberate malicious behavior:
Incorrect. Crash faults are not malicious; they are passive failures.
c. Crash faults require at least 3F + 1 node for consensus (here, F is the number of crash
faults):
Incorrect. The 3F + 1 rule is for Byzantine faults. Crash fault tolerance typically requires only
F + 1 or 2F + 1 nodes.
d. Byzantine faults can never partition the network:
Incorrect. Byzantine faults can cause confusion and disagreement, but they do not
guarantee network partitioning cannot happen.

Summary Table
Fault Type Behavior Malicious? Example

Crash Fault Node stops working, no more messages No Power loss, silent failure

Byzantine Node sends wrong/conflicting info, may Hacked node, sends false
Yes
Fault lie data

In summary:
> The primary distinction is that Byzantine faults involve deliberate malicious behavior (option
b), while crash faults are passive failures where nodes simply stop working.
⁂

Suppose you execute your tasks distributedly

from four different systems at four different
locations. To
maintain the consensus among the systems, you are using the BFT model. You found that one
system is
permanently failed due to a hardware fault and another system is compromised by an attacker.
Does your
system correctly work at all?
a. No
b. Yes, with the remaining nodes
c. Yes, with all the nodes
d. Yes, but with reduced efficiency
Answer: (a)
Detailed solution:
We need at least 3F+1=3(1)+1=3F + 1 = 3(1) + 1 = 4 systems to tolerate 1 Byzantine fault. Since
one
system has permanently failed (crash fault), the remaining systems cannot maintain consensus
Answer:
a) No

Detailed Solution

Understanding the Scenario

You have 4 systems (nodes) running a distributed task using the Byzantine Fault Tolerance
(BFT) model.
One system is permanently failed (crash fault).
Another system is compromised (Byzantine fault: acting maliciously or unpredictably).
You want to know if the system can still correctly maintain consensus.

How Many Nodes Are Needed for BFT?

Byzantine Fault Tolerance (BFT) is designed to allow a distributed system to keep working
correctly even if some nodes are faulty or malicious.
The classic rule for BFT is:

Where:
$ n $ = total number of nodes
$ f $ = number of Byzantine (malicious) faults you want to tolerate
If you want to tolerate 1 Byzantine fault ($ f = 1 $):

So, with 4 nodes, you can tolerate at most 1 faulty (Byzantine) node.

What Happens If There Are Multiple Faults?

In your case, you have:
1 node with a crash fault (not working at all)
1 node with a Byzantine fault (malicious/compromised)
BFT treats crash faults as less severe than Byzantine faults, but both count as faults for
the purpose of consensus.
With 4 nodes, you can only tolerate 1 faulty node (whether crash or Byzantine).
 If you have 2 faulty nodes (of any type), 4 nodes are NOT enough to maintain consensus.
The system can no longer guarantee correct agreement among the remaining nodes.

Supporting References
"The formula, n ≥ 3f + 1, is derived from the need to ensure that the non-faulty nodes can
always outvote the faulty ones. For any consensus to be reliable, the non-faulty nodes must
form a majority." [222]
"This algorithm requires '3f+1' replicas to be able to tolerate 'f' failing nodes." [223]
"If a system needs to tolerate 1 faulty node (f=1), it requires at least 4 nodes. This is
calculated as 3 × 1 + 1 = 4. For 2 faulty nodes (f=2), the system needs at least 7 nodes,
calculated as 3 × 2 + 1 = 7." [222]

Conclusion (In Simple Terms)

With 4 nodes, you can only handle one node failing (whether it crashes or acts maliciously).
If two nodes fail (one crashes, one is malicious), the system cannot maintain consensus or
work correctly.
So, the answer is: No, your system will not work correctly at all.

Final Answer:
a) No
⁂

In Paxos, what will a proposer do if it receives a

promise containing an already accepted value?
a. Use the previously accepted value with the highest ID
b. Propose a completely new value
c. Abort the consensus
d. Ignore the promise and continue
Answer: (a)
Detailed solution:
The proposer will use the value with the highest ID. Refer to week 6 lecture notes.
Answer:
a. Use the previously accepted value with the highest ID
Detailed Solution (Beginner-Friendly)

What is Paxos?
Paxos is a consensus algorithm used in distributed systems to make sure that multiple
computers (nodes) agree on a single value, even if some fail or messages get lost.

How Does the Promise Work in Paxos?

When a proposer wants to suggest a value, it first sends a "prepare" message with a
proposal number (ID) to the acceptors.
Each acceptor responds with a "promise" not to accept any proposals with a lower number.
If an acceptor has already accepted a value in a previous round, it includes the value and its
proposal number in the promise.

What Does the Proposer Do If It Receives a Promise with an Accepted Value?

The proposer must use the value with the highest proposal number (ID) among all the
promises it receives [224] [225] [226] [227] .
This rule ensures that all proposals that could possibly be chosen are consistent, and
consensus is safe.

Why?
If the proposer ignored the previously accepted value, it could end up with two different
values being chosen, breaking consensus.
By always using the value with the highest ID, Paxos guarantees that once a value is chosen,
all future proposals will use that same value, maintaining agreement across the system.

References from Results

Wikipedia: "If any Acceptors had previously accepted any proposal, then they'll have sent
their values to the Proposer, who now must set the value of its proposal to the value
associated with the highest proposal number reported by the Acceptors..." [224]
FreeCodeCamp: "If the proposer receives a majority's promise response, it will check if any
promised messages have an accepted message. If it has an accept message, the proposal
will accept the message to send the accept request to the processor again." [225]
StackOverflow: "If any value is returned by an acceptor, the one with the highest round-id
must be used in the Accept phase." [226]
GeeksforGeeks: "If an acceptor has already accepted a value for the same round (perhaps
from a previous proposal), it includes that value in its response. This information is crucial for
the proposer, as it helps identify any potential conflicts or ongoing consensus processes."
[227]
Summary Table
Option What Happens? Correct?

a Use the previously accepted value with highest ID Yes

b Propose a completely new value No

c Abort the consensus No

d Ignore the promise and continue No

In short:
> If a proposer in Paxos receives a promise containing an already accepted value, it must use
the previously accepted value with the highest proposal ID when making its proposal. This is
essential for maintaining consensus and safety in the system.
⁂

Which of the following is/are true regarding the

permissioned blockchain model?
a. Users are anonymous
b. Transactions are publicly visible to everyone
c. Users are authenticated through a Membership Service Provider (MSP)
d. Security and consensus are required
Answer: (c) and (d)
Detailed solution:
In the permissioned blockchain model, users are authenticated through MSP and users know
each other.
But security and consensus are still required. The transactions are only visible to authorized
participants.
The correct answers are (c) Users are authenticated through a Membership Service Provider
(MSP) and (d) Security and consensus are required.

Detailed Explanation

What is a Permissioned Blockchain?

A permissioned blockchain is a type of blockchain where only authorized participants can join,
transact, or validate transactions. This is in contrast to a permissionless (public) blockchain,
where anyone can participate anonymously.
Option Analysis

a. Users are anonymous

Incorrect.
In permissioned blockchains, users are not anonymous. Every participant must be
authenticated and identified before joining the network [228] [229] . Their identities are
managed and verified by a Membership Service Provider (MSP) [230] [228] .
Supporting evidence:
> "Access to the identity of every transactional participant can be crucial information for
private entities concerned with accountability and a provable chain of custody. Every
change is tracked to a specific user..." [228]

b. Transactions are publicly visible to everyone

Incorrect.
In permissioned blockchains, transactions are only visible to authorized participants.
Public visibility is a feature of permissionless (public) blockchains, not permissioned
ones [228] [229] .
Supporting evidence:
> "Permissioned blockchains are blockchains that are closed (i.e., not publicly accessible) or
have an access control layer... Transparency is optional, as most permissioned blockchain
networks are specifically intended to not be transparent for security purposes." [228]

c. Users are authenticated through a Membership Service Provider (MSP)

Correct.
Permissioned blockchains (like Hyperledger Fabric) use Membership Service Providers
(MSPs) to authenticate and manage user identities [230] . MSPs ensure that only trusted and
verified entities can participate in the network.
Supporting evidence:
> "Membership Service Providers (MSPs) in Hyperledger Fabric are integral to the
functioning of a permissioned blockchain network. They work ... to manage identities and
access control within the network." [230]

d. Security and consensus are required

Correct.
Even though the network is permissioned, security and consensus mechanisms are still
essential to ensure that transactions are valid and the ledger remains tamper-proof [228]
[231] . Permissioned blockchains often use consensus protocols like PBFT or other efficient
algorithms.
Supporting evidence:
> "Permissioned blockchains provide the operating organization granular control over
permissions, data access, and the scope of user roles... Decisions are authorized by a
private group... Transactions are proposed by permissioned nodes and validated by a
 consensus protocol, ensuring that only authorized nodes can create and approve blocks."
[228] [231]

Summary Table
True for Permissioned
Option Why?
Blockchain?

a No Users are identified, not anonymous [228] [229]

b No Transactions are visible only to authorized participants [228]

[229]

c Yes Users are authenticated via MSP [230]

d Yes Security and consensus are still required [228] [231]

In Simple Words
Permissioned blockchains require users to be identified and authenticated (not
anonymous), usually through a Membership Service Provider (MSP).
Security and consensus are still crucial to ensure the network operates correctly and
safely.
Transactions are not public; only authorized users can see them.
So, the correct answers are (c) and (d).
⁂

QUESTION 5
In the Paxos algorithm, a majority of promises ensure:
a. Agreement on the ID, value
b. Liveness of the system
c. Safety against conflicting proposals
d. Disagreement on the ID, value
Answer: (c)
Detailed solution:
A majority of promises in Paxos ensure safety by preventing conflicting proposals from
proceeding
The correct answer is (c) Safety against conflicting proposals.
Detailed Solution

What does a "majority of promises" mean in Paxos?

In the Paxos consensus algorithm, when a proposer wants to get a value chosen, it first sends a
"prepare" request to all acceptors. If a majority of acceptors respond with a "promise" (not to
accept lower-numbered proposals), the proposer can move forward.

Why does a majority ensure safety?

Safety in Paxos means that the system will never decide on two different values for the
same consensus instance—no conflicting proposals will be accepted.
The key reason is that any two majorities always overlap by at least one acceptor [232]
[233] . This overlapping acceptor ensures that if a value has already been accepted by a
previous majority, the new proposer will learn about it and must propose the same value
(with the highest ID) in the next round [232] [234] [233] [235] .
This mechanism prevents two different values from being chosen, even if multiple
proposers are active at the same time.

Supporting references
GeeksforGeeks: "Safety: PAXOS prioritizes choosing a valid value. It ensures that the
agreed-upon value must have originated as a proposal from one of the nodes ..." [234]
Paper Trail: "Any two majority sets of acceptors will have at least one acceptor in common.
Therefore if two proposals are agreed to by a majority, there must be at least one acceptor
that agreed to both. ... This gives as an inductive guarantee that all accepted proposals will
be for the same value." [232]
CS Yale: "No two distinct values are both chosen. (This gives agreement.)" [233]
MyDistributed.Systems: "For example, as we will see, with Paxos, we may have a situation
where proposers step on each other continuously, preventing reaching agreement forever,
but in practice ... safety is always guaranteed." [235]

Why not the other options?

a) Agreement on the ID, value:
Paxos ensures agreement on the value, but the role of majority promises is specifically to
prevent conflicting proposals (safety), not just to agree on IDs/values.
b) Liveness of the system:
Liveness (eventually making progress) is not guaranteed by majority promises alone;
network or proposer issues can still cause delays [235] .
d) Disagreement on the ID, value:
This is the opposite of what majority promises ensure; they prevent disagreement.
In Simple Words
A majority of promises in Paxos guarantees safety by making sure that only one value can be
chosen for a given consensus round, even if there are failures or multiple proposers. This
prevents the system from ever accepting conflicting proposals.
So, the correct answer is (c): Safety against conflicting proposals.
⁂

man i cant understnad thing

You’re not alone—blockchain can feel overwhelming at first! Here’s a super-simple, step-by-
step explanation, using plain language and analogies, to help you finally “get it”:

What Is Blockchain? (Like You’re 5)

Imagine a notebook that everyone in your class can write in, but nobody can erase or
change what’s already written.
Every time someone does something (like pays someone, or makes a
⁂

n the Paxos algorithm, a majority of promises

ensure:
a. Agreement on the ID, value
b. Liveness of the system
c. Safety against conflicting proposals
d. Disagreement on the ID, value
Answer: (c)
Detailed solution:
A majority of promises in Paxos ensure safety by preventing conflicting proposals from
proceeding
explain each word
each concept and each thing reqiued to solve the question
i want you think i dont know anything about this and explain in very easy and simplerterms
explain each word
Let’s break down your question and explain every word, concept, and step in the simplest way
possible, as if you’re learning this for the very first time.
The Question
In the Paxos algorithm, a majority of promises ensure:
a. Agreement on the ID, value
b. Liveness of the system
c. Safety against conflicting proposals
d. Disagreement on the ID, value
Correct answer: (c) Safety against conflicting proposals

What is Paxos?
Paxos is a set of rules (an algorithm) that helps a group of computers (called a distributed
system) agree on one answer, even if some computers crash or messages are delayed.
This is called consensus: everyone agrees on the same thing.

Key Words and Concepts

1. Distributed System
A group of computers working together, often in different places, to do a job.

2. Consensus
Getting everyone (all the computers) to agree on a single answer or value.

3. Proposer
A computer that suggests a value for everyone to agree on.

4. Acceptor
A computer that listens to proposals and decides whether to accept them.

5. Promise
When an acceptor receives a proposal, it can send back a promise:
“I promise not to accept any older (lower-numbered) proposals after this one.”

6. Majority
More than half of all acceptors.
For example, if there are 5 acceptors, a majority is at least 3.
7. Proposal
A suggestion for what value everyone should agree on. Each proposal has a unique number
(ID).

8. Safety
Means the system will never accept two different answers for the same question.
(No “split brain” or confusion.)

9. Conflicting Proposals
Two different values being accepted at the same time. This is bad—Paxos is designed to
prevent it.

How Does Paxos Use Promises and Majorities?

1. The proposer sends a proposal to all acceptors.
2. Acceptors reply with promises if they haven’t already promised to a higher-numbered
proposal.
3. When the proposer gets promises from a majority, it knows that:
No other proposal with a lower number can be accepted by that majority.
This ensures that only one value can be chosen, even if multiple proposers are trying at
the same time.
This is what keeps the system safe from conflicting proposals.

Why Majority Is Special

Any two majorities always overlap by at least one acceptor ( [236] , [237] ).
This means if one majority accepted a value, the next majority will have at least one
acceptor who knows about it and will tell the new proposer.
That way, the new proposer can’t propose a different value—the protocol forces it to stick
to the value already accepted.
This overlap is what guarantees safety ( [236] , [237] , [238] ).

Why Not the Other Options?

a. Agreement on the ID, value:
Majority promises don’t guarantee agreement yet—they guarantee safety by preventing
conflicts.
b. Liveness of the system:
Liveness means the system keeps making progress. Paxos does not guarantee liveness in
all cases ( [239] , [237] , [240] ).
 d. Disagreement on the ID, value:
The opposite—Paxos is designed to prevent disagreement.

In Simple Words
> A majority of promises in Paxos makes sure that only one answer can ever be chosen, even
if lots of computers are sending proposals at the same time. This keeps the system safe and
prevents confusion.

Visual Analogy
Imagine you and four friends have to agree on where to eat. If you get promises from at least
three friends that they won’t change their mind for an older choice, you know that no other
group can pick a different restaurant without at least one of your friends being involved. This
stops two restaurants from being picked at the same time!

Summary Table
Word/Concept Meaning (Simple)

Paxos Rules for computers to agree on one answer

Consensus Agreement among all computers

Proposer Suggests a value

Acceptor Votes on proposals

Promise Acceptor says “I won’t accept older proposals”

Majority More than half the group

Safety Never have two different answers accepted

Conflicting Proposals Two different answers being accepted at once (bad!)

So, in Paxos, a majority of promises ensures: (c) Safety against conflicting proposals.
This means the system will never accept two different answers for the same question.
⁂

<q>Means the system will never accept two

different answers for the same question.
(No “split brain” or confusion.)</q> i dont get this how it fits in all that
Absolutely! Let’s break down what “the system will never accept two different answers for the
same question (No ‘split brain’ or confusion)” means, and how it fits into consensus and Paxos,
using very simple language and step-by-step logic.
1. What is the “same question” in distributed systems?
In distributed systems (many computers working together), “the same question” means a
decision the group needs to make.
Example: “What value should we all agree on?” (like the winner of a vote, or the next
block in a blockchain)

2. What does “two different answers” mean?

This means some computers think the answer is “A”, while others think it is “B”.
If this happens, the group is not in agreement—they are confused or split.

3. What is “split brain”?

“Split brain” is a problem in distributed systems where the network gets divided (maybe due
to a network problem), and each part makes its own decisions, thinking it is the only group
working.
As a result, different parts of the system may accept different answers for the same
question [241] .

4. Why is this bad?

If the system accepts two different answers, it loses consistency.
Imagine a bank where half the computers think you have $100, and the other half think you
have $200. That’s a disaster!

5. What does Paxos (and consensus algorithms) do about this?

Consensus algorithms (like Paxos) are designed so that, no matter what, the group will
only ever accept one answer for each question.
This is called the safety property [242] [243] :
No two distinct values are both chosen.
Everyone who gets an answer will get the same answer, even if messages are slow or
some computers fail.

6. How does Paxos prevent split brain?

Paxos uses a rule: A decision is only made if a majority agrees.
Any two majorities will always overlap by at least one computer. That overlapping computer
makes sure that, even if the network is split, only one answer can be accepted.
This prevents the “split brain” problem, because it’s impossible for two different groups to
each accept a different answer without overlapping and catching the conflict [241] [242] .
7. How does this fit into your question?
When the question says, “the system will never accept two different answers for the same
question (No ‘split brain’ or confusion),” it means:
Consensus algorithms like Paxos make sure everyone agrees on the same answer,
always.
Even if the network is split or some computers fail, you won’t end up with two different
answers in different parts of the system.

Summary Table
Term Meaning (Simple)

Same question The decision all computers must agree on (e.g., next block, value, etc.)

Two answers Some computers say “A”, others say “B”—not allowed in safe systems

Split brain Different parts of the system make independent, conflicting decisions

Safety property The system will never accept two different answers for the same question

Consensus Agreement among all computers on one answer

In Simple Words
> Consensus algorithms like Paxos are designed so that, no matter what, the system will
never end up with two different answers to the same question. This prevents confusion
(“split brain”) and keeps everyone in agreement—even if some computers fail or the network
has problems.

References:
- [241] LinkedIn: Split Brain in Distributed System
- [242] CS Yale: Paxos Safety Properties
- [243] 101Blockchains: Role of Consensus Algorithms in Blockchain Security
⁂

<q>How Does Paxos Use Promises and

Majorities?
The proposer sends a proposal to all acceptors.
Acceptors reply with promises if they haven’t already promised to a higher-numbered proposal.
When the proposer gets promises from a majority, it knows that:
No other proposal with a lower number can be accepted by that majority.
This ensures that only one value can be chosen, even if multiple proposers are trying at the
same time.
This is what keeps the system safe from conflicting proposals.
Why Majority Is Special
Any two majorities always overlap by at least one acceptor (,).
This means if one majority accepted a value, the next majority will have at least one acceptor
who knows about it and will tell the new proposer.
That way, the new proposer can’t propose a different value—the protocol forces it to stick to the
value already accepted.
This overlap is what guarantees safety (,,).
Why Not the Other Options?
a. Agreement on the ID, value:
Majority promises don’t guarantee agreement yet—they guarantee safety by preventing
conflicts.
b. Liveness of the system:
Liveness means the system keeps making progress. Paxos does not guarantee liveness in all
cases (,,).
d. Disagreement on the ID, value:
The opposite—Paxos is designed to prevent disagreement.</q> explain
Here’s a super simple, beginner-level explanation of the concepts in your query about how
Paxos uses promises and majorities, and why this prevents conflicting proposals:

Key Terms Explained

1. Paxos
A set of rules (algorithm) that helps a group of computers agree on the same answer, even if
some computers fail or messages are delayed.

2. Proposer
The computer (node) that suggests a value for the group to agree on.
3. Acceptor
The computer that receives proposals and decides whether to promise to support them.

4. Proposal
A suggestion for what value the group should agree on. Each proposal has a unique number
(ID) to keep track of which is newer.

5. Promise
When an acceptor gets a proposal, it can reply with a promise:
“I promise not to accept any older (lower-numbered) proposals after this one.”

6. Majority
More than half of all acceptors. For example, if there are 5 acceptors, a majority is at least 3.

How Does Paxos Use Promises and Majorities?

1. The proposer sends a proposal to all acceptors.
Example: “Let’s all agree on value X, proposal #5.”
2. Acceptors reply with promises if they haven’t already promised to a higher-numbered
proposal.
This means: “I won’t accept any proposal with a number lower than #5.”
3. When the proposer gets promises from a majority, it knows:
No other proposal with a lower number can be accepted by that majority.
This is because a majority is more than half, and any other majority will always overlap
(share at least one acceptor) with this group.
4. Why is this important?
If another proposer tries to get a different value accepted, it can’t get a majority unless
it includes at least one acceptor from the first majority.
That acceptor will only accept the new proposal if it’s for the same value as the one
already promised, or if it’s a higher-numbered proposal.

Why Does This Prevent Conflicting Proposals?

Any two majorities always overlap (they share at least one acceptor).
If one majority has already promised to a value, the next majority will include at least one
acceptor who knows about that promise.
This means the system can’t accept two different answers for the same question—it’s
always forced to stick to the first value that got a majority.
Why Not the Other Options?
a. Agreement on the ID, value:
Majority promises don’t guarantee everyone has agreed yet—they just prevent two different
values from being accepted.
b. Liveness of the system:
Liveness means the system keeps making progress. Paxos doesn’t guarantee this in all
cases (for example, if messages are delayed).
d. Disagreement on the ID, value:
This is the opposite of what Paxos does—it prevents disagreement.

In Simple Words
> Paxos uses majority promises so that only one answer can ever be accepted for a decision.
This keeps the system safe from confusion, even if lots of computers are making proposals
at the same time.

Visual Analogy
Imagine you and four friends are voting on where to eat. If you get promises from at least three
friends that they won’t change their mind for an older suggestion, then even if someone else
tries to suggest a new place, they can’t get enough people to agree unless they include at least
one of your friends—who will remind them of the earlier promise. This keeps everyone from
ending up at different restaurants!

Summary Table

Term Simple Meaning

Paxos Rules for group agreement

Proposer Suggests a value

Acceptor Votes and promises

Promise “I won’t accept older proposals”

Majority More than half the group

Safety Never two different answers for the same question

That’s how Paxos uses promises and majorities to keep everyone in agreement and prevent
conflicting decisions!
⁂
i dont unerstandf higher lower and ids
Absolutely! Let’s break down what “higher,” “lower,” and “IDs” mean in the context of the Paxos
consensus algorithm, using very simple, step-by-step language:

1. What is an “ID” in Paxos?

In Paxos, every time a computer (called a proposer) wants to suggest a value for the group
to agree on, it gives its suggestion a unique number.
This number is called the proposal number or ID.
Think of it as a “ticket number” for each suggestion.
Why do we need IDs?
To keep track of which suggestion is the newest or most recent.

2. What do “higher” and “lower” mean?

Higher means a bigger number (like 5 is higher than 3).
Lower means a smaller number (like 2 is lower than 4).
In Paxos:
If a proposal has a higher ID, it is considered newer or more recent.
If a proposal has a lower ID, it is considered older.

3. How are IDs used in Paxos?

Step-by-Step Example:
1. Proposer A wants everyone to agree on “Pizza.”
It creates proposal ID 1: (“Pizza”, 1)
2. Proposer B later wants everyone to agree on “Burger.”
It creates proposal ID 2: (“Burger”, 2)
Now, “Burger” has a higher ID (2) than “Pizza” (1).

4. Why do acceptors care about higher and lower IDs?

When an acceptor gets a proposal, it checks:
“Is this proposal’s ID higher than any I’ve seen before?”
If YES: It promises to ignore any future proposals with lower (older) IDs.
If NO: It ignores or rejects the proposal.
This rule ensures:
 Only the newest proposal (with the highest ID) can get accepted by a majority.
Older proposals (with lower IDs) can’t “override” newer ones.

5. Why is this important?

It prevents the group from agreeing on two different answers at the same time.
If two proposals compete, the one with the higher ID will win.
This keeps the system safe and avoids confusion.

6. Visual Analogy
Imagine you’re in a classroom, and you want to pick a class leader:
The first student raises their hand and says, “I want to be leader!” (ID 1)
Later, another student says, “I want to be leader!” (ID 2)
The teacher says: “I’ll only consider the student with the highest number (ID). If you already
promised to support a student with a higher number, ignore anyone with a lower number.”

7. Summary Table
Term Meaning in Paxos

ID Unique number for each proposal (like a ticket number)

Higher Bigger number, more recent proposal

Lower Smaller number, older proposal

8. Why does this matter for consensus?

By always choosing the proposal with the highest ID, Paxos makes sure everyone
eventually agrees on the same answer, even if multiple computers are making suggestions
at the same time.

TL;DR
ID: Number given to each proposal.
Higher ID: Newer proposal, takes priority.
Lower ID: Older proposal, ignored if a higher one comes along.
This is how Paxos avoids confusion and makes sure only one answer is chosen!

If you want an even simpler analogy or a step-by-step story, just ask!

⁂
What is/are the purpose of Multi-Paxos?
a. To have a termination guarantee
b. To execute smart contracts on multiple blockchains
c. To reach a consensus for a series of values
d. To prioritize liveness over safety
Answer: (c)
Detailed solution:
Multi-Paxos extends Paxos to achieve consensus over a series of values. There is no termination
guarantee.
The correct answer is (c) To reach a consensus for a series of values.

Detailed Solution (Beginner-Friendly)

What is Paxos?
Paxos is a consensus algorithm. It helps a group of computers (nodes) agree on a single
value, even if some computers fail or messages are delayed.
Classic Paxos is designed to make the group agree on just one value (for example, one
decision or one block).

What is Multi-Paxos?
Multi-Paxos is an extension of Paxos.
Its main purpose is to help the group agree on a series of values, not just one.
For example, in a blockchain or a database, you need to agree on a whole sequence of
blocks or commands, not just one.
Multi-Paxos runs the Paxos algorithm repeatedly, so the group can keep making decisions
over time (like agreeing on block 1, block 2, block 3, and so on) [244] [245] [246] .

Why Not the Other Options?

a. To have a termination guarantee:
Multi-Paxos does not guarantee termination in all network conditions (e.g., if messages are
lost forever or the network is too slow) [247] .
b. To execute smart contracts on multiple blockchains:
Multi-Paxos is about reaching agreement in distributed systems, not about executing smart
contracts.
d. To prioritize liveness over safety:
Multi-Paxos, like classic Paxos, prioritizes safety (no two different values are chosen for the
same slot) over liveness (making progress), and does not guarantee liveness in all
cases [247] [244] .
Summary Table
Option Description Correct? Why/Why Not

Multi-Paxos does not guarantee termination in all

a Termination guarantee No
cases [247]

Smart contracts on multiple

b No Not related to Multi-Paxos's purpose
blockchains

Main purpose: repeated consensus for many

c Consensus for a series of values Yes
values [244] [245] [246]

d Prioritize liveness over safety No Multi-Paxos prioritizes safety, not liveness [247]
[244]

In Simple Words
> Multi-Paxos is used when a group of computers needs to agree not just once, but over and
over again—on a whole sequence of values (like a list of blocks or commands).
> This is why its main purpose is to reach a consensus for a series of values.

So, the answer is (c): To reach a consensus for a series of values.

⁂

Which
of
the
following
is/are
a. It requires a majority of acceptors to proceed
b. It achieves consensus on ID and not the value
c. It achieves consensus on the value and not ID
d. It can work with Byzantine faults
Answer: (b), (d)
Detailed solution:
false
regarding
classic
Paxos?
Paxos is designed to handle only crash faults. Also, the consensus is reached on the value, not
on
ID.
Let's break down the question:
Question
Which of the following is/are false regarding classic Paxos?
a. It requires a majority of acceptors to proceed
b. It achieves consensus on ID and not the value
c. It achieves consensus on the value and not ID
d. It can work with Byzantine faults
Answer: (b), (d)

Detailed Solution (Beginner-Friendly)

What is Classic Paxos?

Classic Paxos is a consensus algorithm used in distributed systems. Its main goal is to help a
group of computers (nodes) agree on a single value (like a decision or a record), even if some
computers crash or messages are delayed.

Let’s Examine Each Option

a. It requires a majority of acceptors to proceed

This is TRUE.
Paxos needs more than half (a majority) of the acceptors to agree before a value can be
chosen.
This ensures that any two majorities will always overlap, preventing conflicting decisions.
[Supported by GeeksforGeeks and Kavya G] [248] [249]

b. It achieves consensus on ID and not the value

This is FALSE.
Paxos achieves consensus on the value (e.g., “let’s all agree on X”), not just on the proposal
number (ID).
The proposal ID is just a tool to keep track of which proposal is newer, but the actual
agreement is on the value itself.
[Supported by GeeksforGeeks and Kavya G] [248] [249]

c. It achieves consensus on the value and not ID

This is TRUE.
The whole point of Paxos is to make sure everyone agrees on the same value.
The ID (proposal number) is used to order proposals, but the agreement is about the value.
 [Supported by GeeksforGeeks and Kavya G] [248] [249]

d. It can work with Byzantine faults

This is FALSE.
Classic Paxos can handle crash faults (nodes that simply stop working), but not Byzantine
faults (nodes that act maliciously or send conflicting information).
If nodes are malicious or dishonest (Byzantine), classic Paxos cannot guarantee correct
consensus.
[Supported by GeeksforGeeks] [249]

Summary Table
Option TRUE or FALSE? Why?

a TRUE Paxos needs a majority of acceptors to agree.

b FALSE Paxos agrees on the value, not just the ID.

c TRUE Consensus is on the value, not the ID.

d FALSE Classic Paxos does not handle Byzantine faults.

In Simple Words
Paxos helps computers agree on a value, not just a number (ID).
It needs a majority to agree.
It cannot handle malicious (Byzantine) faults—only simple crashes.
So, (b) and (d) are false statements about classic Paxos.

References: [248] : http://gkavya.in/paxos/ [249] : https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/paxos-consens

us-algorithm/
⁂

QUESTION 1
Which statement(s) are not true about Byzantine Dissemination Quorum:
a. Any two quorums have at least one correct replica in common
b. There is always a quorum available with no faulty replicas
c. Any two quorums have at most one correct replica in common
d. There is always a quorum available with some faulty replicas
Answer: (c), (d)
Detailed solution:
Refer to Lecture 31: Byzantine Dissemination Quorum: Intersection: Any two quorums have at
least one
correct replica in common. Availability: There is always a quorum available with no faulty replicas
QUESTION 2
If you have f number of total faulty nodes, then you need at least how many replicas to reach
consensus
considering the possibility of both crash fault or byzantine fault.
a. 2f + 1
b. 3f + 1
c. f +1
d. 3f
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
Considering the byzantine fault, 3f + 1 replicas are required to reach a consensus. This is greater
than 2f +
1 replicas, which is enough to handle crash faults, too.
NPTEL Online Certification Courses
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QUESTION 3
Which cryptographic technique is primarily used in PBFT to validate message integrity?
a. Hashing
b. Symmetric encryption
c. Digital signatures
d. Sharding
Answer: (c)
Detailed solution:
PBFT utilizes digital signatures to ensure the authenticity and integrity of messages
QUESTION 4
Which mechanism ensures PBFT liveness when the primary fails?
a. Cryptographic signatures
b. View change protocol
c. Pre-prepare and Prepare phases
d. Timeout mechanism
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
The view change protocol allows the system to elect a new primary when the current primary
fails.
QUESTION 5
Which of the following statement(s) are not true regarding Hyperledger frameworks?
a. Hyperledger frameworks are primarily used for building permissioned blockchains for
organizations.
b. Hyperledger frameworks are developed for mainly building public blockchains.
c. Hyperledger frameworks can not use CouchDB.
d. Hyperledger frameworks are only used for building smart contracts for public blockchains
Answer: (b), (c) and (d)
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Jan 2025
Detailed solution:
Fabric is primarily used for building permissioned blockchains for organizations. It is an open
source
project so anyone can use it to build a permissioned blockchain and deploy smart contracts on
it. The
states can be maintained using light weight databases such as Level DB, CouchDB etc.
QUESTION 6
Which of the following(s) is/are benefits of Blockchain for Business?
a. Reduced transaction time in general, from days to near instantaneous for legacy based cross-
border
interactions
b. The sole centralized authority has been able to remove overheads and cost
c. Supports transparency and traceability in transactions
d. Always increases transaction costs due to complexity
Answer: (a) and (c)
Detailed solution:
Refer to Lecture 33. The benefits of Blockchain for business include reduced transaction time by
enabling near-instantaneous cross-border transactions and supporting transparency and
traceability
through immutable ledger. Blockchain does not involve a centralized authority to remove
overheads, and
while complexity may increase costs, the goal is to ultimately reduce transaction costs.
QUESTION 7
Which of the following are characteristics of permissioned blockchains (in comparison with
permissionless
blockchains)?
a. Closed membership consensus protocol in permissioned blockchains
b. The identities of nodes are not pre-known in permissioned blockchains
c. Always lower transaction throughput in permissioned blockchains
d. Permissioned blockchains are highly scalable for a large number of nodes
Answer: (a)
Detailed solution:
NPTEL Online Certification Courses
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Permissioned blockchains use closed membership consensus algorithms and have a high
transaction
throughput. However, they are less scalable in accommodating a large number of nodes
compared to
permissionless blockchains. Refer to Lecture 33.
QUESTION 8
Which of the following abstractions in Hyperledger Fabric primarily provides confidentiality to
individual
ledgers ?
a. Ordering Services
b. Peers
c. Channels
d. Consensus
Answer: (c)
Detailed solution:
Refer to Lecture 35: Fabric channels refer to different separate ledgers such that only
organizations
belonging to a particular channel can read/write to that ledger.
QUESTION 9
What is the role of Membership Service Provider (MSP) in Hyperledger Fabric?
a. Assigning sequence numbers to transactions
b. Identity management for network participants
c. Storing ledger data securely
d. Defining consensus mechanism for network
Answer: (b)
Detailed solution:
MSP handles the identity management for network participants. It ensures that only authorized
participants
are allowed to interact with the network.
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QUESTION 10
Which of the following are key features of Hyperledger Fabric?
a. Modular architecture with pluggable components
b. Permissionless blockchain framework
c. Support for smart contracts (chain codes) in general-purpose languages
d. Use of native cryptocurrencies for transactions
Answer: (a), (c)
Detailed solution:
Hyperledger Fabric is a permissioned blockchain framework with a modular design and support
for
smart contracts (chain codes) written in languages like Go, Java, and Node.js. It does not have
native
cryptocurrencies.
Here are detailed, beginner-friendly explanations for the Week 7 assignment questions you
listed, with each concept broken down:

QUESTION 1
Which statement(s) are not true about Byzantine Dissemination Quorum:
a. Any two quorums have at least one correct replica in common
b. There is always a quorum available with no faulty replicas
c. Any two quorums have at most one correct replica in common
d. There is always a quorum available with some faulty replicas
Answer: (c), (d)
Explanation:
Quorum: In distributed systems, a quorum is a group of nodes (computers) whose
agreement is enough to make a decision.
Byzantine Dissemination Quorum: Designed to tolerate malicious (Byzantine) nodes.
Intersection Property: Any two quorums must share at least one correct (non-faulty) node.
This overlap ensures that no two groups can make conflicting decisions without at least one
honest node noticing.
Availability Property: There must always be a quorum that contains only correct nodes, so
decisions can still be made even if some nodes are faulty.
(c) is not true: The correct property is “at least one correct replica in common,” not “at
most.”
(d) is not true: There must always be a quorum with no faulty nodes (not just “some” faulty
nodes) [250] .

QUESTION 2
If you have f number of total faulty nodes, then you need at least how many replicas to reach
consensus considering the possibility of both crash fault or byzantine fault.
a. 2f + 1
b. 3f + 1
c. f +1
d. 3f
Answer: (b)
Explanation:
Crash Fault: Node just stops working.
Byzantine Fault: Node can act maliciously or unpredictably.
To tolerate f Byzantine faults, you need at least 3f + 1 nodes. This ensures that the correct
nodes always outnumber the faulty ones in any quorum [251] [252] [250] .

QUESTION 3
Which cryptographic technique is primarily used in PBFT to validate message integrity?
a. Hashing
b. Symmetric encryption
c. Digital signatures
d. Sharding
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
PBFT (Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance): A consensus protocol for permissioned
blockchains.
Digital signatures are used so that every message can be verified as coming from the
claimed sender and not tampered with. This provides both authenticity and integrity [253] .

QUESTION 4
Which mechanism ensures PBFT liveness when the primary fails?
a. Cryptographic signatures
b. View change protocol
c. Pre-prepare and Prepare phases
d. Timeout mechanism
Answer: (b)
Explanation:
Liveness: The system keeps making progress (doesn’t get stuck).
Primary: The node currently leading the protocol.
View change protocol: If the primary fails or is malicious, the system can elect a new
primary and continue operating. This ensures liveness.

QUESTION 5
Which of the following statement(s) are not true regarding Hyperledger frameworks?
a. Hyperledger frameworks are primarily used for building permissioned blockchains for
organizations.
b. Hyperledger frameworks are developed for mainly building public blockchains.
c. Hyperledger frameworks can not use CouchDB.
d. Hyperledger frameworks are only used for building smart contracts for public blockchains
Answer: (b), (c), (d)
Explanation:
Hyperledger frameworks (like Fabric) are for permissioned (private) blockchains, not public
blockchains [254] .
They can use databases like CouchDB for storing data.
They are not only for public smart contracts; they're mainly for private, business use.
QUESTION 6
Which of the following(s) is/are benefits of Blockchain for Business?
a. Reduced transaction time in general, from days to near instantaneous for legacy based cross-
border interactions
b. The sole centralized authority has been able to remove overheads and cost
c. Supports transparency and traceability in transactions
d. Always increases transaction costs due to complexity
Answer: (a) and (c)
Explanation:
Blockchain reduces transaction time (especially for international or cross-company
transactions).
Transparency and traceability: Every transaction is recorded and visible to authorized
parties, making it easy to track and audit.
Blockchain is decentralized, so it does not rely on a single authority (b is false).
It aims to lower costs in the long run, not always increase them (d is false).

QUESTION 7
Which of the following are characteristics of permissioned blockchains (in comparison with
permissionless blockchains)?
a. Closed membership consensus protocol in permissioned blockchains
b. The identities of nodes are not pre-known in permissioned blockchains
c. Always lower transaction throughput in permissioned blockchains
d. Permissioned blockchains are highly scalable for a large number of nodes
Answer: (a)
Explanation:
Permissioned blockchains have a closed membership: only approved participants can join
and validate transactions [254] .
Identities are known (b is false).
Permissioned blockchains usually have higher throughput than public ones (c is false).
They are less scalable for very large numbers of nodes compared to permissionless
blockchains (d is false).
QUESTION 8
Which of the following abstractions in Hyperledger Fabric primarily provides confidentiality
to individual ledgers?
a. Ordering Services
b. Peers
c. Channels
d. Consensus
Answer: (c)
Explanation:
Channels in Hyperledger Fabric are like private sub-networks: only certain organizations
can see the transactions in a channel, providing confidentiality.

QUESTION 9
What is the role of Membership Service Provider (MSP) in Hyperledger Fabric?
a. Assigning sequence numbers to transactions
b. Identity management for network participants
c. Storing ledger data securely
d. Defining consensus mechanism for network
Answer: (b)
Explanation:
MSP is responsible for managing the identities of all participants, ensuring only authorized
users can join and interact with the network.

QUESTION 10
Which of the following are key features of Hyperledger Fabric?
a. Modular architecture with pluggable components
b. Permissionless blockchain framework
c. Support for smart contracts (chain codes) in general-purpose languages
d. Use of native cryptocurrencies for transactions
Answer: (a), (c)
Explanation:
Modular architecture: Components like consensus, membership, and databases can be
swapped out.
Smart contracts (chain codes): Can be written in languages like Go, Java, and Node.js.
Fabric is permissioned (not permissionless) and does not have a native cryptocurrency.
If you need more step-by-step breakdowns for any specific question or concept, just ask!
⁂

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