What are Sampling Methods?

Techniques,
Types, and Examples

Every type of research includes samples from which inferences are

drawn. The sample could be biological specimens or a subset of a
specific group or population selected for analysis. The goal is often
to conclude the entire population based on the characteristics
observed in the sample. Now, the question comes to mind: how
does one collect the samples? Answer: Using sampling methods.
Various sampling strategies are available to researchers to define
and collect samples that will form the basis of their research study.

In a study focusing on individuals experiencing anxiety, gathering

data from the entire population is practically impossible due to the
widespread prevalence of anxiety. Consequently, a sample is
carefully selected—a subset of individuals meant to represent (or
not in some cases accurately) the demographics of those
experiencing anxiety. The study’s outcomes hinge significantly on
the chosen sample, emphasizing the critical importance of a
thoughtful and precise selection process. The conclusions drawn
about the broader population rely heavily on the selected sample’s
characteristics and diversity.

What is sampling?
Sampling involves the strategic selection of individuals or a subset
from a population, aiming to derive statistical inferences and predict
the characteristics of the entire population. It offers a pragmatic and
practical approach to examining the features of the whole
population, which would otherwise be difficult to achieve because
studying the total population is expensive, time-consuming, and
often impossible. Market researchers use various sampling methods
to collect samples from a large population to acquire relevant
insights. The best sampling strategy for research is determined by
criteria such as the purpose of the study, available resources (time
and money), and research hypothesis.
For example, if a pet food manufacturer wants to investigate the
positive impact of a new cat food on feline growth, studying all the
cats in the country is impractical. In such cases, employing an
appropriate sampling technique from the extensive dataset allows
the researcher to focus on a manageable subset. This enables the
researcher to study the growth-promoting effects of the new pet
food. This article will delve into the standard sampling methods and
explore the situations in which each is most appropriately applied.

What are sampling methods or sampling

techniques?
Sampling methods or sampling techniques in research are statistical
methods for selecting a sample representative of the whole
population to study the population’s characteristics. Sampling
methods serve as invaluable tools for researchers, enabling the
collection of meaningful data and facilitating analysis to identify
distinctive features of the people. Different sampling strategies can
be used based on the characteristics of the population, the study
purpose, and the available resources. Now that we understand why
sampling methods are essential in research, we review the various
sample methods in the following sections.

Types of sampling methods

Before we go into the specifics of each sampling method, it’s vital to

understand terms like sample, sample frame, and sample space. In
probability theory, the sample space comprises all possible
outcomes of a random experiment, while the sample frame is the
 list or source guiding sample selection in statistical research.
The sample represents the group of individuals participating in the
study, forming the basis for the research findings. Selecting the
correct sample is critical to ensuring the validity and reliability of
any research; the sample should be representative of the
population.

There are two most common sampling methods:

1. Probability sampling: A sampling method in which each unit or

element in the population has an equal chance of being selected in the
final sample. This is called random sampling, emphasizing the random
and non-zero probability nature of selecting samples. Such a sampling
technique ensures a more representative and unbiased sample,
enabling robust inferences about the entire population.
2. Non-probability sampling: Another sampling method is non-
probability sampling, which involves collecting data conveniently
through a non-random selection based on predefined criteria. This
offers a straightforward way to gather data, although the resulting
sample may or may not accurately represent the entire population.

Irrespective of the research method you opt for, it is essential to

explicitly state the chosen sampling technique in the methodology
section of your research article. Now, we will explore the different
characteristics of both sampling methods, along with various
subtypes falling under these categories.

What is probability sampling?

The probability sampling method is based on the probability theory,
which means that the sample selection criteria involve some
random selection. The probability sampling method provides an
equal opportunity for all elements or units within the entire sample
space to be chosen. While it can be labor-intensive and expensive,
the advantage lies in its ability to offer a more accurate
representation of the population, thereby enhancing confidence in
the inferences drawn in the research.

Types of probability sampling

 Various probability sampling methods exist, such as simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and clustered
sampling. Here, we provide detailed discussions and illustrative
examples for each of these sampling

 Simple random sampling: In simple random sampling, each

individual has an equal probability of being chosen, and each selection
is independent of the others. Because the choice is entirely based on
chance, this is also known as the method of chance selection. In the
simple random sampling method, the sample frame comprises the
entire population.

For example, A fitness sports brand is launching a new protein

drink and aims to select 20 individuals from a 200-person fitness
center to try it. Employing a simple random sampling approach,
each of the 200 people is assigned a unique identifier. Of these, 20
individuals are then chosen by generating random numbers
between 1 and 200, either manually or through a computer
program. Matching these numbers with the individuals creates a
randomly selected group of 20 people. This method minimizes
sampling bias and ensures a representative subset of the entire
population under study.
 Systematic sampling: The systematic sampling approach involves
selecting units or elements at regular intervals from an ordered list of
the population. Because the starting point of this sampling method is
chosen at random, it is more convenient than essential random
sampling. For a better understanding, consider the following
example.

For example, considering the previous model, individuals at the

fitness facility are arranged alphabetically. The manufacturer then
initiates the process by randomly selecting a starting point from the
first ten positions, let’s say 8. Starting from the 8th position, every
tenth person on the list is then chosen (e.g., 8, 18, 28, 38, and so
forth) until a sample of 20 individuals is obtained.
 Stratified sampling: Stratified sampling divides the population into
subgroups (strata), and random samples are drawn from each stratum
in proportion to its size in the population. Stratified sampling provides
improved representation because each subgroup that differs in
significant ways is included in the final sample.

For example, Expanding on the previous simple random sampling

example, suppose the manufacturer aims for a more comprehensive
representation of genders in a sample of 200 people, consisting of
90 males, 80 females, and 30 others. The manufacturer categorizes
the population into three gender strata (Male, Female, and Others).
Within each group, random sampling is employed to select nine
males, eight females, and three individuals from the others
category, resulting in a well-rounded and representative sample of
200 individuals.

 Clustered sampling: In this sampling method, the population is

divided into clusters, and then a random sample of clusters is included
in the final sample. Clustered sampling, distinct from stratified
sampling, involves subgroups (clusters) that exhibit characteristics
similar to the whole sample. In the case of small clusters, all members
can be included in the final sample, whereas for larger clusters,
individuals within each cluster may be sampled using the sampling
above methods. This approach is referred to as multistage sampling.
This sampling method is well-suited for large and widely distributed
populations; however, there is a potential risk of sample error because
ensuring that the sampled clusters truly represent the entire
population can be challenging.
 For example, Researchers conducting a nationwide health study can
select specific geographic clusters, like cities or regions, instead of
trying to survey the entire population individually. Within each
chosen cluster, they sample individuals, providing a representative
subset without the logistical challenges of attempting a nationwide
survey.

Uses of probability sampling

Probability sampling methods find widespread use across diverse
research disciplines because of their ability to yield representative
and unbiased samples. The advantages of employing probability
sampling include the following:

 Representativeness

Probability sampling assures that every element in the population

has a non-zero chance of being included in the sample, ensuring
representativeness of the entire population and decreasing research
bias to minimal to non-existent levels. The researcher can acquire
higher-quality data via probability sampling, increasing confidence
in the conclusions.

 Statistical inference
 Statistical methods, like confidence intervals and hypothesis testing,
depend on probability sampling to generalize findings from a sample
to the broader population. Probability sampling methods ensure
unbiased representation, allowing inferences about the population
based on the characteristics of the sample.

 Precision and reliability

The use of probability sampling improves the precision and

reliability of study results. Because the probability of selecting any
single element/individual is known, the chance variations that may
occur in non-probability sampling methods are reduced, resulting in
more dependable and precise estimations.

 Generalizability

Probability sampling enables the researcher to generalize study

findings to the entire population from which they were derived. The
results produced through probability sampling methods are more
likely to be applicable to the larger population, laying the foundation
for making broad predictions or recommendations.

 Minimization of Selection Bias

By ensuring that each member of the population has an equal

chance of being selected in the sample, probability sampling lowers
the possibility of selection bias. This reduces the impact of
systematic errors that may occur in non-probability sampling
methods, where data may be skewed toward a specific demographic
due to inadequate representation of each segment of the
population.

What is non-probability sampling?

Non-probability sampling methods involve selecting individuals
based on non-random criteria, often relying on the researcher’s
judgment or predefined criteria. While it is easier and more
economical, it tends to introduce sampling bias, resulting in weaker
 inferences compared to probability sampling techniques in
research.

Types of Non-probability Sampling

Non-probability sampling methods are further classified as
convenience sampling, consecutive sampling, quota sampling,
purposive or judgmental sampling, and snowball sampling. Let’s
explore these types of sampling methods in detail.

 Convenience sampling: In convenience sampling, individuals are

recruited directly from the population based on the accessibility and
proximity to the researcher. It is a simple, inexpensive, and practical
method of sample selection, yet convenience sampling suffers from
both sampling and selection bias due to a lack of appropriate
population representation.

For example, imagine you’re a researcher investigating smartphone

usage patterns in your city. The most convenient way to select
participants is by approaching people in a shopping mall on a
weekday afternoon. However, this convenience sampling method
may not be an accurate representation of the city’s overall
smartphone usage patterns as the sample is limited to individuals
present at the mall during weekdays, excluding those who visit on
other days or never visit the mall.
 Consecutive sampling: Participants in consecutive sampling (or
sequential sampling) are chosen based on their availability and desire
to participate in the study as they become available. This strategy
entails sequentially recruiting individuals who fulfill the researcher’s
requirements.

For example, In researching the prevalence of stroke in a hospital,

instead of randomly selecting patients from the entire population,
the researcher can opt to include all eligible patients admitted over
three months. Participants are then consecutively recruited upon
admission during that timeframe, forming the study sample.

 Quota sampling: The selection of individuals in quota sampling is

based on non-random selection criteria in which only participants with
certain traits or proportions that are representative of the population
are included. Quota sampling involves setting predetermined quotas
for specific subgroups based on key demographics or other relevant
characteristics. This sampling method employs dividing the population
into mutually exclusive subgroups and then selecting sample units
until the set quota is reached.

For example, In a survey on a college campus to assess student

interest in a new policy, the researcher should establish quotas
aligned with the distribution of student majors, ensuring
representation from various academic disciplines. If the campus has
20% biology majors, 30% engineering majors, 20% business majors,
 and 30% liberal arts majors, participants should be recruited to
mirror these proportions.

 Purposive or judgmental sampling: In purposive sampling, the

researcher leverages expertise to select a sample relevant to the
study’s specific questions. This sampling method is commonly applied
in qualitative research, mainly when aiming to understand a particular
phenomenon, and is suitable for smaller population sizes.

For example, imagine a researcher who wants to study public policy

issues for a focus group. The researcher might purposely select
participants with expertise in economics, law, and public
administration to take advantage of their knowledge and ensure a
depth of understanding.

 Snowball sampling: This sampling method is used when accessing

the population is challenging. It involves collecting the sample through
a chain-referral process, where each recruited candidate aids in
finding others. These candidates share common traits, representing
the targeted population. This method is often used in qualitative
research, particularly when studying phenomena related to
stigmatized or hidden populations.
 For example, In a study focusing on understanding the experiences
and challenges of individuals in hidden or stigmatized communities
(e.g., LGBTQ+ individuals in specific cultural contexts), the snowball
sampling technique can be employed. The researcher initiates
contact with one community member, who then assists in
identifying additional candidates until the desired sample size is
achieved.

Uses of non-probability sampling

Non-probability sampling approaches are employed in qualitative or
exploratory research where the goal is to investigate underlying
population traits rather than generalizability. Non-probability
sampling methods are also helpful for the following purposes:

 Generating a hypothesis

In the initial stages of exploratory research, non-probability methods

such as purposive or convenience allow researchers to quickly
gather information and generate hypothesis that helps build a future
research plan.

 Qualitative research
 Qualitative research is usually focused on understanding the depth
and complexity of human experiences, behaviors, and perspectives.
Non-probability methods like purposive or snowball sampling are
commonly used to select participants with specific traits that are
relevant to the research question.

 Convenience and pragmatism

Non-probability sampling methods are valuable when resource and

time are limited or when preliminary data is required to test the pilot
study. For example, conducting a survey at a local shopping mall to
gather opinions on a consumer product due to the ease of access to
potential participants.

Probability vs Non-probability Sampling

Methods

Characteristics Probability sampling Non-probability sampling

Random selection of participants from Non-random selection of participants

Selection of
the population using randomization from the population based on
participants
methods convenience or criteria

Likely to yield a representative sample May not yield a representative sample

Representativeness of the whole population allowing for of the whole population; poor
generalizations generalizability

Precision and Provides more precise and accurate May have less precision and accuracy
accuracy estimates of population characteristics due to non-random selection
 May introduce selection bias if criteria
Bias Minimizes selection bias
are subjective and not well-defined

Suited for statistical inference and

Less suited for statistical inference and
Statistical inference hypothesis testing and for making
hypothesis testing on the population
generalization to the population

Commonly used in qualitative and

Useful for quantitative research where
Application exploratory research where in-depth
generalizability is crucial
insights are the goal