Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

CHAPTER 3
MACHINERY CONDITION MONITORING TECHNIQUES
Machine condition monitoring is the process of monitoring the condition of a machine
with the intent to predict mechanical wear and failure. Vibration, noise, and temperature
measurements are often used as key indicators of the state of the machine. Trends in the
data provide health information about the machine and help detect machine faults early,
which prevents unexpected failure and costly repair.

3.1 UNDERSTANDING MACHINE CONDITION MONITORING

Machine condition monitoring is important because it provides information about the
health of a machine. You can use this information to detect warning signs early and help
your organization stop unscheduled outages, optimize machine performance, and reduce
repair time and maintenance costs. Figure (3.1) shows a typical machine failure example
and the warning signs.

Fig.3: 1 The warning signs of machine failure: Using a machine condition monitoring
system, you can detect failure signs months before repair is required, allowing for proper
maintenance scheduling and shutdown.

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Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

3.2 TYPES OF MACHINE CONDITION MONITORING

Each of the five main varieties of machine condition monitoring serves a different role.
Route-Based Monitoring.
Route-based monitoring involves a technician recording data intermittently with a
handheld instrument. This data is then used for trending to determine if more advanced
analysis is needed.
Portable Machine Diagnostics.
Portable machine diagnostics is the process of using portable equipment to monitor the
health of machinery. Sensors are typically permanently attached to a machine and portable
data acquisition equipment is used to read the data.
Factory Assurance Test.
Factory assurance test is used to verify that a finished product meets its design
specifications and to determine possible failure modes of the device.
Online Machine Monitoring.
Online machine monitoring is the process of monitoring equipment as it runs. Data is
acquired by an embedded device and transmitted to a main server for data analysis and
maintenance scheduling.
Online Machine Protection.
Online machine protection is the process of actively monitoring equipment as it runs. Data
is acquired and analyzed by an embedded device. Limit settings can then be used to control
turning on and off machinery.

3.3 Monitoring Of Machinery Faults

3.3.1 Corrosion monitoring

Since corrosion proceeds as an electro-chemical process the techniques of monitoring are
directed to the identification of the electrical currents set up specifically by the corrosive
activity.

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Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

CORROSOMETER
This is the proprietary name for an instrument in which the electrical resistance monitoring
technique uses a balanced bridge technique to measure the change in resistance of a probe
as it thins away under corrosion.

Fig.3: 2 handheld instrument provides quick metal loss measurements of ER corrosion probes.

CORRATOR
A device or probe employed to measure current flow in a process flow. It consists of two
identical electrodes, to which a small current is applied and measured, from which
corrosion rates can be calculated. Corrosion rate measurements are made using the linear
polarization resistance technique. The instrument measures the current required to
polarize the electrodes of a probe to a known potential. From the polarization potential
and the measured current, polarization resistance can be calculated. Then, using Faraday’s
law, the instantaneous corrosion rate can be calculated from polarization resistance.

Fig.3: 3 Handheld Corrosion Data Logger

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Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

3.3.2 Gas leakage monitoring

Two basic methods can be applied to test for leaks:
Sniffing: in which the leak tester responds to the gas. With sealed, unpressurized units a
tracer gas filling is used. With small pressurized components, they are placed in a 'bomb'
with a pressurized tracer gas and after a 'soaking' removed and sniffed for tracer leakage.
Hood method: Components are put in a hood and air is pumped round. Gas leakage in the
purged gas indicates a leak in the test component.

Auer detector tubes/gas testers

These testers are used by drawing air through
the detector tubes which contain chemical
reagents sensitive to selective gases.

Fig.3:4 hand held Pump with gas detection tubes.

Gas thermal conductivity testers

Changes in the thermal conductivity when gases leak into
a small volume provide the basis for leak sensing which
responds to such gases as hydrogen, helium, methane
hydrocarbons, refrigerant gases, carbon dioxide, argon etc.
In fact, this method is suitable for any gas with a different
thermal conductivity from air.
Fig.3: 5 Infrared gas detector

Ultrasonic leak testing

Leaks in automobile pneumatic braking systems can be
accurately located by means of an ultrasonic detector
which gives both an audible and visual indication of the
leak. It is a simple hand-held device no bigger than a large
torch designed to provide on-site location of air or gas
leaks in both pressure and vacuum pipe systems and
vessels.
Fig.3:6 Ultrasonic leak detector

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Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

3.3.3 Thickness monitoring

Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge
Ultrasonic thickness measurement (UTM) is a method of performing non-destructive
measurement (gauging) of the local thickness of a
solid element (typically made of metal, if using
ultrasound testing for industrial purposes) basing on
the time taken by the ultrasound wave to return to the
surface. This type of measurement is typically
performed with an ultrasonic thickness gauge. using
this simple formula:
lm= ct/2
where
lm is the thickness of the sample Fig.3: 7 hand held ultrasonic thickness gauge

c is the celerity of sound in the given sample

t is the traverse time

Sheet Metal Thickness laser Measurement

Automotive metal stamping requires a specific
thickness to ensure the parts are equal, and to ensure
the die is not damaged during this process. As metal
sheets move down the conveyor, laser displacement
sensors measure the sheets on a very precise scale to
ensure they are the correct thickness.
Fig.3: 8 laser displacement measurement sensor

3.3.4 Temperature monitoring

Temperature measurement (i.e., sensors, thermography) helps detect potential failures
related to a temperature change in equipment. Measured temperature changes can indicate
problems such as excessive mechanical friction (i.e., faulty bearings, inadequate
lubrication), degraded heat transfer (i.e., fouling in a heat exchanger), or poor electrical
connections (i.e., loose, corroded, or oxidized connections). Two methods are used in the
temperatures monitoring:
 Point Temperature Devices
 Infrared Thermography
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Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

Thermocouple
A thermocouple consists of two wires of dissimilar metals
joined near the measurement point (junction), a reference
junction, and a measuring device. The output is a small voltage
measured between the two wires which is converted to a
temperature readout by an instrument.

Fig.3: 9 Protable thermocouple

Infrared thermometer
Is a thermometer which infers temperature from a portion of
the thermal radiation sometimes called blackbody radiation emitted by
the object being measured. They are sometimes called laser
thermometers as a laser is used to help aim the thermometer.

Fig.3: 10 Infrared thermometr with laser beam

Infrared Thermography
This non-contact technique uses infrared cameras to measure the temperature of heat-
radiating surfaces within the line of sight of the camera. The camera measures temperature
variations on the surface of the object being monitored and converts the temperature data
into video or audio signals that can be displayed or recorded in a wide variety of formats
for future analysis.

Fig.3: 11 Infrared Thermograph – Electric Motor Bearing

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Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

Fig.3: 12 Infrared Thermograph – Hot Electric Motor

Fig.3: 13 Infrared Thermograph – Belts Slipping

Fig.3: 14 Infrared Thermograph – Boiler Valve

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Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

3.3.5 Dynamic Monitoring

Dynamic monitoring (i.e., spectrum analysis, ultrasonic analysis) involves measuring and
analyzing energy emitted from mechanical equipment in the form of waves, such as
vibration, pulses, and acoustic effects, over a period of time. Measured changes in the
vibration characteristics from equipment over time can indicate problems such as wear,
imbalance, misalignment, and damage. This topics will be discuss in details later in
chapter 7.

3.3.6 Oil Analysis monitoring

Oil analysis (i.e., Ferrography, particle counter testing) can be performed on different
types of oils such as lubrication, hydraulic, or electrical insulation oils. It can indicate
problems such as machine degradation (i.e., wear), oil contamination, improper oil
consistency (i.e., incorrect or improper amount of additives), and oil deterioration. Oil
analysis is most often based on regularly scheduled sampling. Regular sampling allows
monitoring of the rate of change of the measured parameters. This topics will be discuss
in details later in chapter 8.

Aspects of Oil Analysis

The tests described in chapter 8 monitor all or some of these three aspects of oil:
• Lubricant condition
• Contaminants
• Machine wear
Oil Analysis Condition-monitoring Techniques
Atomic Emissions Spectroscopy
Atomic emissions spectroscopy identifies problems with contaminants and additives, and
to a limited extent, corrosion and wear metals in lubrication and hydraulic oil samples, by
measuring the characteristic radiation emitted when samples are subjected to high energy
and temperature conditions. The test results are in parts per million (ppm) for a wide
variety of elements of interest, including iron, aluminum, chromium, copper, lead, tin,
nickel, and silver, and components of oil additives such as boron, zinc, phosphorus, and
calcium. This technique can be used to analyze oil used in diesel and gasoline engines,
compressors, transmissions, gearboxes, and hydraulic systems.

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Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

Fig.3: 15 Schematic of an AES experiment

Ferrography
Ferrography is a technique that identifies the density and size ratio of particles in oil or
grease caused by problems such as wear, fatigue, corrosion or combination. A
representative sample is diluted with a fixer solvent and then passed over an inclined glass
slide that is subjected to a magnetic field. The magnetic field provides separation of the
ferrous particles (ferrous particles align with the magnetic field lines) and distributes them
along the length of the slide (nonmagnetic and nonmetallic particles are distributed
randomly along the slide).

Fig.3: 16 Ferrography analyzer

3.3.7 Speed monitoring

Speed measuring instruments vary with the job. Whether measuring traveling speed, wind
speed, acceleration or engine speed, there is a proper instrument for calculating that form
of speed. Police use RADAR and LIDAR to measure traffic speed. Cars have
speedometers for travel speed and tachometers for engine speed. Accelerometers are also
used with car speed measurements.
Tachometers for Engine or Motor Speed
Tachometers measure the engine speed in revolutions per minute (rpm). This instrument
determines the rotational speed. The classification of Tachometer is different in differ
books .Somewhere there is just broad classification whereas at other places classification
is one the basis of principal ,types of uses or construction.

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Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

Tachometers classification
 Analog Tachometers
 Digital Tachometers
 Time & Frequency measuring Tachometers
 Contact and Non contact Tachometers

Fig.3: 17 Tachometer types

Speedometers for Travelling Speed

Speedometers measure the traveling speed of land vehicles. They
are used to help drivers determine their driving speed and
maintain it at save and realistic levels. These meters use magnets
and a set of rotating cables connected to the transmission to
determine the rate of travel, which is shown on an analog display
on the vehicle's dashboard

Fig.3: 18 speedometer

RADAR for Determining Vehicle Speed

Police use radar to check for speeders. Radar uses the Doppler effect, which emits high
frequency radio waves , then calculates the sound wave frequency as the return to the
instrument.

Fig.3: 19 Principle of radar gun

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Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

3.3.8 Pressure measurement

Pressure (P ) expresses the magnitude of normal force (F-N) per unit area (A-m2)
applied on a surface.

Units: Pa(= N/m2), psi(=lbf/in2), bar (=105 Pa=100 kPa), mbar (=100 Pa=1 hPa),

atm (=101.3 kPa), mmHg (or Torr), inHg, etc.

Note: For every Unit: hUnit=hectoUnit=100 Unit

Where Pabs : Absolute pressure

Patm : Atmospheric pressure

(Standard is: 101.3 kPa =14.696 psi=760 mmHg=29.92 inHg)

Pgage : Gage pressure

Pressure Measuring Devices
Bourdon Gage:

Principles: change in curvature of the tube is proportional to difference of pressure

inside from that outside the tube

Applications: tire pressure, pressure at the top or along the walls of tanks or vessels

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Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

Strain Gage

Principles: ∆ P  ∆ Resistance  ∆ Voltage

Applications: Sensors for internal combustion engines, automotive, research etc.

Quartz Gage

Principles: ∆ Pressure  ∆ Charge  ∆ Voltage

Applications: measurements with high accuracy, good repeatability, high resolution.
e g. Quartz Clock

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Lecture notes in Mechanical Fault Diagnosis

Piezo resistive Gage

Principles: ∆Pressure = ∆Charge = ∆Resistance = ∆Voltage
Applications: Very accurate for small pressure differentials
e.g. Difference between indoor and outdoor pressure

U-tube Manometer

Air Water Manometer

Principles: Hydrostatic Law

∆P=ρ g h

Applications: air pressure, pipe pressure, etc.

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