MODULE 1

1. Defining Social Problems and Social Issues

Social Problem:
o A condition that affects a significant percentage of society and requires urgent attention to save society and
the people affected. (Obileye & Aborisade (2020))
o An issue pertaining to a particular society, having a bearing on a large scale, necessitating prompt attention
from appropriate authorities to sustain and develop the society. (Obileye & Aborisade (2020))
o Any problem faced by society in the world. (Khan, Fahad, Naushad, & Faisal, 2021)
o Any condition or behavior that has negative consequences for a large number of people and is generally
recognized as needing to be addressed.
o A condition defined by a considerable number of persons as a deviation from some social norms which they
cherish. (Fuller and Myers)
o A way of behavior regarded by a substantial part of society as being in violation of one or more generally
accepted or approved norms. (Merton and Nisbet (1971))
o A social condition or pattern of behavior that has negative consequences for individuals, our social world, or
our physical world. (Leon-Guerrero (2018))
o Social conditions that disrupt or damage society—crime, racism, and the like. (The Oxford Bibliographies)
o A condition that affects large numbers of people in a common way and requires collective action for
resolution rather than individual treatment. (Hornell Hart (1923))
o A condition that at least some people in a community view as being undesirable, threatening the quality of
people’s lives and cherished values, and something should be done to remedy it.
o Societal conditions that negatively affect a substantial portion of the population, causing distress, inequality,
or dysfunction. They are often objectively measurable and widely recognized as requiring intervention. They
frequently manifest as systemic issues requiring large-scale solutions.
 Two Key Components of a Social Problem:
o Objective Component: A condition or behavior must have negative consequences for a significant number
of people. These consequences are identified through research, statistics, and reports. Debates may arise
over the extent and seriousness. Example: Climate change.
o Subjective Component: A condition or behavior must be perceived as a problem by society. Recognition by
people, policymakers, or social movements is necessary for it to be considered a social problem. Example:
Rape and sexual assault before the 1970s.
 Levels of Social Problems (According to Chanda Rani):
o Individual Level: Issues primarily affecting individuals but with broader social consequences (e.g., juvenile
delinquency, drug addiction, suicide).
o Collective Level: Problems emerging when societal structures fail to function effectively (e.g., poverty,
exploitation, overpopulation).
 Factors Contributing to Social Problems (Chanda Rani):
o Social Factors (e.g., caste system, religious conflict, lack of education).
o Cultural Factors (e.g., patriarchy, male child preference, corruption).
o Economic Factors (e.g., wealth inequality, unemployment, urbanization).
o Political & Legal Factors (e.g., electoral manipulation, corruption, governance issues).
o Ecological Factors (e.g., pollution, deforestation, climate change).
 Classification of Social Problems (Hart, 1923):
o Economic Problems: Relate to wealth distribution, employment, and resource utilization (e.g., poverty,
wealth disparity, employment, wages).
o Health Problems: Focus on public health and disease prevention (e.g., medical advancements, infectious
diseases, mental health).
o Political and Socio-Psychological Problems: Involve governance, human relationships, and social justice
(e.g., crime and law enforcement, family and relationships, race and labour relations).
o Educational Problems: Relate to the role of education in shaping individuals and society (e.g., access to
education, specialized education).
 Social Constructionist View: Social problems are not just objective realities but are constructed by society through
discourse, media coverage, and activism. Some negative conditions may be unnoticed, while others are exaggerated
due to social or political influences.
 Social Issue:
 o A state of affairs that negatively affects the personal or social lives of individuals or the well-being of
communities or larger groups within a society and about which there is usually public disagreement as to its
nature, causes, or solution. (Britannica)
o Behaviors or conditions that negatively impact members of society and therefore demand a solution.
(Study.com)
o Topics or subjects that impact many people. They often reflect current events but also represent
longstanding problems or disagreements that are difficult to solve. (Gale's Current Social Issues Database)
o An issue recognized by society as a problem preventing society from functioning at an optimal level.
o Broader societal concerns that may not be universally recognized as problems. Some are debated, while
others like crime or poverty are consistent public concerns. Social issues can evolve into social problems
with increased public awareness and advocacy. (Lauer, 1975)
o Matters which directly or indirectly affect many or all members of a society and are considered to be
problems, controversies related to moral values, or both. They can be explained only by factors outside an
individual's control and immediate social environment.
o Problems that affect communities and require collective action to solve. These can range from local
concerns (crime, pollution, traffic congestion) to broader societal challenges (overpopulation, economic
inequality). (National Geographic Learning)
o Challenges stemming from societal norms, values, and cultural practices. They often involve moral or ethical
debates, sparking public discourse and contrasting viewpoints. They are frequently subjective and
influenced by cultural and ideological perspectives. Examples include debates on abortion rights, LGBTQ+
rights, immigration policies, capital punishment, and gun control.
 Characteristics of a Social Issue:
o The public must recognize the situation as a problem.
o The situation is against the general values accepted by society.
o A large segment of the population recognizes the problem as a valid concern.
o The problem can be rectified or alleviated through the joint action of citizens and/or community resources.
o Often arise due to urbanization, government policies, economic disparities, or environmental changes. They
impact on daily life, requiring political leaders and citizens to find effective solutions. (National Geographic
Learning)
o Collective challenges that demand political, economic, and social solutions.
2. Differences Between Social Problems and Social Issues
 Key Difference: Lies in their measurability and the level of societal consensus surrounding them.
 Social Problems: Generally more readily quantifiable through statistics and data. There’s often a greater degree of
agreement on the need for intervention. Often call for concrete solutions.
 Social Issues: Often characterized by conflicting values and beliefs, making consensus more difficult to achieve.
Demand dialogue, education, and advocacy to shift societal norms and values.
 Aspects of Difference:
o Definition: Social problems are conditions perceived as harmful by a significant portion of the public. (Lauer,
1975). Social issues are broad societal concerns that may not be universally recognized as problems.
o Societal Consensus: High agreement on the need for intervention for social problems. Conflicting values
and beliefs characterize social issues.
o Public Perception: Identified through widespread concern and often reflected in public opinion polls for
social problems. (Lauer, 1975). Varies across cultures, political ideologies, and moral perspectives for social
issues.
o Measurability: Quantifiable with data and statistics for social problems. Subjective, value-based for social
issues.
o Approach to Solutions: Concrete solutions, systemic change for social problems. Dialogue, education, and
advocacy for social issues.
o Examples: Crime, poverty, unemployment, racial discrimination (social problems). (Lauer, 1975).
Immigration policy, same-sex marriage, environmental sustainability (social issues).
 Not all social issues become social problems.
 Policy responses differ depending on classification.
3. Intersections of Social Problems and Social Issues: Complexities and Challenges
 Many social problems and social issues are deeply interconnected, making it difficult to address one without
considering the other. Example: Poverty linked to education inequality or racial discrimination.
 Homelessness (social problems) is often intertwined with social issues like discrimination, mental health stigma, and
lack of affordable housing.
  Gender inequality (social issue) contributes to the social problems of workplace discrimination, unequal pay, and
domestic violence.
 Social problems and social issues intersect when societal concerns gain widespread recognition as harmful conditions
requiring intervention. (Lauer, 1975).
 Social problems often begin as social issues—debated topics without unanimous agreement on their severity or
impact.
 Examples of transition from social issue to social problem: Racial discrimination (through civil rights advocacy).
Climate change (through scientific evidence and public concern).
 Addressing one social problem often requires tackling related issues.
 Interdisciplinary approaches are essential in social work.
4. Theories on Social Problems
 Various theories help explain why social problems arise and persist: Functionalism, Conflict Theory, and Symbolic
Interactionism. (Based on Obileye & Aborisade, 2020)
 Functionalism (Structural-Functional Theory):
o Key Idea: Social problems arise when institutions fail to function properly, disrupting societal stability.
o Main Concepts: Society is a system of interconnected institutions. Social problems emerge from the failure
of one or more institutions to perform their roles. Dysfunctional elements may still serve some function.
Solutions involve institutional reforms and policies.
o Example: Unemployment leading to poverty, crime, and social instability due to economic dysfunction.
o Key Theorists: Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton.
 Conflict Theory:
o Key Idea: Social problems result from inequality, power struggles, and exploitation in society.
o Main Concepts: Society is divided into dominant (elite) and oppressed (working class) groups. The wealthy
exploit the poor, creating social issues. Social change occurs through conflict. Solutions involve
redistributing wealth and power.
o Example: Kidnapping in Niger Delta (Nigeria) argued as a result of oil companies exploiting the region and
causing economic inequality.
o Key Theorists: Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, Ralf Dahrendorf, W.E.B. Du Bois.
 Symbolic Interactionism:
o Key Idea: Social problems are defined and understood based on people's interactions, perceptions, and
experiences.
o Main Concepts: People learn social behaviors through interaction. A problem exists only if society labels it
as such. Individuals interpret social issues based on their experiences and communication. Solutions focus
on changing perceptions and behavior through education and awareness.
o Example: Labeling Theory – if society labels someone a criminal, they may accept that identity and continue
committing crimes.
o Key Theorists: George Herbert Mead, Charles Horton Cooley, Herbert Blumer, Erving Goffman.
 Comparison of the Three Theories:
o Functionalism: Views social problems as disruptive dysfunctions solvable through gradual reform.
o Conflict Theory: Views social problems as reflections of inequality solvable through structural change.
o Symbolic Interactionism: Views social problems as arising from social definitions solvable by changing
public perception.
 The "Review of Social Problems in the World" (Khan et al., 2021) explains the widespread consequences of social
problems on health, economy, politics, environment, and societal stability.
o Health Issues: HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, cancer, COVID-19, obesity.
o Social Issues: Child labor, child marriage, drug abuse, gender inequality, sexual harassment.
o Environmental Issues: Climate change, global warming, pollution, biodiversity loss.
o Political and Economic Issues: Poverty, war, terrorism, overpopulation, food security, economic disparity.
 Different theories offer unique insights into social problems.
 Understanding theory helps in designing practical interventions.
5. Stages in the Development of a Social Problem
 Social problems develop over time through various stages.
 1. Emergence and Claims Making:
o Individuals, groups, or organizations identify a condition or behavior as harmful and advocate for its
recognition.
o These groups engage in claims making by presenting arguments, statistics, and emotional appeals.
o Media, protests, and research reports are used to highlight the problem.
 o Example: Environmental activists raising awareness about climate change.
 2. Legitimacy:
o Advocates seek recognition from authorities (government, policymakers, institutions) for official action.
o This stage involves fact-checking, debates, and policy discussions.
o Some issues face resistance, while others gain quick acceptance.
o Example: Laws passed recognizing climate change as a global crisis.
 3. Renewed Claims Making:
o Early responses may be insufficient, leading advocates to criticize the government and push for stronger
measures through protests, research, and lobbying.
o Example: Environmental activists demanding stricter carbon emission regulations.
 4. Alternative Strategies:
o If official responses remain weak, groups may develop independent solutions (non-governmental initiatives,
grassroots movements).
o Example: Organizations creating renewable energy projects.
 Four Major Ways Social Problems Can Change:
o Social Science Research: Helps identify causes, effects, and solutions.
o Activism and Social Movements: Push for policy changes and raise public awareness.
o Government Policy: Laws and programs can address social issues.
o Lessons from Other Nations: Learning from successful policies elsewhere.
 Social problems develop in recognizable stages.
 Public and political responses shape the trajectory of social issues.
6. Research Methods in Studying Social Problems
 Effective research is essential for understanding and addressing social problems.
 Social scientists use qualitative and quantitative research methods.
 1. Surveys: Collect data through questionnaires or interviews to understand people's experiences, attitudes, and
behaviors. Example: Survey on experiences with unemployment and mental health.
 2. Experiments: Controlled studies test cause-and-effect relationships. Example: Study on the effect of arresting
domestic violence offenders on repeat offenses.
 3. Observational Studies: Researchers observe people in real-life settings without direct interference. Example:
Observing interactions in an urban neighborhood to study gang violence.
 4. Existing Data Analysis: Analyze government reports, historical records, or previous research. Example: Census data
on poverty rates over time.
 Different research methods provide unique insights into social problems.
 Data-driven research informs effective policy decisions.
7. Implications for Social Work
 Social workers play a crucial role in addressing social problems through direct intervention, advocacy, and policy
development.
 A holistic approach involves addressing immediate needs and broader systemic and structural factors. (White, 2022;
Garcia, 2024)
 Key Responsibilities of Social Workers:
o Direct Service Provision: Counseling, support, access to resources. (Smith, 2021)
o Case Management: Coordinating services for individuals and families. (Johnson, 2022)
o Community Engagement: Facilitating community programs. (Nguyen, 2023)
o Advocacy: Championing rights and advocating for policy changes. (Brown & Green, 2023)
 Strategies for Tackling Social Issues: Empowerment (enabling control and influence) and Advocacy (representing and
supporting). (Wilson, 2024; Thompson, 2023)
 Strategies for Empowerment and Advocacy:
o Community Education: Raising awareness. (Garcia, 2024)
o Capacity Building: Developing skills for self-advocacy. (Martinez, 2024)
o Lobbying and Policy Reform: Working with policymakers. (Nguyen, 2023)
o Support Networks: Establishing community groups. (Brown & Green, 2023)
 Policy Advocacy involves influencing public policy, leading to Systemic Change (long-lasting improvements). (Nguyen,
2023; Wilson, 2024)
 Approaches to Policy Advocacy:
o Research and Evidence-Based Practice. (White, 2022)
o Collaboration with Stakeholders. (Lee & Kim, 2023)
o Legislative Advocacy: Engaging with lawmakers. (Smith, 2021)
 o Public Awareness Campaigns. (Johnson, 2022)
 Ethical Considerations in Social Work Practice: Adhering to professional standards (dignity, integrity, social justice)
and navigating moral dilemmas. (Thompson, 2023; Wilson, 2024)
 Common Ethical Dilemmas:
o Confidentiality vs. Public Safety. (White, 2022)
o Cultural Sensitivity. (Johnson, 2022)
o Professional Boundaries. (Garcia, 2024)
o Resource Allocation. (Brown & Green, 2023)
 Frameworks for Ethical Decision-Making:
o The NASW Code of Ethics. (Nguyen, 2023)
o Ethical Decision-Making Models (e.g., EPS, Reamer’s Model). (Smith, 2021)
 Social work bridges direct service and policy advocacy.
 Effective social work requires understanding systemic social problems.
8. Case Study
 Case studies provide a concrete way to examine social problems and solutions.
 5.1 Case Study 1: Homelessness and Housing Inequality:
o Homelessness: Lack of stable, safe, and adequate housing due to economic, social, and health factors. (Lee
& Kim, 2023)
o Housing Inequality: Unequal distribution of housing resources due to socioeconomic status, discrimination,
and systemic inequities. (Smith, 2022)
o Contributing Factors: Economic disparities, lack of affordable housing, mental health issues and substance
abuse, discrimination. (Wilson, 2024; Johnson, 2022; Thompson, 2023; Garcia, 2024)
o Intervention Strategies: Multi-pronged approach combining immediate relief with systemic changes. (Brown
& Green, 2023)
 5.2 Case Study 2: Mental Health Stigma and Access to Care:
o Mental Health Stigma: Negative attitudes and beliefs leading to discrimination. (Thompson, 2023)
o Access to Care: Availability and affordability of mental health services. (Nguyen, 2023)
o Challenges: Stigmatization, resource barriers, cultural beliefs. (Wilson, 2024; Smith, 2022; Johnson, 2022)
o Intervention Strategies: Mental health education, reducing stigma through awareness, improving access
through advocacy. (Garcia, 2024)
 5.3 Case Study 3: Gender Inequality and Workplace Discrimination:
o Gender Inequality: Unequal treatment based on gender. (Martinez, 2024)
o Workplace Discrimination: Unfair treatment due to gender (unequal pay, limited opportunities,
harassment). (White, 2022)
o Manifestations: Unequal pay, limited career opportunities, harassment. (Martinez, 2024; Smith, 2022;
Brown & Green, 2023)
o Intervention Strategies: Advocating equal pay, promoting diversity training, empowering individuals. (Lee &
Kim, 2023)
 5.4 Case Study 4: Climate Change and Environmental Justice:
o Climate Change: Long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns due to human activities. (Wilson,
2024)
o Environmental Justice: Fair treatment concerning environmental laws and policies, regardless of race or
income. (Nguyen, 2023)
o Complexities: Disproportionate impacts on marginalized communities, unequal resource allocation,
increased health risks. (Thompson, 2023; Johnson, 2022; White, 2022)
o Intervention Strategies: Advocating for climate-resilient policies, promoting sustainability, supporting
affected communities. (Garcia, 2024).
MODULE 2:
Review Notes: Theories of Human Interactions with the Social Environment
I. Ecological Systems Theory (EST)
 Developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner.
 Focuses on how different environmental levels impact behavior and well-being.
 Emphasizes the constant mutual influence between individuals and their surroundings.
 Highlights the importance of considering external factors like policies, economic conditions, and cultural norms in
understanding human development.
 From a macro social work perspective, EST helps analyze how social structures and institutions shape community
well-being.
  Systemic inequalities (e.g., limited access to education, healthcare, economic opportunities) often stem from deeply
rooted policies.
 Provides a strategic framework for addressing inequalities and fostering long-term community empowerment.
 Levels of Environment and Context:
o Microsystem: Immediate environment (family, school, daycare, neighborhood).
o Mesosystem: Interactions between entities in the microsystem (e.g., family interactions with school).
o Exosystem: Indirect influences (e.g., parental workplaces). (Note: The source lists 4. Macrosystem and then
5. Chronosystem, skipping the numbering for Exosystem, but it is implied in the description of indirect
influences.)
o Macrosystem: Attitudes and cultural ideologies (beliefs regarding poverty, racist attitudes). Focuses on
larger audience; influenced by economic systems, political policies, and cultural norms.
o Chronosystem: Environmental changes occurring over lifetime (technological advances).
 Influences between system layers are bidirectional.
 The Macrosystem influences the distribution of resources and opportunities. Societies with ingrained class structures
can limit access to education and employment for the poorest. Race, gender, and disability also influence how people
navigate social systems.
 Social structures impact individual and community well-being. Economic inequality determines access to essential
services. Family and community dynamics are influenced by policies. Globalization and technological advancements
affect social interactions.
 Governmental laws and institutional practices are significant in shaping behavior and society. Policies on social
welfare, healthcare, education, and minimum wage influence economic stability and social mobility. Institutional
practices reinforce societal norms.
 Macro social work uses EST to advocate for systemic change through policy analysis, reform initiatives, and legislative
advocacy to ensure institutions serve the broader population equitably.
 EST can be applied in community work, advocacy, and social services to drive long-term structural changes for
community resilience and empowerment. Macro-social theories guide interventions to transform communities and
use policy advocacy.
II. Structural Functionalism Theory
 Perceives society as a system with different parts that have their own functions designed to secure unity,
cohesiveness, and social stability.
 Durkheim believed society is a complex system of interrelated and interdependent parts working together to
maintain stability. Emphasized that each part plays a pivotal role and has a responsibility to function accordingly.
Society is held together by shared languages, values, and symbols.
 Malinowski: Every part fulfills a vital function and has tasks to accomplish, making it indispensable.
 Institutions, roles, functions, norms, values, and perspectives collaborate in society for its continued existence.
Society is carried out systematically by the consensus of its members.
 Focuses on the structures of society designed to link up with the social and biological needs of the population.
 Herbert Spencer connected society's functions to the human body's functioning.
 'Parts' of society are 'social institutions' or 'patterns of beliefs and behaviors' that address social needs like family,
religion, education, government, healthcare, and economy.
 Sociologists study society by looking beyond individuals to 'social facts': laws, morals, values, religious beliefs,
customs, fashions, rituals, and cultural rules governing social life. Social facts have unique functions conducive to
society's functions.
 Basic principles: social evolution, maintenance of social stability, and collective functioning. Society relies on shared
values, social norms, and social institutions that are interconnected and dependent.
 Social structure adapts to changing needs. Dysfunctional parts can lead to societal collapse. Rapid social change arises
from social tensions.
 Robert Merton identified Manifest functions (sought or anticipated consequences) and Latent functions (unsought
consequences) of social processes. Social processes can also have dysfunctions (undesirable and unanticipated
consequences).
 Key Concepts:
o Social structure: Distinctive, stable arrangement of institutions.
o Institutions: Organizations devoted to a particular cause or program (public, educational, charitable).
o Roles: Behavior expected of an individual occupying a social position or status.
o Policies: Official rules and processes to achieve goals and control behavior.
o Functionalism: Emphasizes how social institutions are interrelated and support stability and order.
 Social structure greatly influences the roles people play in institutions. Inequalities in social structure (e.g.,
socioeconomic differences) can challenge equal opportunity.
  Institutional policy is a product of the social system.
 Dysfunctions can occur when institutions cannot carry out duties efficiently or when the social structure is unfair,
leading to social difficulties and disruption.
III. Conflict Theory
 Explains societal conflicts and social disruptions driven by the unequal distribution of resources, restricted access,
classes, and inherent disparity in demands and interest.
 Examine how people interact in the macro world, particularly in the context of power struggle, competition for
resources, and inequalities.
 Explores how societal institutions shape individuals’ attitude and address existing conflict.
 Asserts that conflict arises from the unequal distribution of power, resources, and social status . Those in power
maintain their advantage, while those with less power struggle for change.
 It originated from Karl Marx’s critique of capitalism, arguing that class struggles drive societal change. Marx believed
capital is created through the exploitation of the laboring classes (Proletariat) by the owning classes (Bourgeoisie),
creating surplus value for the owners. He predicted the working class would eventually revolt and establish a
communist government.
 Max Weber expanded the theory by including the roles of status and power.
 Georg Simmel examined how conflicts within groups could strengthen social bonds and lead to structural changes.
 Views society as a system characterized by power dynamics and the inevitable presence of conflict. Emphasizes
social inequality, competition for resources, and class division between dominant and subordinate groups.
 Highlights how those in power maintain control over resources, perpetuating social injustices and creating systemic
disparities.
 Challenges the status quo by highlighting power imbalances and advocating for social change. Societal progress
occurs through the resolution of these conflicts.
 Causes of Conflict:
o Relationship Conflicts
o Data Conflicts
o Interest Conflicts (competing interests, procedural interests, psychological interests)
o Value Conflicts
o Structural Conflicts (unequal power, authority, control of resources, time constraints)
 Social Structures and Power Dynamics: Lead to competition for limited resources, with powerful groups maintaining
their advantage and suppressing marginalized groups. Social structures create and maintain inequalities.
 Class Struggle and Social Inequality: Fueled by unequal distribution of resources and opportunities, leading to social
divisions. Capitalist societies breed social inequalities.
 Role Differentiation and Power Imbalances: Different roles lead to varying levels of authority and access to
resources, fostering conflict.
 Conflict theory seeks the emancipation of humanity from false claims of “universality,” where dominant groups
disguise their domination as "freedom for all".
 Assumes that conflict is a default rather than cooperation due to the scarcity of resources (money, commodities,
property, time, social status). This creates social classes and hierarchies.
 Views social and economic institutions as tools used by the ruling class to maintain inequality and dominance.
 Conflicts drive social change and influence institutional policies to address inequality and power imbalances.
 Challenges traditional criminology by distinguishing between crime and criminalization (behavior of law enforcers).
Advocates for policy changes focusing on structures and relationships, not just individuals.
 Applied to community practice by identifying power structures and aiming to mitigate social inequity through needs
assessment, resource mobilization, and policy advocacy.
 Advocacy and Social Services based on conflict theory aim to empower disadvantaged communities by supporting
economic, social, and political equality.
 Conflict exists due to an imbalance of power, where upper classes control political power and create rules that
privilege their wealth accumulation at the expense of the majority.
 Useful in understanding how power is viewed and exercised in society, enabling practitioners to address structural
barriers and sociopolitical issues affecting vulnerable populations.
 New sociological approaches like Decolonization and Intersectionality apply conflict theory.
IV. Social Constructionist Theory
 Explores how individuals and groups develop their understanding of the world within a social context.
 Asserts that much of what we perceive as reality is shaped by shared assumptions and collective beliefs rather than
objective truth.
 Highlights the importance of human interaction, culture, and societal practices in constructing meaning. Aspects of
reality like norms, values, and social roles are socially constructed and subject to change.
  Emerged during the post-modern era.
 Often seen as an anti-realist and relativist stance.
 Emphasizes the social nature of knowledge development; cognitive structures originate from social influences.
 Key Concepts:
o Knowledge is Socially Constructed: Created through social processes, interactions, and shared meanings.
Shaped by cultural contexts and historical backgrounds. Reinforced by social institutions. Learning and
meaning-making occur through collective discourse.
o Relativity of Reality: Reality is shaped by social, historical, and cultural contexts; different groups may
perceive reality differently. What one society considers "real" may not be so in another. Reality is fluid and
context-dependent.
o Language as Central to Construction: Language is a powerful means of conveying meaning and creating
shared understanding. Shapes human thought and experience. Discourse shapes societal understandings
and identity formation. Language structures thought and reflects cultural values.
o Social Interaction as a Basis for Construction: Construction and knowledge creation occur through social
interaction, not just individual cognition. Social interaction is fundamental to forming identity, roles, and
institutions. Learning occurs through interpersonal exchanges.
Knowledge Construction is Politically Driven: Knowledge and truth are influenced by power structures; those in authority
shape what is accepted as "real" through institutions and discourse. Dominant groups control discourse and determine societal
norms. Ideology plays a key role.
 Often criticized for its perceived rejection of objective reality (anti-realism) and for relativism (all perspectives equally
valid). Proponents argue it focuses on how knowledge about reality is constructed.
 Strengths include emphasizing social context, promoting inclusivity, versatility, and highlighting the power of
language.
 Weaknesses include lack of objective measurement, reliance on relativism, risk of political bias, and difficulty
explaining material reality.
 Influences individual identities and community dynamics by fostering understanding of how cultural narratives and
institutions shape beliefs and behaviors. Encourages challenging harmful social norms.
 Policies and institutions shape behavior by defining norms, reinforcing power structures, and guiding social
interactions. They contribute to the construction of social reality.
 Views social roles as fluid and shaped by collective human interaction and societal beliefs.
 Related to social work's values and mission by questioning dominant knowledge structures and understanding the
effects of history and culture on human needs.
 At a macro level, provides insight into forces shaping societies, including discourse and power relations. Institutions
shape societal norms and perpetuate power structures. Enables critical analysis of these structures and efforts to
create more inclusive societies.

MODULE 3
MODULE: The Concept of Culture
This module aims to help learners understand the concept of culture, its nature, scope, and influence on society. Culture is
often defined as a way of life or design for living. The module will cover cultural components, impact on identity, values, norms,
beliefs, and cross-cultural interactions. It is divided into four sessions: Introduction to Culture, Nature of Culture, Scope of
Culture, and Influence of Culture on Society.
SESSION 1: Introduction to Culture
 Culture (Broad Sense): refers to the set of values, beliefs, ideas, practices, history, knowledge and experiences
shared and accumulated overtime and shared by the members of society.
 Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, morals, customs, and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society (Tylor 1920 ,1.).
 The definition of culture varies depending on different contexts, perspectives, and lenses.
 The concept and definition of culture can be traced back to the 18th-19th century and has evolved over time with
societal changes and innovations.
 Historical Context: The term culture comes from the Latin word Cultus which means care, and from the Latin root
word “colere” which means ‘to inhabit, to cultivate or to honor, refinement or nurture. It is derivative of the term
Colere (infinitive colere) meaning “to tend” “to cultivate and to till among other things (Tucker,1931).
 In the 18th and 19th centuries, culture connoted a process of cultivation or improvement and referred to the
betterment of individuals through education and the fulfillment of national aspirations.
 Until the mid-19th century, scientists used the term to refer to universal human capacity.
 Edward Tylor developed a theory of cultural evolution describing stages from primitivism to advancement.
  In the 20th century, culture became a central concept in anthropology, encompassing human phenomena not
attributed to genetics.
 Culture and Society: Different societies have different cultures. A society could be a community, nation, or broad
grouping of people having common traditions, institutions and collective activities and interest (Merriam Websters
Dictionary). Society is significantly shaped and influenced by culture, and culture provides guidelines in each
institution. Members of a society share a common culture which is learned, transmitted, and reshaped across
generations. Culture is dynamic and changes over time as societies adapt.
SESSION 2: Nature of Culture
 This session delves into the core characteristics that define culture.
 Culture is everything: It includes all our walks of life, our modes of behavior, our philosophies and ethics, our
morals and manners, our customs and traditions, our religious, political, economic and other kinds of activities. It
encompasses the lives of people, modes of behavior, customs, traditions, morals, and philosophies.
 Categories of Culture: Culture can be divided into material culture and non-material culture.
o Material culture includes tools, weapons, utensils, machines, ornaments, art, buildings, monuments,
written records, religious images, clothing, and any other ponderable objects produced or used by
humans.
 Culture is learned through socialization rather than biological inheritance. It is not a natural inclination. It is a social
construct, starting and growing through social connections and shared by the community.
o Enculturation: the process whereby individuals learn their group’s culture through experience,
observation, and instruction.
o Acculturation: the process of sharing and learning the cultural traits or social patterns of another group.
o Deculturation: to cause the loss or abandonment of culture or cultural characteristics of (a people,
society, etc.).
 Culture is shared: It is something possessed by a group, not an individual alone.
 Culture is transmissive: It can be transmitted from one generation to subsequent. This transmission occurs through
language, not genes.
 Culture is continuous and cumulative: It exists as an endless process, incorporating past and present achievements
and providing for future ones.
 Culture is consistent and integrated: Different parts of culture are interconnected and tend to be consistent.
 Culture is dynamic and adaptive: Though relatively stable, culture is subject to slow but constant changes.
 Elements of Culture: These are the fundamental components of a society’s way of life.
o Symbols: the objects, words, gestures, or sounds that convey meaning within a culture. Examples include
flags, national anthems, and logos.
o Language: the primary means of communication and expression within a culture. It includes spoken and
written languages, dialects, and sign languages.
o Norms: (Implied as guiding behavior and decision-making, linked to values and beliefs)
o Values: the culture’s standards for discerning what is good and just in society. Examples include respect
for elders, honesty, and fairness.
o Beliefs: the ideas or tenets that people hold to be true. These include religious beliefs, myths, and legends.
o Artifacts: tangible objects that reflect a culture’s values and practices. These include tools, technology,
clothing, and architecture.
SESSION 3: Scope of Culture
 Types of Culture:
o High Culture: refers to cultural products and activities that are highly esteemed by society, often
associated with educated elites. Examples include classical music, opera, fine art, and classical literature.
o Low Culture: refers to forms of popular culture that have mass appeal, often associated with the middle
or lower classes of society. Examples include fast food, reality TV, and sports culture.
o Sub-culture: refers to the group of people within a larger culture that differentiates itself from the
dominant culture through their own distinct styles, symbols, and practices. Examples include hippies,
goths, and punk rock enthusiasts.
o Counter-culture refers to a group of people whose values, norms, and behaviors are in opposition to
those of the mainstream culture. It involves a deliberate rejection of dominant societal norms. Examples
include the “1960s Hippie Movement” and contemporary movements like “Black Lives Matter”.
o National Culture: refers to the shared values, beliefs, behaviors, customs, and institutions that
characterize a nation and its people. It distinguishes one nation from another.
o Global Culture: refers to the shared experiences, values, norms, and practices that transcend national
boundaries and unite people across the world. It is a result of globalization.
  Cultural Universals: These are elements, patterns, traits, or institutions that are common to all known human
cultures worldwide. They reflect shared aspects of human experience. Examples include:
o Family Unit
o Language
o Rituals and Celebrations
o Mythology and Religion
o Art and Music
o Technology and Tools
o Bodily Adornment.
 Cultural Change: Influenced internally and externally by forces that promote and resist change. Factors include
environmental influences, technological advancements, and interactions with other cultures.
o Diffusion: the spread of cultural elements such as music, fashion, and food, creating a global marketplace
of cultural exchange. This happens through trade, migration, and media.
o Acculturation: occurs when various cultures directly interact and exchange characteristics, resulting in
changes for both. Examples include language fusion (Spanglish), food exchange (sushi in Europe), and
business adaptation.
o Assimilation: represents the most profound form of cultural change, wherein an individual or group fully
integrates the characteristics of another culture, often at the cost of their original cultural identity.
Examples include immigration, educational systems, and government policies.
 Globalization and technology amplify the dissemination of cultural values across borders and challenge established
traditions.
SESSION 4: Influence of Culture on Society
 Culture is a major force shaping society through the formulation of identity and social norms.
 Beliefs, traditions, and practices influence self-perception and interactions, implying a sense of identity and belonging
with strong social bonds.
 Culture informs social norms, unwritten codes of conduct that dictate both how people interact with one another
and what is considered acceptable behavior within a culture.
 Social structures like communication networks, families, and community organizations preserve culture.
 Cultural misunderstandings and conflicts can arise when different cultural perspectives clash.
 Impact on Identity: Culture defines how people handle their social and material existence to develop specific ways of
life. Cultural identity is the feeling of belonging to a group, related to nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class,
generation, region, or any social group with its own culture.
o Communication styles vary across cultures (direct vs. indirect).
o Religion significantly impacts how people think, value culture, dress, eat, and behave.
o Cultural values shape moral and ethical frameworks, influencing social policies, legal systems, and individual
moral compass.
o Traditional gender roles, embedded in culture, affect opportunities, duties, and social status.
o Family dynamics are influenced by cultural values (individualistic vs. collectivist).
o Perceptions of time vary across cultures, impacting social events and business meetings.
 Role of Cultural Institutions: They preserve, transmit, and reinforce cultural values and norms.
o Religious institutions establish moral standards and promote social cohesiveness.
o Educational institutions transmit cultural information, skills, and values, shaping societal perceptions.
o Media outlets, theatres, museums, and artistic establishments maintain and advance cultural legacy,
shaping public perceptions.
 Cross-Cultural Interactions: Increasingly prevalent in a globalized world, leading to positive outcomes like increased
empathy and tolerance, but also challenges and tensions like miscommunications and conflicts.
 Embracing cultural diversity fosters inclusivity and social cohesion.
MODULE 4

MODULE DESCRIPTION
This module entitles “The Social Construction of Difference: Defining Self and Others” examines the idea of social construction,
which holds that our experiences and interactions with others affect society and how we perceive the world. It also looks at
how social processes produce and preserve personal distinctions including race, gender, and sexual orientation. The module
also
Session 1: The Social Construction of Difference: Defining Self and Others
Introduction Our perspective of the world and our role in it is influenced by society as much as by our own personal
perceptions. This is the basic concept of social constructionism, a theory that argues that social interactions and contracts
shape our views of reality, including concepts like gender, ethnicity, and even normalcy. Some people may think that these
concepts are just common sense or the way things are. But in reality, they are the outcome of continuous discussions, cultural
traditions, and the distribution of power in society. The concept of social construction also applies to how we view individual
differences. These differences tend to be the result of social processes rather than being inherent or biological. For example,
the concept of race is founded on historical power dynamics and social perceptions rather than biological facts. Likewise,
gender roles and expectations are influenced by cultural norms and societal expectations in addition to biological sex. From
societal inequity to personal identity, these social constructions can have an important impact on both individuals and groups.
This session will explore the concept of social construction, with an emphasis on how difference is socially constructed and
how it affects people as well as society. The ways in which these views are upheld and challenged, as well as how they influence
how we perceive ourselves and other people, will also be discussed. We can better understand how society affects our
experiences and perceptions and how to create a more equitable and accepting world by looking at these concepts.

Input I. Introduction
A. Social Construction, Social Construction of Difference, and Self and Others Social Construction, according to Berger and
Luckmann (1966), society is a human product created through processes like habitualization and institutionalization. They
state that “Humans externalize, objectivate, and internalize social reality” (p. 61). This means that society is something that
people create together. We make it through our daily actions and habits. At first, these actions might seem like choices, but
over time, they become normal and feel like the ‘right’ way to do things. Furthermore, this idea is further supported by Gergen
(1985), who challenges the notion that knowledge is fixed or based on essential truths. He argues that “ Discourse about the
world is not a reflection of the world but an artifact of communal interchange” (p. 266). In simpler terms, what we know as
‘facts’ are shaped by how people interact and agree on meanings. Therefore, building on the idea that our knowledge and
understanding are shaped by social interactions, the concept of social construction also involves categorizing people in ways
that reflect power dynamics. According to Hacking (1999), categories like ‘race’ or ‘mental illnesses’ are not fixed or natural but
are shaped by historical and cultural forces.
The Social Construction of Difference According to Omi and Winant (2014), race is not about biology, but about power. They
say that “Race signifies social conflicts by referring to human bodies. There's no biological basis for racial distinctions” (p.
110). This means that people are grouped by race because of how society sees them, not because of any real physical
differences. Similarly, our differences in gender or race are also created by society. According to West and Fenstermaker (1995),
these differences are produced through our everyday interactions. They said “Difference is an ongoing accomplishment,
produced through social practices that maintain inequality” (p. 21). This means that the way we see and treat people
differently is not something we're born with, but something we learn from the people around us and the way society expects us
to behave. In addition to creating differences, society also controls people by deciding what's ‘ normal’. According to Foucault
(1978), societies create rules about what's normal and what's not, and then use these rules to control people who are different.
He said that “Normalization categorizes individuals as ‘abnormal’ to legitimize control" (p. 144).
Self and Others According to Mead (1934), our sense of self comes from interacting with others. He said that “The self emerges
from communication, where individuals take the perspective of others toward themselves" (p. 135). In simple terms, this
means that we learn who we are by seeing ourselves through other people's eyes. According to Butler (1990), being a man or a
woman is not something you're born with, but something you show through your actions. She says " Gender is a repeated
stylization of the body... creating the illusion of a natural self" (p. 191), this means that we perform our gender through the
way we behave, dress, and talk. stated that “persons exist only in relation to others; identities are formed through joint
action" (p. 8). In simple terms, this means that who we are, what we do, and how we see ourselves is all influenced by the
people we interact with, the roles we play, and the relationships we have. Our identity is not something we're born with, but
something that develops over time through our experiences and interactions with others.
B. Social Constructionism and the Rejection of Biological Essentialism Essentialist Perspective According to Andrew Sayer
(1997), essentialism is the idea that certain groups, like men and women, or different races, have fixed traits that don't change.
He says that "Essentialism posits that categories... possess inherent, unchanging characteristics that define their 'true
nature'" (p. 453). This idea says that who we are is determined by things we can't control, like our bodies or where we're from.
Similarly, this way of thinking can also be seen in how people categorize things. According to Douglas L. Medin (1989), people
tend to group things into categories based on what they think is their perceived ‘essence’. He says that “psychological
essentialism assumes that people categorize based on perceived 'essences'” (p. 1470). In simpler terms, this means that we
often think that certain groups or things have a special something that makes them what they are.
Social Constructionist Perspective According to Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann (1966), our reality is shaped by the
people around us and the societies we live in. They say that “Social constructionism asserts that reality... is constructed
through social interactions, language, and institutional practices” (p. 1). This idea is taken further by Kenneth J. Gergen (1985),
who says that social constructionism also rejects the idea that our behaviors and traits are determined by our biology . He
says that “What is deemed 'natural' is sustained by communal norms and power dynamics” (p. 267).
 Limitations of Biological/Natural Explanations According to Anne Fausto-Sterling (2000), biological determinism is a problem
because it oversimplifies why people behave in certain ways. She said that “Biological determinism... reduces it to genetic or
physiological factors” (p. 22). In other words, this means that biological determinism ignores other factors that influence our
behavior. This idea is also supported by Stephen Jay Gould (1981), who says that we should be careful not to blame everything
on biology or nature. He says “Natural explanations... neglect... adaptability to social contexts” (p. 24).
She says that gender is not something we're born with, but rather something we learn and perform . She says “Gender is not
an innate essence but a repeated enactment” (p. 33).

C. Acknowledging Variability Across Cultures and Time According to Edward Said (1978), how we think about ourselves and
others is shaped by our cultural and historical context. He says "The relationship between 'Self' and 'Other' is not fixed but
shaped by imperialist narratives and shifting power dynamics" (p. 7). This change is closely tied to colonialism. Maria Lugones
(2007) points out that colonialism imposed European ideas of race and gender on colonized countries. To put it simply,
colonialism forced its own way of thinking about race and gender on other “conceptual schemes” (p. 186). stated that “Our
identities are fluid and negotiated within specific historical, cultural representation” (p. 225). In other words, our identity is
shaped by our history, culture, and how we're represented in society.

B. Meaning-making The social construction of categories such as race, gender, and class involves assigned meanings and
values through language, symbols, and cultural narratives. For instance, the concept of race is not entirely based on biological
bases but a social construct. According to American Sociologist, Du Bois, race was being used as a biological explanation for
what he understood to be social and cultural differences between different populations of people.
C. The Creation of Normalcy and Otherness Social construction establishes the dominant and marginalized groups. In US,
there is a baseline of what is considered as “normal” or “in-group”, this typically includes categories such as white, male, able
bodied, heterosexual, and Christian.
III. Power, Institutions, And Ideology A. Power Dynamics
 Dominant groups shape social narratives and definitions. Narratives are systems of stories that shape how we
understand ourselves and our relationship to our social group and others, as well as the way we mobilize for social
and political action. Dominant narratives tap into prejudices that have shaped our societies and institutions for a very
long time. Powerful actors activate these narratives to reinforce prejudices, confirming their ‘naturalness’ and
‘rightness’. Dominant narratives also shape people’s understanding of themselves, perversely leading many people to
internalize
 The role of power in maintaining social hierarchies. Power operates in layered and complex ways within social
structures, often shaping hierarchies and influencing inequality.
o Structural Power: Structural power refers to the embedded mechanisms in social institutions that
perpetuate certain power dynamics.
o Symbolic Power: Coined by sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, symbolic power emphasizes the ability to shape
norms, values, and perceptions.
o Resistance to Power: From grassroots social movements to individual acts of defiance, resistance often
seeks to challenge or redistribute power.

“Education is the social institution through which society provides its members with important knowledge, including basic
facts, jobs, skills & cultural norms and values.”.
Systemic inequality refers to disparities in wealth, resources, opportunities, and privileges that result from discriminatory
practices and are deeply ingrained within the structures and institutions of society.
Normalization is intrinsically linked to power dynamics. Those who hold power within a society often have the ability to define
what is considered normal. Institutional practices further reinforce normalization. Institutions such as schools, workplaces, and
legal systems establish and enforce norms through rules, policies, and practices.
C. Ideology and Discourse
 . The dominant ideology argues that in any given society, there exists a dominant ideology that reflects the interests
and perspectives of the ruling class or group. This ideology is often widely accepted and internalized by members of
society, influencing their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. the dominant ideology serves several functions. It
legitimates and justifies the existing social order and power structures.
 Discourse Analysis is the study of language in use. Discourse Analysis acknowledges that historical, cultural, and
institutional contexts shape language as a dynamic social phenomenon. One of the central tenets of Discourse
Analysis is the recognition that language is not neutral. However, it is imbued with power and ideology. Through
language, dominant groups assert their authority and shape societal norms, often at the expense of marginalized
voices.
Social Inequality Prejudice is a preconceived negative opinion or feeling about a person or group based solely on their
membership in a particular category.
B. Internalized Oppression Internalized oppression is a harmful consequence of the social construction of difference. It's the
process where individuals from marginalized groups internalize negative stereotypes and beliefs about their own group, often
perpetuated by the dominant society.
C. Internalized Privilege When individuals internalize privilege, they unknowingly adopt societal beliefs and norms that unfairly
benefit their dominant group. This involves accepting the notion that their group is inherently better or more entitled to power
and resources than others.

Key Takeaways (Summarized from various parts)

 Social constructionism suggests that our understanding of reality, including concepts like race, gender, and
normalcy, are created through social interactions and agreements.
 These social constructions are not inherent or biological, but are shaped by cultural norms, societal expectations,
and power dynamics.
 Social constructions can have profound impacts on individuals and groups, influencing everything from personal
identity to societal inequality.
 Examining these concepts can lead to a deeper understanding of how society shapes our perceptions and
experiences, and how we can work towards a more inclusive and equitable world.
 Social constructionism also involves categorizing people in ways that reflect power dynamics.
 Categories like ‘race’ or ‘mental illnesses’ are not fixed or natural but are shaped by historical and cultural forces.
 Race is a social construct, not a biological fact.
 Gender differences are also socially constructed through everyday interactions and societal expectations.
 Society also controls people by deciding what's ‘normal’ and what's not, often labeling those who are different as
‘abnormal’.
 Our sense of self comes from interacting with others and seeing ourselves through their eyes.
 Gender is performed through our actions and behaviors, not something we're born with.
 Our identity is shaped by the people around us and our relationships with them.
 Essentialism is the idea that certain groups have fixed traits that don't change, while social constructionism rejects
this notion.
 Biological explanations for behavior are limited because they ignore other factors that influence our behavior, such
as our environment and society.
 How we think about ourselves and others is shaped by our cultural and historical context, which can change over
time.
 Social categorization, meaning-making, and the creation of normalcy and otherness are some of the mechanisms
through which social constructions are maintained.
 Power dynamics, institutional reinforcement, and ideology also play a role in maintaining social hierarchies and
perpetuating social categories.
 Social workers can use the concept of social construction to understand their clients' experiences, advocate for fair
policies, and empower individuals to challenge internalized oppression.

MODULE 5
Here are your review notes for your upcoming examination, drawing directly from the "MODULE 5 (BSW 115).pdf" file:
Module 5: Experiencing Difference: Power, Privilege, Inequality, and Stigma
Session 1: Introduction to Power, Privilege, Inequality, and Stigma

 A society is a large, structured group sharing common institutions, laws, and culture.
 The social difference in the society brings recognition of diverse social groups within the community, leading to varied
experiences based on factors such as gender, age, ethnicity, ability, and sexual orientation.
 Diversity should celebrate our sameness, not our differences.

 Power refers to the ability to have ones will carried out despite the resistance of others. According to Max Weber,
power is the ability to exercise one’s will over others (Weber, 1922). Power affects more than personal relationships;
it shapes larger dynamics like social groups, professional organizations, and governments.
 Privilege is the benefits and advantages held by a group in power, or in majority, that arise because of the
oppression and suppression of minority groups. By social justice definitions, privilege is advantages people have
that they don’t think about because they don’t often think about because they never have to experience the
oppressive side. Privilege is usually ‘invisible’ to those who have it.
 Marginalized/Oppressed/Disadvantaged: Social groups with less power/less access/less privilege; social groups that
have been disenfranchised, dehumanized, and exploited.
  Dominant/Privileged/Advantaged: Social groups with more power/more access/more privilege; social groups that
have the ability navigate the world without consequence, due to unearned advantages at the expense of folks who
are marginalized.
 Power and privilege are interconnected with inequality in our society, i.e., those who have privilege can
create/maintain societal norms, often to their benefit and at the expense of others.
 Inequalities are not only driven and measured by income, but are determined by other factors – gender, age,
origin, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, class, and religion. These factors determine inequalities of
opportunity which continue to persist, within and between countries.
 The term “stigma” originated in ancient Greece, where it referred to symbols burned into the skin of enslaved people
and people judged as criminals or traitors. These symbols, or stigmas, suggested the person was “blemished” and that
others should avoid and shun them. Erving Goffman refashioned the term in 1963, giving it its modern meaning. In a
nutshell, stigma refers to any negative attitude, prejudice, or false belief associated with specific traits,
circumstances, or health symptoms. It is a metaphorical mark of shame society often assigns to people with certain
traits.
 Discrimination, a related but distinct concept, describes how someone treats you because of this stigma.
 Commonly stigmatized characteristics include: age, body size and other aspects of physical appearance, mental
health, sexual orientation, housing status.
 Researchers identify different types of stigma, such as public stigma, self-stigma, and structural stigma.
o Public stigma involves the negative or discriminatory attitudes that others may have about mental illness.
o Self-stigma refers to the negative attitudes, including internalized shame, that people with mental illness
may have bout their own condition.
o Structural stigma is more systemic, involving policies of government and private organizations that
intentionally or unintentionally limit opportunities for people.
Session 2: Understanding Power and Privilege: Ideas, Types, and Concepts
 Power and Privilege are two concepts that are usually correlated and intersects. It influences experiences of people,
particularly in the distribution of resources, opportunities, and access to essential services.
 Power refers to the ability to exercise control over others, influencing decisions and outcomes.
 Privilege refers to the advantages that people have and enjoys compared to others based on their social identitie
 Power can be exercised through various means such as authority, manipulation, coercion, and persuasion. Its
structure could be formal power and informal power.
o Formal Power Structures are the official, codified systems of authority within an organization. These include
hierarchical positions, roles, and responsibilities defined by the organizational chart and policies.
o Informal Power Structures are the unwritten, unofficial systems of influence within an organization. These
arise from personal relationships, social networks, and cultural norms.
 Types of Power:
o Coercive Power: Involves the usage of threat to make people do what one desires.
o Reward Power: Uses rewards, perks, new projects or training opportunities, better roles, and monetary
benefits to influence people.
o Legitimate Power: Emanates from an official position held by someone.
o Expert Power: A personal kind of power which owes its genesis to the skills and expertise possessed by an
individual.
o Referent Power: A power wielded by celebrities and film stars as they have huge following amongst masses
who like them, identify with them, and follow them.
 The Concept of Power Tactics: Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions. The 9 influence
tactics are legitimacy, rational persuasion, inspirational appeals, consultation, exchange, personal appeals,
ingratiation, pressure, and coalitions.
o Rational persuasion: Trying to convince someone with a valid reason, rational logic, or realistic facts.
o Inspirational appeals: Building enthusiasm by appealing to emotions, ideas and/or values.
o Consultation: Focusing on getting others to participate in the planning process, making decisions, and
encourage changes.
o Ingratiation: Emphasizing on getting someone in a good mood prior to making a request.
o Personal appeals: Referring to friendship and loyalty while making a request.
o Exchange: Suggesting that making express or implied promises and trading favors.
o Coalition tactics: Getting others to support your effort to persuade someone.
o Pressure: Focusing on demanding compliance or using intimidation or threats.
o Legitimating tactics: Basing a request on one’s authority or right, organizational rules or policies, or express
or implied support from superiors.
  How Power Operates in Different Social Systems:
o Political System: Refers to the political power held by an individual or group of people in a nation’s
government.
 Legitimate Power: Given to an entity by the people of a nation that holds authority over society.
 Illegitimate Power: Power has been seized through illegal and unjust means.
o Economic System: Any method a nation uses to allocate and manage its resources among its population. It
involves production, distribution, and consumption.
o Social System: Refers to the power dynamics in which how power is distributed and exercised among
individuals or groups within a social setting.
 Insights Regarding Power Dynamics:
o Power dynamics exist at all levels of society.
o Power dynamics are shaped by different factors such as race, gender, class, and sexuality.
o Power dynamics can be harmful when they lead to the marginalization and oppression of certain groups.
o Power dynamics can be challenged.
 Nature of Power:
o Latent: Power is something that people have and may or may not choose to use.
o Relative: The power one person has over another depends largely on things such as the expertise of one
person to another and the hierarchal level of one relative to the other.
o Perceived: Power is based on one person’s belief that another has certain characteristics.
o Dynamic: Power relationships evolve over time as individuals gain or lose certain types of power relative to
others.
 What Does Privilege Mean? Privilege is a special benefit, right or advantage granted to a person or group because of
their position or wealth. According to McIntosh (1989), Ferguson (2014), (as cited in Brown, 2022), privilege is a
system of “automatic advantages and unearned assets available only to dominant groups of people” . In social
justice, the term privilege described unequal rights, advantages, and protections between dominant and minority
groups (Sensoy & DiAngelo, 2017). According to the American Heritage Dictionary (n.d), privilege refers to the special
advantage, immunity, permission, right, or benefit enjoyed by a person, class, or caste.
 Different Types of Privilege:
o Racial: Refers to the advantages that individuals from dominant racial groups may experience in society.
o Gender: Generally, it refers to male privilege.
o Cisgender: Cisgender people are granted cisgender rights and privileges.
o Socioeconomic: Individuals of a higher socioeconomic class benefit from unearned rights and advantages
based on their hierarchical status within a society.
o Able-Bodied: Individuals without disabilities have certain advantages simply because they aren’t physically
limited.
 Structural Privileges:
o Educational Privilege: Having access to quality education, well-funded schools, and resources that facilitate
learning.
o Housing Privilege: Having secure and stable housing in a safe neighborhood.
o Employment Privilege: Fair wages, job security and access to career opportunities.
o Healthcare Privilege: Access to quality healthcare, health insurance, and affordable medical services.
Session 3: Forms of Inequality and Its Consequences
 Inequality has always been a part of society, affecting people's opportunities, wealth, and rights in different ways.
 Inequalities are not only driven and measured by income, but are determined by other factors such as gender, age,
origin, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, class, and religion.
 Global inequality is the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and power that shape well-being among the
8 billion individuals in the planet.
 Forms of Inequality:
o Economic Inequality: Evidenced by an unequal distribution of economic income and inequitable access to
other resources, such as health, employment, human capital, public services, and power.
o Social Inequality: Characterized by the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social
positions or statuses within a group or society
 Two main ways to measure social inequality:
 Inequality of conditions: Refers to the unequal distribution of income, wealth, and
material goods.
 Inequality of opportunities: Refers to the unequal distribution of life chances across
individuals.
  Two main views of social inequality within sociology:
 Functionalist theorists believe that inequality is inevitable and desirable and plays an
important role in society.
 Conflict theorists view inequality as resulting from groups with power dominating less
powerful groups.
o Racial Inequality: The unequal distribution of resources, power, and economic opportunity across race in a
society. It also manifests itself in a multitude of ways that alone and together impact the well-being of all
o Gender Inequality: The prejudicial treatment of people based on their gender.
 Six factors that define gender inequality’s meaning and impact: Less political representation,
Unequal education, Worse healthcare, Increased violence, Unequal household responsibilities.
Session 4: The Impact of Stigma on Social Identity and Society
 Stigma refers to negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discrimination directed at individuals or groups because of
perceived differences or socially undesirable characteristics. It involves the devaluation of a person or group based
on specific attributes such as mental health, race, gender, disability, or sexual orientation. Stigma results in individuals
being viewed as "others," contributing to social exclusion and marginalization.
 Factors Contributing to Stigma:
o Lack of knowledge and understanding
o Social and cultural norms:
o The media
o Historical and systemic inequality
 Types of Stigma:
o Public Stigma: The general attitude society has toward those who possess a particular characteristic.
o Self-Stigma: When you accept public stigma, feeling that your own characteristics or symptoms are
"shameful".
o Perceived Stigma: When you think—rightly or incorrectly—that people would view you negatively because
of having a certain trait.
o Label avoidance: When you separate yourself from a stigmatized group.
o Structural Stigma: Institutional policies based on stigmatizing attitudes.
o Health Practitioner Stigma: When a healthcare professional's belief in stereotypes interferes with their
capacity to deliver quality care.
o Associative Stigma: People who have a connection to someone who exhibits a particular trait are the focus.
 Example of Stigma:
o Racial stigma: Marginalization based on racial or ethnic background, leading to discrimination in education,
law enforcement, and the workforce.
o Disability stigma: Belief that individuals with disabilities are less capable or worthy of equal treatment,
leading to exclusion and lower expectations.
o Gender identity stigma: Based on rigid, traditional gender norms, leading to rejection, violence, or denial of
legal rights for non-binary, transgender, or gender non-conforming individuals.
o Class-based stigma: Negative judgment of individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, often
labeling them as lazy or undeserving of support.
 Stigma is a systemic issue deeply tied to power and inequality, affecting the most vulnerable groups.

Session 5: Intersectionality of Power, Privilege, Inequality and Stigma

 What is intersectionality? It investigates how intersecting power relations influence social relations across diverse
societies as well as individual experiences in everyday life. Individual identities overlap and intersect and reflect
macro-level forms of oppression and privilege like heterosexuality, racism, and gender discrimination. It is more than
the sum of its parts, a transformation of multidimensional systems of inequality; it is not just a statistical
phenomenon, but rather a combination of micro and macro levels of analysis. It provides a unique framework for
analyzing and understanding problems within diversity and inequality.
 The concept of intersectionality is an implicit critique of the suppression and discrimination of difference. It argues
that all marginalized experiences are significant, and that privilege and oppression can change depending on the
situation.
Synthesis
 Privilege, power, inequality, and stigma serve as the basis of many pressing societal challenges.
 These four factors emphasize how privilege can create power, which maintains inequality, which creates stigma,
which strengthens the structures that created it.
  Power is the ability to influence or control the actions of others.
 Privilege is the unearned advantages and benefits individuals or groups receive based on their social identities.
 Inequality refers to the difference in degree, circumstances, and other gaps between people, communities, and
countries.
 Stigma refers to the negative treatment of people based on differences.
 These four were overlapping and intersecting with each other, resulting in different experiences.
 Intersectionality exposes the fact that power and oppression are not simplistic; an individual can be privileged in one
sphere and discriminated against in another.

MODULE 6
BSW115 - FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK
SESSION 1: CRITICAL THEORY AND EMPOWERMENT
 Critical Theory: “Critical theory” refers to a family of theories that aim to critique and transformation of society by
integrating normative perspectives with empirically informed analysis of society’s conflicts, contradictions, and
tendencies. In a narrow sense, this theory is concerned with identifying and dismantling societal norms, power
structures, and ideologies that contribute to oppression. In a broader sense, there are many different strands of
critical theory that have emerged as forms of reflective engagement with the emancipatory goals of various social and
political movements, such as feminist theory, critical race theory, queer theory, and postcolonial/decolonial theory. In
another, third sense, “critical theory” or sometimes just “theory” is used to refer to work by theorists associated with
psychoanalysis and post-structuralism (Celikates & Flynn, 2023).
o Major themes that critical social work seeks to address:
1. Poverty, unemployment and social exclusion
2. Racism and other forms of discrimination relating to disability, age and gender
3. Inadequacies in housing, health care and education and workplace opportunities
4. Crime and social unrest (focused on structural causes)
5. Abuse and exploitation
6. The inhumane impacts of neoliberalism and austerity capitalism such as the introduction of food
banks and precarious zero hours work.
 Empowerment: Empowerment is a construct that links individual strengths and competencies, natural helping
systems, and proactive behaviors to social policy and social change (Rappaport, 1981, 1984).
o Empowerment research focuses on identifying capabilities instead of cataloging risk factors and exploring
environmental influences of social problems instead of blaming victims.
o Empowerment-oriented interventions enhance wellness, aim to ameliorate problems, provide opportunities
for participants to develop knowledge and skills, and engage professionals as collaborators instead of
authoritative experts.
o Solomon defines empowerment as a process whereby the social worker engages in a set of activities with
the client that aims to reduce the powerlessness that has been created by negative valuations based on
membership in a stigmatized group.
 Working Definition of Empowerment:
o Empowerment can refer to user participation in services and to the self-help movement generally, in which
groups act on their own behalf..
 Empowering Individuals, Groups, and Communities:
o At the personal level, empowerment is the experience of gaining increasing control and influence in daily
life and community participation (Keiffer, 1984).
o At the small group level, empowerment involves the shared experience, analysis, and influence of groups on
their own efforts (Presby, Wandersman, Florin, Rich, & Chavis, 1990).
o At the community level, empowerment revolves around the utilization of resources and strategies to
enhance community control (Labonte, 1989).
o Empowering social workers frame clients’ concerns as challenges.
o Empowerment-oriented social workers reorient the way they respond to clients to make strengths the
cornerstone of their work.
 Empowerment Theory of Social Work Explores Several Key Factors:
o Direct Power Blocks: Direct power blocks are the structures that stop people from achieving goals such as
better employment, advanced education or safe housing
o Indirect Power Blocks: Indirect power blocks refer to internalized oppression. Groups with histories of
mistreatment often absorb the negative messaging of the abuse they receive.
 Dimensions of Empowerment:
 o Self-Efficacy: Individuals must build their power by cultivating the belief that they can change their
circumstances.
o Critical Consciousness: Individuals need to develop a deep understanding of the complex social, economic
and political realities in their environments that negatively affect them.
SESSION 2: POLITICAL ECONOMY AND GLOBALIZATION
 Political Economy: According to Robert Gilpin (2001), the political economy is the study of how public forces,
economic system, and political organizations work together to create policies and international relations . It devolves
into how the governments, markets, and worldwide organizations influenced the distribution of wealth, economic
growth, and trade. According to Will Kenton (2024), Political Economy is a field of social science that examines how
public policy is implemented and the interaction that develops between the populace and the government of a
country.
o Political Economy interacts with Politics, Economics, and Public Policies.
o Numerous economic sectors can be impacted by political shifts.
 Types of Political Economy:
1. Socialism: This kind of political economy encourages the notion that society, not a specific group of people,
maintains and regulates the production and distribution of wealth and products.
2. Capitalism: This idea supports the potential of free markets to independently govern and propel the
economy, as well as profit as a motivator for progress.
3. Communism: Karl Marx believed in shared resources, including property. The government controls both
production and distribution.
 3 Schools of Political Economy:
1. Marxism (Class Struggles and Economic Inequality): Competition is a defining feature of the global
economy. The class struggle between the working class and capitalists determines economic relations.
Capitalists own the tools of production and exploit the working class to increase profits.
2. Liberalism (Free Market Economy): There is a free market. Strong focus on free trade and capital flow.
Globalization is viewed as a positive force promoting international prosperity.
3. Mercantilism (Government-Controll Economy): The market is competitive. Emphasizes economic policies
that aim to strengthen wealth and national power. Views globalization cautiously, focusing on maintaining
trade surpluses and protecting domestic industries.
 Globalization: According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Globalization is “the act or process of globalizing: the
state of being globalized” or “the development of an increasingly integrated global economy marked especially by
free trade, free flow of capital, and the tapping of cheaper foreign labor markets.” It refers to the increasing
interdependence of the economies, cultures, and inhabitants of the world because of cross-border trade in
technology, commodities and services, and flows of information, capital, and people.
 Trade Liberalization: Trade Liberalization refers to the removal or reduction of restrictions or barriers on the free
exchange of goods between nations. Such barriers could include tariffs and non-tariff barriers.
 Multinational Corporations (MNCs): MNCs are responsible for large portions of world production, employment,
investment, international trade, research, and innovation. Their decisions affect many stakeholders and the
economies and societies where they are located.
 Financial Institution: Typically describes an establishment that completes and facilitates monetary transactions, such
as loans, mortgages, and deposits. They facilitate economic growth by providing access to capital and investing in new
businesses.
 Digital Divide: The digital divide is the gap between those who have access to technology, the internet and digital
literacy training and those who do not. Nielsen broke it down into:
1. Economic divide: Some people can afford technology while others cannot.
2. Usability divide: Technology remains too complicated for many people to use.
3. Empowerment divide: Very few users truly understand the power that digital technologies can give them.
 International Organizations: An organization that is established by a treaty or other type of instrument governed by
international law and possesses its own legal personality.
o The International Monetary Fund (IMF): Works to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial
stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and
reduce poverty.
o The World Trade Organization (WTO): Regulates and facilitates international trade.
o The World Bank: Provides loans and grants to the governments of low- and middle-income countries for
economic development.
 Political Influence on Economic Policies:
 o Trade Agreement: A formal arrangement between two or more countries that outlines the terms of trade
between them. Examples include NAFTA, EU, and ASEAN.
o Protectionism: When a government limits international trade to protect local businesses and workers
through tariffs, quotas, or subsidies.
o Free Trade: Promotes open markets where goods and services can move freely across borders without
restrictions.
SESSION 3: SOCIAL MOVEMENT AND CHANGE THEORY
 Social Movement: A loosely organized but sustained campaign in support of a social goal, typically either the
implementation or the prevention of a change in society’s structure or values. It results from the more or less
spontaneous coming together of people who share a common outlook on society.
o A movement is a mixture of organization and spontaneity.
 Types of Social Movements (David Aberle, 1966):
1. Alternative Movements: Focused on self-improvement; aim for limited, specific changes to individual
beliefs and behaviors.
2. Redemptive Movements: "Meaning-seeking"; aim to provoke inner change or spiritual growth in
individuals, often within a specific group.
3. Reformative Movements: Seek to change a specific aspect of society's structure; targeting the entire
population for a limited change.
4. Revolutionary Movements: Aim for complete societal transformation; seeking dramatic change in every
aspect of society.
o Other categories include scope (reform or radical), type of change (innovative or conservative), targets
(group-focused or individual-focused), methods of work (peaceful or violent), and range (global or local).
 Stages of Social Movements (Herbert Blumer and Charles Tilly):
1. Preliminary Stage: Individuals become conscious of an issue, and leaders begin to emerge.
2. Coalescence Stage: People begin to unite and organize to publicize the issue and increase awareness.
3. Institutionalization Stage: The movement becomes an established organization, often with paid staff.
4. Decline Stage: The movement may decline because it has achieved its goals, was unsuccessful, or lost
followers.
 The Causes of Social Movements:
o Psychological Factors: Feelings of alienation, powerlessness, hopelessness, and disconnection from society;
political alienation; relative deprivation.
o Social Factors: Belief that improvement is possible; inspiration from the success of similar groups; social
change causing tension or conflict; failures in the social structure; common beliefs of a society.
 Social Movement Theories:
o Deprivation Theory: Individuals lacking resources or opportunities are more likely to participate in social
movements due to feeling unfairly disadvantaged.
o Mass-Society Theory: Social movements are driven by individuals feeling alienated due to weakened social
connections in a prosperous society.
o Structural Strain Theory: Societal issues create stress on individuals, leading to frustration and motivating
them to act for change. Discrepancies between cultural goals and the means to achieve them can lead to
deviance within movements.
 Advantages of Social Movement Theory: Explaining motivations, understanding success conditions, analytical tools,
resource mobilization, critical consciousness.
 Limitations Of Social Movement Theory: Overemphasis on rationality, difficulty in predicting outcomes, ignores
individuals, complexity, generalizability.
 Social Change Theory: Social change is the transformation of culture, behavior, social institutions, and social structure
over time, influenced by social movements and external factors. Sociologists view it as the natural evolution of human
interactions and relationships.
 Characteristics of Social Change: Universal, not uniform, deliberate, duration varies, value neutral.
 Factors that Contribute to Social Change: Natural environment, demographic processes, technological innovations,
economic and political processes, ideology, social movements.
 Agents of Social Change: The Family, The Teachers, The Religious Leaders, The Political Leaders.
 Patterns of Social Change:
1. Cyclical Change: Change is repetitive, with phases of growth, peak, decline, and rebirth.
2. One-directional change: Change continues in the same direction, usually cumulative.
3. Combined patterns of change: Cyclic and one-directional changes occur simultaneously.
 Theories of Social Change:
 o Evolutionary or Linear Theory: Societies develop in a linear and progressive manner, from simpler to more
complex forms (Auguste Comte's "Law of Three Stages"; Herbert Spencer's "Social Darwinism"). Types
include unilinear, universal, and multilinear evolution.
o Cyclical Theory: Social change occurs in repetitive cycles (Oswald Spengler's "The Decline of the West";
Pitirim Sorokin's "fluctuation theory" with ideational and sensate cultures).
o Economic Theory of Social Change (Marxian theory): Changes in the economic ‘infra-structure’ (forces and
relations of production) are the prime movers of social change, influencing the ‘super-structure’ (legal,
ideological, political, and religious institutions).
o Other Perspectives: Conflict theories (driven by tension and struggle between groups); Functionalism
(change occurs when one part of the system becomes dysfunctional).
SESSION 4: ROLES OF SOCIAL WORKERS IN POLITICAL AND SOCIETAL TURMOIL
 Social workers play a critical role in fostering social change, ensuring financial sustainability for social programs, and
creating lasting societal impact during socio-political challenges like wars, forced migration, inequality, and neoliberal
policies.
 Social work aims to assist people who cannot help themselves, promote dignity, and address societal barriers,
inequalities, and injustices.
 Social workers attempt to respond to and confront unjust and unstable political, social, and economic systems that
perpetuate injustice and violence.
 Political and Social Turmoil: Consequences of uncontrolled global domination of neoliberalism include increasing
 MAJOR ROLES OF SOCIAL WORK IN TURMOIL:
o Advocacy: Social workers have an obligation to “advocate for living conditions conducive to the fulfillment
of basic human needs” (NASW, 2018). This includes case advocacy and cause advocacy.
o Collaboration: Necessary to address social issues beyond the capacity of one entity. Social workers partner
with various organizations in disaster relief to ensure effective service delivery.
o Community Organizing: A process centered on people’s lives, experiences, and aspirations, geared towards
capability building, self-reliance, and empowerment. Social workers bring people together to work for
needed change, acting as organizers, planners, advocates, researchers, fundraisers, or educators.
o Mediator: Provides a neutral forum for disputants to find mutually satisfactory resolutions to problems.
Social workers help resolve conflicts in various settings.
o Crisis Intervention: A short-term model to assist victims and survivors to return to their precrisis level of
functioning in situations where normal coping mechanisms fail. Social workers provide immediate resources
and support in various crisis situations, including disasters and personal loss.
o Humanitarian Aid/Assistance: Efforts aimed at saving lives and meeting the basic needs of disaster victims,
following principles of humanity, impartiality, and neutrality. Includes direct assistance, indirect assistance,
and infrastructure support. Social workers provide essential resources, prevent health issues, connect
individuals with resources, and improve systems.