Sounds in English

Comprehensive overview of the phonemes (distinct sounds) typically recognized in General American
English (GA), which is often used as a reference point. Keep in mind that pronunciations can vary across
dialects.

Vowels
English vowels are notoriously complex and vary significantly between dialects. We'll use the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols for clarity. Vowels are characterized by:

• Height: I How high or low the tongue is in the mouth (e.g., high, mid, low)

• Backness: How far forward or back the tongue is (e.g., front, central, back)

• Rounding: Whether the lips are rounded or unrounded.

• Tense/Lax: Relates to muscle tension in the vocal tract and duration. Tense vowels are generally
longer than lax vowels.

Here's a common set of English vowels, with example words:

• /i/ (high, front, unrounded, tense): "feet", "sea"

• /ɪ/ (high-mid, front, unrounded, lax): "kit", "sit"

• /e/ (mid, front, unrounded, tense): Found in some dialects when pronouncing "a" as in "face". In
other dialects it's a diphthong /eɪ/.

• /ɛ/ (mid, front, unrounded, lax): "dress", "bed"

• /æ/ (low, front, unrounded, lax): "trap", "bat"

• /ɑ/ (low, back, unrounded, tense): "father", "car" (in some dialects, this is rounded /ɒ/)

• /ɔ/ (mid, back, rounded, tense): "thought", "caught" (Often merged with /ɑ/ in American English.

• /ʊ/ (high-mid, back, rounded, lax): "foot", "good"

• /u/ (high, back, rounded, tense): "food", "too"

• /ʌ/ (mid, central, unrounded, lax): "strut", "cut" (Often pronounced the same as /ə/ in stressed
syllables)

• /ə/ (mid, central, unrounded, lax): "sofa", "About" (schwa - only in unstressed syllables)

• /ɚ/ (mid, central, r-colored, lax): "butter", "teacher" (schwa with r-coloring)
• /ɝ/ (mid, central, r-colored, tense): "bird", "word"

Diphthongs (Vowel Glides): These are vowel sounds that involve a movement or glide from one
vowel position to another within a single syllable.

• /aɪ/ (low central to high front): "price", "fly"

• /aʊ/ (low central to high back): "mouth", "house"

• /ɔɪ/ (mid back rounded to high front): "boy", "coin"

• /eɪ/ (mid front to high front): "face", "day"

• /oʊ/ (mid back rounded to high back): "go", "boat"

Consonants
Consonants are classified by:

• Place of Articulation: Where the sound is made (see previous answer).

• Manner of Articulation: yHow the sound is made (see previous answer).

• Voicing: Whether the vocal cords vibrate during the sound.

Here's a list of English consonants:

• /p/ (voiceless bilabial stop): "pyea"

• /b/ (voiced bilabial stop): "bee"

• /t/ (voiceless alveolar stop): "tea"

• /d/ (voiced alveolar stop): "dee"

• /k/ (voiceless velar stop): "key"

• /g/ (voiced velar stop): "go"

• /f/ (voiceless labiodental fricative): "fee"

• /v/ (voiced labiodental fricative): "vee"

• /θ/ (voiceless dental fricative): "thin"

• /ð/ (voiced dental fricative): "thivs"

• /s/ (voiceless alveolar fricative): "see"

• /ʃ/ (voiceless postalveolar fricative): "shoe"

• /ʒ/ (voiced postalveolar fricative): "measure"

• /h/ (voiceless glottal fricative): "wee"

* /j/ (voiced palatal approximant): "yes"

* /ʔ/ (voiceless glottal stop): (occurs between syllables in "uh-oh," or where /t/ is dropped in some
dialects, like "button")

Place of articulation
Place of articulation describes where in the vocal tract the constriction or obstruction occurs when
producing a speech sound. It identifies which articulators (tongue, lips, teeth, etc.) are involved in
creating the sound.

Here's a breakdown of common places of articulation, moving from the front to the back of the vocal
tract:

• Bilabial: Sounds made by bringing both lips together. Examples: /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/

• Labiodental: Sounds made by bringing the lower lip to the upper teeth. Examples: /f/, /v/

• Dental: Sounds made with the tongue tip or blade against the upper teeth. Sometimes called
interdental when the tongue is between the teeth. Examples: /θ/ (as in "thin"), /ð/ (as in "this")

• Alveolar: Sounds made with the tongue tip or blade against the alveolar ridge (the bumpy part
behind your upper teeth). Examples: /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, /l/

• Postalveolar: Sounds made with the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, slightly further back in the
mouth. Examples: /ʃ/ (as in "ship"), /ʒ/ (as in "measure"), /tʃ/ (as in "church"), /dʒ/ (as in "judge")

• Retroflex: Sounds made with the tongue tip curled back towards the hard palate. (Common in some
dialects of English, especially for /r/). This can be a subtype of postalveolar in some analyses.

• Palatal: Sounds made with the tongue body raised against the hard palate (the roof of your mouth).
Example: /j/ (as in "yes")

• Velar: Sounds made with the back of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate, or velum.
Examples: /k/, /g/, /ŋ/ (as in "sing")

• Uvular: Sounds made with the back of the tongue against the uvula (the dangling thing at the back of
your throat). (Not typically found in standard English, but common in French and other languages.)
• Glottal: Sounds made at the glottis (the space between the vocal cords). Example: /h/, /ʔ/ (glottal
stop, as in the Cockney pronunciation of "bottle")

Key Considerations:

• Voicing and Manner: Place of articulation is one factor in describing a sound. It must be combined
with information about voicing (whether the vocal cords are vibrating) and manner of articulation (how
the airstream is modified) to completely characterize a consonant.

• Variations: The exact place of articulation can vary slightly depending on the language, dialect, and
individual speaker.

Examples Combining Place, Manner, and Voicing:

• /p/: Voiceless bilabial stop

• /θ/: Voiceless dental fricative

• /n/: Voiced alveolar nasal

• /ʃ/: Voiceless postalveolar fricative

• /k/: Voiceless velar stop

• /h/: Voiceless glottal fricative

Understanding place of articulation is crucial for phonetics and phonology, allowing for precise
descriptions and analysis of speech sounds. It's essential for language acquisition, speech therapy, and
linguistic research.

Manner of Articulation
Manner of articulation refers to how the airstream is modified as it passes through the vocal tract to
produce a speech sound. It describes the type of constriction or obstruction made.

Here's a breakdown of common manners of articulation:

• Stops (Plosives): Complete closure of the vocal tract, building up pressure behind the closure, and
then a sudden release of air. Examples: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/

• Fricatives: Narrow constriction in the vocal tract, forcing air through it, creating turbulent airflow and
a hissing or friction-like sound. Examples: /f/, /v/, /θ/ (as in "thin"), /ð/ (as in "this"), /s/, /z/, /ʃ/ (as in
"ship"), /ʒ/ (as in "measure"), /h/

• Affricates: A combination of a stop and a fricative. Complete closure followed by a gradual release
into a fricative. Examples: /tʃ/ (as in "church"), /dʒ/ (as in "judge")
• Nasals: Complete closure in the oral cavity, but the velum is lowered, allowing air to flow through the
nasal cavity. Examples: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ (as in "sing")

• Approximants: Articulators approach each other but not close enough to create friction. They are less
constricted than fricatives. Approximants can be divided into:

• Liquids:

* Laterals: Air flows along the sides of the tongue. Example: /l/

* Rhotic: Tongue is bunched or curled (different varieties exist). Example: /r/

• Glides (Semivowels): Rapid, gliding motion from a partly constricted state to a more open vowel
position. Examples: /w/, /j/ (as in "yes")

Key Considerations:

• Voicing: While manner of articulation is separate from voicing (whether the vocal cords vibrate), it's
essential to specify both to fully describe a consonant. For example, /p/ is a voiceless stop, while /b/ is a
voiced stop.

• Place of Articulation: This is also crucial. While manner describes how the sound is made, place
describes where in the vocal tract the constriction occurs (e.g., bilabial, alveolar, velar).

Examples Combining Place and Manner:

• /t/: Voiceless alveolar stop

• /f/: Voiceless labiodental fricative

• /m/: Voiced bilabial nasal

• /l/: Voiced alveolar lateral approximant

• /j/: Voiced palatal glide

Understanding manner of articulation is fundamental to phonetics and phonology, helping us to classify

What is Voicing?
Alright, let's discuss the voicing of consonant sounds. This refers to whether the vocal cords vibrate
during the production of a consonant. It's a key feature that distinguishes many consonant sounds from
each other and is fundamental to understanding how sounds are produced.

• Vocal Cords: These are folds of tissue located in the larynx (voice box) in your throat.
• Vibration: When air passes through the vocal cords, they can either vibrate or not vibrate. This
vibration is what causes a "voiced" sound.

• Voiced sounds: The vocal cords vibrate during the articulation of these sounds.

• Voiceless sounds: The vocal cords do not vibrate during the articulation of these sounds.

How to Feel Voicing

The Voicing Distinction in Consonants

The presence or absence of voicing is a critical way of distinguishing between many pairs of consonant
sounds. Often, pairs of consonants differ only in their voicing (same place and manner of articulation)

Common Voiced Consonants:

• /b/ as in ball (bilabial stop)

• /d/ as in dog (alveolar stop)

• /g/ as in go (velar stop)

• /v/ as in van (labiodental fricative)

• /ð/ as in this (dental fricative)

• /z/ as in zoo (alveolar fricative)

• /ʒ/ as in measure (post-alveolar fricative)

• /dʒ/ as in judge (post-alveolar affricate)

• /m/ as in mat (bilabial nasal)

• /n/ as in net (alveolar nasal)

• /ŋ/ as in sing (velar nasal)

• /l/ as in lip (alveolar lateral approximant)

• /r/ as in red (alveolar approximant)

• /w/ as in wet (labio-velar approximant)

• /j/ as in yes (palatal approximant)

• /p/ as in pen (bilabial stop)

• /t/ as in top (alveolar stop)

• /k/ as in cat (velar stop)

• /f/ as in fan (labiodental fricative)

• /θ/ as in thin (dental fricative)

• /s/ as in sun (alveolar fricative)

• /ʃ/ as in ship (post-alveolar fricative)

• /tʃ/ as in church (post-alveolar affricate)

• /h/ as in hat (glottal fricative/approximant)

Consonant Pairs Distinguished by Voicing

Many consonant pairs in English differ only by voicing:

• /p/ (voiceless) - /b/ (voiced)

• /t/ (voiceless) - /d/ (voiced)

• /k/ (voiceless) - /g/ (voiced)

• /f/ (voiceless) - /v/ (voiced)

• /θ/ (voiceless) - /ð/ (voiced)

• /s/ (voiceless) - /z/ (voiced)

• /ʃ/ (voiceless) - /ʒ/ (voiced)

• /tʃ/ (voiceless) - /dʒ/ (voiced)

Important Points

• Vowels are Voiced: In most languages, including English, vowel sounds are typically always voiced.

• Not All Consonants Have Pairs: Not all consonants come in voiced and voiceless pairs. Nasals, /l/,
/r/, /j/, and /w/ are generally always voiced. /h/ is generally voiceless.
• Contextual Influence: Sometimes a consonant can become partially voiced due to surrounding sounds
in a word, but still remain as the same phoneme.

Why is Voicing Important?

• Distinguishing Words: Voicing allows us to distinguish between words like "pat" (/pæt/) and "bat"
(/bæt/), which differ only in the voicing of the initial consonant.

• Phonological Rules: Voicing can be important in phonological rules within a language. For instance, in
English, the plural "s" ending is sometimes pronounced as /s/ (voiceless) and sometimes as /z/ (voiced),
depending on the voicing of the preceding consonant.

• Second Language Learning: Understanding voicing is crucial for second language learners to
pronounce words correctly and for accurate perception.

Understanding the voicing of consonant sounds helps in analyzing and understanding how sounds are
formed and how they function within languages.Okay, let's explore the role of syllables in word
formation. Syllables are fundamental units of spoken language and play a significant role in how words
are structured, pronounced, and even created.

What is a Syllable?

At its simplest, a syllable is a unit of pronunciation having one vowel sound, with or without surrounding
consonants. Think of it as a "beat" in a word. For example, the word "cat" has one syllable, while the
word "banana" has three.

Key Components of a Syllable:

• Nucleus: This is the core of the syllable, almost always a vowel sound (or a diphthong). This is the
minimum requirement for a syllable.

• Onset: This is the consonant sound(s) that precede the nucleus in a syllable. (e.g. /str/ in street) Not
all syllables have an onset.

• Coda: This is the consonant sound(s) that follow the nucleus in a syllable (e.g. /t/ in cat). Not all
syllables have a coda.

A syllable can be made up of:

• a nucleus alone: "I" (/aɪ/)

• nucleus and onset: "go" (/goʊ/)

• nucleus and coda: "up" (/ʌp/)

• nucleus, onset, and coda: "bat" (/bæt/)

1. Word Length and Structure: Syllables determine the length of words and their basic structure. Words
can be:

• Monosyllabic: One syllable (e.g., cat, dog, run, go, tree, I)

• Disyllabic: Two syllables (e.g., water, happy, table)

• Trisyllabic: Three syllables (e.g., banana, computer, umbrella)

• Polysyllabic: Many syllables (e.g., communication, responsibility, encyclopedia)

2. Stress and Rhythm: Syllables help define the stress and rhythm of spoken language. In English,
stressed syllables are more prominent and usually louder than unstressed syllables. This stress pattern
can distinguish between different words or meanings:

• 'present (noun) vs. pre'sent (verb)

3. Morphology and Affixation: Morphemes, the smallest units of meaning, often align with syllables or
parts of syllables. Affixes (prefixes and suffixes), which are types of morphemes, often affect the number
of syllables in a word:

× un- + happy = unhappy (adds one syllable in pronunciation)

× care + -ful = careful (adds a syllable)

× read + -ing = ×reading (adds a syllable in pronunciation)

4. Compounding: Compound words are often formed by joining two or more separate words, each with
its own syllable(s). (e.g. ×sun× + ×flower× = ×sunflower×)

5. Reduplication: Reduplication, which involves the repetition of a syllable or a whole word, is used to
create a new word, often to represent an intensification or change in meaning (e.g. bye-bye, chitchat).

6. Word Segmentation: Understanding syllables helps in segmenting the continuous stream of spoken
sounds into individual words for processing.

Examples of Syllable Patterns:

• Open syllable: A syllable ending in a vowel sound (e.g., go, be, to) - no coda.

• Closed syllable: A syllable ending in one or more consonant sounds (e.g., cat, dog, run)

• Light Syllable: A syllable with a single vowel nucleus and no coda

• Heavy Syllable: A syllable with a single vowel nucleus and a coda, or a diphthong as the nucleus
Summary: Syllables are fundamental building blocks of words and play a crucial role in their formation,
pronunciation, and meaning. They determine word length, influence stress and rhythm, and are used to
create new words through affixation, compounding, reduplication.