After completing this chapter, students should be able to do the following:

• Describe the speed–torque characteristics of induction motors.

• List the methods for speed control of induction motors.
• Determine the performance parameters of induction motors.
• Explain the principle of vector or field-oriented control for induction motors.
• List the types of synchronous motors.
• Determine the performance parameters of synchronous motors.
• Describe the control characteristics of synchronous motors and the methods for speed
control.
• Explain the methods for speed control of stepper motors.
• Explain the operation of linear induction motors.
• Determine the performance parameters of linear induction motors.
 Ac motors exhibit highly coupled, nonlinear, and multivariable structures as opposed
to much simpler decoupled structures of separately excited dc motors.
 The control of ac drives generally requires complex control algorithms that can be
performed by microprocessors or microcomputers along with fast-switching power
converters.
 The ac motors have a number of advantages;

• they are lightweight (20% to 40% lighter than equivalent dc motors),

• They are inexpensive, and

• They have low maintenance compared with dc motors.

 The power converters, inverters, and ac
 They require control of
voltage controllers can control these
• frequency,
parameters to meet the drive
• voltage, and
requirements.
• current for variable-speed applications.
 These power controllers, which are relatively complex and more expensive, require

advanced feedback control techniques such as

• model reference

• adaptive control

• sliding mode control and

• field-oriented control.
 There are four types of ac drives:

1. Induction motor drives

2. Synchronous motor drives

3. Stepper motor drives

4. Linear induction motor

 Ac drives are replacing dc drives and are used in many industrial and domestic

applications.
Induction Motor Drives

 Three-phase induction motors are commonly used in adjustable-speed drives and

they have three-phase stator and rotor windings.

 The stator windings are supplied with balanced three-phase ac voltages, which

produce induced voltages in the rotor windings due to transformer action.

 It is possible to arrange the distribution of stator windings so that there is an effect

of multiple poles, producing several cycles of magneto motive force (mmf) (or field)

around the air gap.

 This field establishes a spatially distributed sinusoidal flux density in the air gap.
 The speed of rotation of the field is called the synchronous speed, which is defined by

where
 p is the number of poles and
 ω is the supply frequency in rads per second.

 If a stator phase voltage, vs = 2Vs sin ωt, produces a flux linkage (in the rotor)
given by
  The induced voltage per phase (𝑒𝑟 ) in the rotor winding is

𝒆𝒓 = −𝒔 𝟐𝑬𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝒔𝒘𝒔 − 𝜹)

 where Nr = number of turns on each rotor phase;

 ωm = angular rotor speed or frequency, Hz; δ = relative position of the rotor;
 Er = rms value of the induced voltage in the rotor per phase, V;
 Em = peak induced voltage in the rotor per phase, V.
 which gives the motor speed as ωm = ωs(1 - s).

 The slip speed becomes ωsl = ωs - ωm.

 It is also possible to convert a mechanical speed ωm to the rotor electrical speed ωre of

the rotating field as given by

 In that case, ω is the synchronous electrical speed, ωre.
 The slip speed becomes ωsl =ω - ωre = ω - ωr.
 Thus, the slip can also defined as
 This relates directly to the supply frequency ω and is often convenient for analyzing

induction motor drives.

 The motor speed is often set to a desired value and the rotor speed is added to the slip

speed to calculate the desired the supply frequency.

 The supply frequency and the slip are varied to control the motor speed.
 The equivalent circuit for one phase of the rotor is shown in Figure a

 where Rr is the resistance per phase of the rotor windings;

 Xr is the leakage reactance per phase of the rotor at the supply frequency;

 Er represents the induced rms phase voltage when the speed is zero (or s= 1).

The rotor current is given by

 The per-phase circuit model of induction motors is shown in Figure b,
Where,
 Rs is the per-phase resistance of the stator winding.
 Xs is the per-phase leakage reactance of the stator winding.
 Is is per-phase current of stator winding.
 Vs is per-phase voltage of stator winding
 The complete circuit model with all parameters referred to the stator is shown in Figure c,
 where
 Rm is the resistance for excitation (or core) loss and
 Xm is the magnetizing reactance.
 Rr′ and Xr′ are the rotor resistance and reactance referred to the stator.
 Ir′ is the rotor current referred to the stator.
Circuit model of induction motors.
 There will be stator core loss, when the supply is connected and the rotor core loss

depends on the slip.

 The friction and windage loss Pno load exists when the machine rotates.

 The core loss Pc may be included as a part of rotational loss Pno load.
Performance Characteristics
 The rotor current Ir and stator current Is can be found from the circuit model in
Figure c.
 where R’r and X’r are referred to the stator windings.
 Once the values of Ir and Is are known, the performance parameters of a three-phase
motor can be determined as follows:
 The value of Xm is normally large and Rm, can be removed from the circuit model to
simplify the calculations.
 If Xm>> (Rs2 +Xs2 ), then Vs ≈ Vm, and the magnetizing reactance Xm may be moved
to the stator winding to simplify further; this is shown in Figure below.

Approximate per-phase equivalent circuit.

 • From the figure , the rms rotor current (Ir)

Approximate per-phase equivalent circuit. • Substituting Ir′ and then Pg) yields
How to determine_______?
• The input impedance (Zi) of the motor becomes

• and the power factor (PF) angle of the motor

Torque–speed Characteristics

 If the motor is supplied from a fixed voltage at a constant frequency, the developed

torque is a function of the slip

 The slip is used as the variable instead of the rotor speed because it is

nondimensional, and it is applicable to any motor frequency.

 Near the synchronous speed, that is, at low slips, the torque is linear and is

proportional to slip.
 Beyond the maximum torque (also known as breakdown torque), the torque is
inversely proportional to slip.
 At standstill, the slip equals unity, and the torque produced is known as standstill
torque
 To accelerate a load, this standstill torque has to be greater than the load torque.
 It is desirable that the motor operate close to the low-slip range for higher
efficiency.
 This is due to the fact that the rotor copper losses are directly proportional to slip
and are equal to the slip power. That is Pcu = Pslip.
 Thus, at low slips, the rotor copper losses are small.
 The operation in the reverse motoring and regenerative braking is obtained by the

reversal of the phase sequence of the motor terminals.

 The reverse speed–torque characteristics are shown by dashed lines.

 There are three regions of operation:

1. Motoring or powering, 0 ≤ s ≤ 1

2. Regeneration, s ≤ 0 and

3. Plugging, 1 ≤ s ≤ 2
Figure a: Torque–speed characteristics.
 In motoring, the motor rotates in the same direction as the field;

• as the slip increases, the torque also increases while the air-gap flux remains

constant.

• Once the torque reaches its maximum value, Tm at s = sm, the torque decreases,

with the increase in slip due to reduction of the air-gap flux.

• For a low slip such that s < sm, the positive slope of the characteristic provides

stable operation.
 If the load torque is increased, the rotor slows down and thereby develops a larger

slip, which increases the electromagnetic torque capable of meeting the load torque.

 If the motor is operating at a slip s > sm, any load torque disturbance will lead to

increased slip, resulting in less and less torque generation.

 As a result, the developed torque will diverge more and more from the load torque

demand leading to a final pullout of the machine and reaching standstill.

 In regeneration, the speed ωm is greater than the synchronous speed ωs with ωm

and ωs in the same direction, and the slip is negative.

 Therefore, Rr′/s is negative.

 This means that power is fed back from the shaft into the rotor circuit and the motor

operates as a generator.

 The motor returns power to the supply system.

 The torque– speed characteristic is similar to that of motoring, but having negative

value of torque.
 A negative slip causes a change in the operating mode from the generation of positive

torque (motoring) to negative torque (generating) as the induced emf in phase is reversed.

 The regenerating breakdown torque g is much higher with negative-slip operation.

 This is due to the fact that the mutual flux linkages are strengthened by the generator

action of the induction machine.

 The reversal of rotor current reduces the motor impedance voltage drop, resulting in a

boost of magnetizing current and hence in an increase of mutual flux linkages and torque.
 In reverse plugging,
• the speed is opposite to the direction of the field and the slip is greater than unity.
• This may happen if the sequence of the supply source is reversed while forward
motoring, so that the direction of the field is also reversed.
• The developed torque, which is in the same direction as the field, opposes the motion
and acts as braking torque.
• For example, if a motor is spinning in the direction opposite to that of a phase
sequence (abc) and a set of stator voltages with a phase sequence (abc) is applied at
supply frequency, this creates a stator flux linkage counter to the direction
of rotor speed, resulting in a braking action.
• This also creates a slip greater than one and the rotor speed is negative with respect

to synchronous speed.

• This braking action brings rotor speed to standstill in a short time.

• Because s > 1, the motor currents are high, but the developed torque is low.

• The energy due to a plugging brake must be dissipated within the motor and this

may cause excessive heating of the motor.

• This type of braking is not normally recommended.

•
 At starting, the machine speed is ωm = 0 and s = 1.
 The starting torque can be found from Eq. (15.18) by setting s = 1 as

 The slip for maximum torque sm can be determined by setting dTd/ds = 0

and yields

 Substituting s = sm, gives the maximum developed torque during motoring,

which is also called pull-out torque, or breakdown torque,
the maximum regenerative torque can be found from by letting

 If Rs is considered small compared with

other circuit impedances, which is usually a

valid approximation for motors of more than

1-kW rating, the corresponding expressions

become
Normalizing Td and Ts with respect to Tmm gives

𝑇𝑑
and can be approximated to
𝑇𝑚𝑚

which gives the speed as a function of torque,

Example 3.1: A three-phase, 460-V, 60-Hz, four-pole Y-connected induction motor has the
following equivalent circuit parameters: Rs = 0.42 Ω, Rr′ = 0.23 Ω, Xs = Xr′ = 0.82 Ω, and
Xm = 22 Ω. The no-load loss, which is Pno load = 60 W, may be assumed constant. The
rotor speed is 1750 rpm. Use the approximate equivalent circuit determine
(a) the synchronous speed ωs; (b) the slip s; (c) the input current Ii; (d) the input power Pi;
(e) the input PF of the supply, PFs; (f) the gap power Pg; (g) the rotor copper loss Pru; (h)
the stator copper loss Psu; (i) the developed torque Td;
(j) the efficiency; (k) the starting current Irs and starting torque Ts; (l) the slip for maximum
torque sm; (m) the maximum developed torque in motoring, Tmm; (n) the maximum
regenerative developed torque Tmr; and (o) Tmm and Tmr if Rs is neglected.
Solution
f = 60 Hz, p = 4, Rs = 0.42 Ω, R′r = 0.23 Ω, Xs = X′r = 0.82 Ω, Xm = 22 Ω, and N =1750 rpm.
The phase voltage is Vs = 460/ 3 = 265.58 V, ω = 2π * 60 = 377 rad/s, and ωm = 1750 π/30 =
183.26 rad/s.
a.
b.
c.
e. The PF of the input supply is PFs = PFm = 0.858 (lagging), which is the same as the
motor PF, PFm, because the supply is sinusoidal.

f. the rms rotor current is

g.

h. The stator copper loss is Psu =3𝐼′𝑟 2 Rs = 3 * 30.1 * 0.42 = 1142 W.

i. Td = 22,327/188.5 = 118.4 N.m.

 k. From s=1

l. the slip for maximum torque (or power)

 m. the maximum developed torque

n. the maximum regenerative torque is

o.
Note: Rs spreads the difference between Tmm and Tmr. For Rs = 0, Tmm =-Tmr = 342.2
N . m, as compared with Tmm = 265.64 N . m and Tmr = -440.94 N . m.
 The speed and torque of induction motors can be varied by one of the following means:

1. Stator voltage control

2. Rotor voltage control

3. Frequency control

4. Stator voltage and frequency control

5. Stator current control

6. Voltage, current, and frequency control

To meet the torque–speed duty cycle of a drive, the voltage, current, and frequency control
are normally used.
Stator voltage Control
 From the torque equation, torque is proportional to the square of the stator
supply voltage and a reduction in stator voltage can produce a reduction in speed.
 If the terminal voltage is reduced to bVs, the developed torque becomes

 where b <=1.
 The points of intersection with the load line define the stable operating points.
 In any magnetic circuit, the induced voltage is proportional to flux and frequency, and
the rms air-gap flux can be expressed as
 where K m is a constant and depends on the number of
turns of the stator winding.
 As the stator voltage is reduced, the air-gap flux and the
torque are also reduced.

Figure : Torque–speed characteristics with

variable stator voltage.
 1
 At a lower voltage, the current can be peaking at a slip of sa = .
3
 The range of speed control depends on the slip for maximum torque sm.
 For a low-slip motor, the speed range is very narrow.
 This type of voltage control is not suitable for a constant-torque load and is normally
applied to applications requiring low-starting torque and a narrow range of speed at a
relatively low slip.

 The stator voltage can be varied by three-phase

(1) ac voltage controllers,
(2) voltage-fed variable dc-link inverters, or
(3) pulse-width modulation (PWM) inverters.
AC voltage controllers
 Are used to provide the voltage control.
 They are used to limited speed range
 They are very simple.
 the harmonic contents are high and the input PF of the controllers is low.
 They are used mainly in low-power applications, such as fans, blowers, and
centrifugal pumps, where the starting torque is low.
 They are also used for starting high-power induction motors to limit the in-rush
current.
Rotor voltage Control

 In a wound-rotor motor, an external three-phase resistor may be connected to its slip rings,

 The developed torque may be varied by varying the resistance Rx.

 This method increases the starting torque while limiting the starting current.

 However, this is an inefficient method and there would be imbalances in voltages and

currents if the resistances in the rotor circuit are not equal.

Figure : Speed control by motor resistance.
 A wound-rotor induction motor is designed to have a low-rotor resistance so that the
running efficiency is high and the full-load slip is low.
 The increase in the rotor resistance does not affect the value of maximum torque but
increases the slip at maximum torque.
 The wound-rotor motors are widely used in applications requiring frequent starting and
braking with large motor torques (e.g., crane hoists).
 Because of the availability of rotor windings for changing the rotor resistance, the
wound rotor offers greater flexibility for control.
 However, it increases the cost and needs maintenance due to slip rings and brushes.
 The wound-rotor motor is less widely used as compared with the squirrel-case motor.
 The three-phase resistor may be replaced by a three-phase diode rectifier and a dc
converter, as shown in Figure 15.7a, where the gate-turn-off thyristor (GTO) or an
insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) operates as a dc converter switch.
 The inductor Ld acts as a current source Id and the dc converter varies the effective
resistance, which can be found:

 where k is the duty cycle of the dc converter.

 The speed can be controlled by varying the duty cycle.
 The portion of the air-gap power, which is not converted into mechanical power, is
called slip power.
 The slip power is dissipated in the resistance R.
 The slip power in the rotor circuit may be returned to the supply by replacing the dc
converter and resistance R, with a three-phase full converter, as shown in Figure 15.7b.
 The converter is operated in the inversion mode with delay range of π/2 ≤ α ≤ π,
thereby returning energy to the source.
 The variation of the delay angle permits PF and speed control.
 This type of drive is known as a static Kramer drive.
 Again, by replacing the bridge rectifiers by three three-phase dual converters (or cyclo
converters), as shown in Figure 15.7c, the slip PF in either direction is possible and this
arrangement is called a static Scherbius drive.
 The static Kramer and Scherbius drives are used in large power pump and blower
applications where limited range of speed control is required.
 Because the motor is connected directly to the source, the PF of these drives is generally
high.
Figure 7 Slip power control.
 Assuming nr is the effective turns ratio of the stator and the rotor windings, the
rotor voltage is related to the stator (and line voltage VL) by
• where nt is the turns ratio of the transformer in the converter side. the slip can be found

• This gives the delay angle as

• The delay angle can be varied in the inversion mode from 90° to 180°.
• But the power switching devices limit the upper range to 155°, and thus the
practical range of the delay angle is
•
Exercise: A three-phase, 460-V, 60-Hz, six-pole Y-connected wound-rotor induction
motor whose speed is controlled by slip power, as shown in Figure 7a, has the following
parameters: Rs = 0.041 Ω, Rr′ = 0.044 Ω, Xs = 0.29 Ω, Xr′ = 0.44 Ω, and Xm = 6.1 Ω.
The turns ratio of the rotor to stator windings is nm = Nr/Ns = 0.9. The inductance Ld is
very large and its current Id has negligible ripple. The values of Rs, Rr, Xs, and Xr for the
equivalent circuit in induction motor can be considered negligible compared with the
effective impedance of Ld. The no-load loss of the motor is negligible. The losses in the
rectifier, inductor Ld, and the GTO dc converter are also negligible. The load torque,
which is proportional to speed squared, is 750 N.m at 1175 rpm. (a) If the motor has to
operate with a minimum speed of 800 rpm, determine the resistance R. With this value of
R, if the desired speed is 1050 rpm, calculate (b) the inductor current Id, (c) the duty cycle
of the dc converter k, (d) the dc voltage Vd, (e) the efficiency, and (f) the input PFs of the
example 15.4 Finding the performance parameters of a static Kramer Drive
The induction motor in Example 15.3 is controlled by a static Kramer drive, as shown in
Figure 15.7b. The turns ratio of the converter ac voltage to supply voltage is nc = Na/Nb =
0.40. The load torque is 750 Nm at 1175 rpm. If the motor is required to operate at a speed
of 1050 rpm, calculate (a) the inductor current Id; (b) the dc voltage Vd; (c) the delay
angle of the converter α; (d) the efficiency; and (e) the input PF of the drive, PFs. The
losses in the diode rectifier, converter, transformer, and inductor Ld are negligible.
Frequency Control
 The torque and speed of induction motors can be controlled by changing the supply

frequency.

 In the equation shown that at the rated voltage and rated frequency, the flux is the

rated value.

 If the voltage is maintained fixed at its rated value while the frequency is reduced

below its rated value, the flux increases.

 This would cause saturation of the air-gap flux, and the motor parameters would not

be valid in determining the torque–speed characteristics.

 At low frequency, the reactances decrease and the motor current may be too high.

This type of frequency control is not normally used.

 If the frequency is increased above its rated value, the flux and torque would

decrease.
 If the synchronous speed corresponding to the rated frequency is called the base
speed ωb, the synchronous speed at any other frequency becomes

• The torque expression in equation becomes

 The typical torque–speed characteristics are shown in figure 10 for various values of β.
 If Rs is negligible, the maximum torque at the base speed as
Figure 10 Torque characteristics with frequency control.
 Normalizing Tm with respect to Tmb yields

 Thus, it can be concluded that the maximum torque is inversely proportional to frequency squared.
 In this type of control, the motor is said to be operated in a field-weakening mode.
 For β > 1, the motor is operated at a constant terminal voltage and the flux is reduced, thereby
limiting the torque capability of the motor.
 For 1 < β < 1.5, the relation between Tm and β can be considered approximately linear.
 For β < 1, the motor is normally operated at a constant flux by reducing the terminal voltage Va
along with the frequency so that the flux remains constant.
Example 3.5: A three-phase, 11.2-kW, 1750-rpm, 460-V, 60-Hz, four-pole Y-connected
induction motor has the following parameters: Rs = 0, Rr′ = 0.38 Ω, Xs = 1.14 Ω, Xr′ =
1.71 Ω, and Xm = 33.2 Ω. The motor is controlled by varying the supply frequency. If the
breakdown torque requirement is 35 N.m, calculate (a) the supply frequency and (b) the
speed ωm at the maximum torque.

Solution
Va = V s = 460/13 = 258 * 58 V, ωb = 2π * 60 = 377 rad/s, p = 4, P0 = 11,200 W,
Tmb * 1750 π/30 = 11,200, Tmb = 61.11 N . m, and Tm = 35 N . m.
 a.

the supply frequency is

b. the slip for maximum torque is

Closed-Loop Control of Induction Motors
 A closed-loop control is normally required to satisfy the steady-state and transient
performance specifications of ac drives.
 The control strategy can be implemented by
(1) scalar control, where the control variables are dc quantities and only their
magnitudes are controlled;
(2) vector control, where both the magnitude and phase of the control variables are
controlled; or
(3) adaptive control, where the parameters of the controller are continuously varied to
adapt to the variations of the output variables.
 The dynamic model of induction motors are more complex than dc motors.

 The design of feedback-loop parameters requires complete analysis and simulation of

the entire drive.

 The control and modeling of ac drives are beyond the scope

 A control system is generally characterized by the hierarchy of the control loops, where
the outer loop controls the inner loops.
 The inner loops are designed to execute progressively faster.
 The loops are normally designed to have limited command excursion.
 Figure 19a shows an arrangement for stator voltage control of induction motors by ac
voltage controllers at fixed frequency.
 The speed controller K1 processes the speed error and generates the reference current
Is1ref2.
 K2 is the current controller.
 K3 generates the delay angle of thyristor converter and the inner current-limit loop sets
the torque limit indirectly.
Figure 19 Closed-loop control of induction motors.
 The current limiter instead of current clamping has the advantage of feeding back the
short-circuit current in case of fault.
 The speed controller K1 may be a simple gain (proportional type), proportional-
integral type, or a lead-lag compensator.
 This type of control is characterized by poor dynamic and static performance and is
generally used in fans, pumps, and blower drives.
 The arrangement in Figure 19a can be extended to a volt/hertz control with the addition
of a controlled rectifier and dc voltage control loop, as shown in Figure 19b.
 After the current limiter, the same signal generates the inverter frequency and provides
input to the dc-link gain controller K3.
 A small voltage V0 is added to the dc voltage reference to compensate for the stator
resistance drop at low frequency.
 The dc voltage Vd acts as the reference for the voltage control of the controlled rectifier.
 In case of PWM inverter, there is no need for the controlled rectifier and the signal Vd
controls the inverter voltage directly by varying the modulation index.
 For current monitoring, it requires a sensor, which introduces a delay in the system
response.
 Because the torque of induction motors is proportional to the slip frequency, ω sl = ωs -
ωm = sωs, the slip frequency instead of the stator current can be controlled.
 The speed error generates the slip frequency command, as shown in Figure 19c, where
the slip limits set the torque limits.
 The function generator, which produces the command signal for voltage control in
response to the frequency ωs, is nonlinear and also can take into account the
compensating drop Vo at a low frequency.
 The compensating drop Vo is shown in Figure 19c.
 For a step change in the speed command, the motor accelerates or decelerates within the
torque limits to a steady state slip value corresponding to the load torque.
 This arrangement controls the torque indirectly within the speed control loop and do not
require the current sensor.
 A simple arrangement for current control is shown in Figure .20.
 The speed error generates the reference signal for the dc-link current.
 The slip frequency, ω sl = ω - ωr, is fixed.
 With a step speed command, the machine accelerates with a high current that is
proportional to the torque.
 In the steady state, the motor current is low. However, the air-gap flux fluctuates, and due
to varying flux at different operating points, the performance of this drive is poor.
Figure .20 Current control with constant slip.
Figure .21 Current control with constant flux operation.
 A practical arrangement for current control, where the flux is maintained constant, is
shown in Figure .21.
 The speed error generates the slip frequency, which controls the inverter frequency and
the dc-link current source.
 The function generator produces the current command to maintain the air-gap flux
constant, normally at the rated value.
 The arrangement in Figure .19a for speed control with inner current control loop can be
applied to a static Kramer drive, as shown in Figure .22, where the torque is
proportional to the dc-link current Id.
 The speed error generates the dc-link current command.
 A step increase in speed clamps the current to the maximum value and the motor
accelerates at a constant torque that corresponds to the maximum current.
 A step decrease in the speed sets the current command to zero and the motor
decelerates due to the load torque.
Figure .22 Speed control of static Kramer drive.