CHAPTER ONE

COMMUNICATION -AN OVERVIEW

1.1. Meaning of communication
Communication is a two way process of exchanging thoughts, ideas and feelings between people
in a commonly understandable ways.
Communication is considered effective when it achieves the desired responses or when it has an
effect on the receiver. Successful business persons and professional communicators owe a large
part of their success to their ability to minimize potential misunderstanding and effectively
communicate with others.

1.2. Significance of Communication

i. Communication is the lifeblood of an organization. Because organization by definition is a
group of people working together to achieve a common goal, its effectiveness requires a
great deal of interaction. Without communication an organization cannot function. People in
organizations exchange information, ideas, feelings and proposals, make decisions, plans,
policies, rules, contractual agreements which all require effective communication.
ii. Communication is important in our career and personal life. Our jobs, promotions and
personal reputation often depend on the success or failure of our written and oral
communications. Especially if your job requires mainly mental work, your success will be
strongly influenced by how effectively you communicate your knowledge, ideas, proposals,
reports etc.
iii. In some jobs, communication skills are the main responsibilities. The following are some
instances where good communication skill is given emphasis.
 Public relations
 Customer relation
 Labor relations
 Sales
 Teaching etc.
1.3. Communication in Management and Administration
Communication is part of the three major skills needed by managers (human skills, conceptual
skills, technical skills). All managerial roles and functions require effective communication.
Although the degree and amount of the communication differ among each of the roles, functions,
and skills, all of the above require effective communication skills. The vision, mission, goals,
strategies, and philosophies of the organization need to be effectively communicated with
employees, shareholders, customers, the general public and so on. Researches indicate that
members of management spend 60-90 percent of their working days communicating with others
i.e., speaking, writing, reading or listening.
CHAPTER TWO
COMMUNICATION PROCESS
2.1. Elements of Communication
The process of communication involves a number of events and issues, which include:
1. Sender 5. Feedback
2. Message 6. Noise
3. Channel/medium 7. Environment
4. Receiver
The above elements or issues interact in five different activities to produce full cycle of
communication. These are:
1. The sender has an idea
2. The idea becomes a message
3. The message is transmitted
4. The receiver gets the message
5. The receiver reacts to the message and provides feedback to the sender
The above contents of communication can be shown using the basic model of communication.
2.2. Model of Communication
Environment

No
SENDER RECEIVER
_________________________
Channel

ise
Message Encoded Message Decoded
Message Decoded

Message codes
Feedback Decoded Feedback encoded
Feedback Encoded
Feedback codes
Frame of reference
Frame of reference

No
ise
Environment
The Communication model
1. The Sender- the sender is the source of the message. Sender is also receiver of feedback.
The sender has an idea, to transmit however; the idea is influenced by his/her frame of
reference. The sender is a person who transmits, spreads, or communicates a massage or
operates an electronic device is the one who conceives and initiates the message with the
purpose of informing, persuading, influencing, and changing the attitude, opinion, or
behavior of the receiver (audience listener). He/she decide the communication symbols,
the channel, and the time for sending the message after carefully considering the total
situation in which communication takes place.
Encoding is changing the raw idea from its mental form into symbols, that is, patterns of
words, gestures, pictorial forms or signs (physical or sounds) of a specific visual /oral
language. The sender must choose certain words or non verbal methods to send an
intentional message. This activity is called encoding.
Two things must take place for the sender to send a message.
- First, the sender must be stimulated. Some type of stimulus triggers a thought which intern
initiates the desire to communicate. A stimulus can be either internal or external. An internal
stimulus is a stimulus which emanates from within the sender himself while external stimulus
is a stimulus that triggers senders from outside.
- The second condition to be fulfilled for the sender to send a message is motivation. Because a
stimulus alone may not be enough to trigger communication, sender needs to be motivated to
encode and send a message.
The sender needs to be influenced by some factor that he/she will get something if he/she sends
the message or losses something if he/she does not. Frame of reference is the background and
experience of the communicating parties. The sender and receiver can communicate only if they
have the same background.
2. Message- this is the content of the communication. Message is an idea, thought, feeling or
emotion that is organized or composed by the sender. The symbols that represent the
message are called codes. There are three basic communication codes.
 i. Nonverbal codes- are all intentional or unintentional codes other than words or
written materials by which a person transmits a message. They include such things
as facial expressions, movements of hands, eye contact, clothing and other body
gestures, which can represent nonverbal communication.
ii. Language codes- are either spoken or written words used to communicate ideas
and thoughts.
iii. Paralanguage codes-are the verbal elements that go along with spoken language
including the qualities of voice as tone, pitch, rate, volume, and emphasis.
3. Channel – refers to the physical transmission of the message from the sender to the
receiver. Some commonly known communication channels are:
a. Face-to-face discussion
b. Letter, memo, reports, manual
c. Telephone, fax, telegram, telex
d. Computer, internet, e-mail
e. Radio, television, video disk
f. Newspapers, magazines
The choice of an appropriate channel depends on the following factors:
 The importance of the messages (response needed)
 The type, number and location of receiver
 Urgency of the message
 Cost of the channel
 Whether a permanent record is needed
 Whether formality or informality is desired
 Size of the message
 Whether the receiver is inside or outside the organization.
4. Receiver- refers to listener, reader, or viewer of the sender. The receiver is also called
audience. We receive message from the environment through our senses. The r eceiver is the
targeted audience of the message. The receiver has to decode the message before receiving.
Decoding is the process of transferring the message in the way that the receiver understands the
content of the message. In other words, decoding is the act of translating symbols of
communication into their ordinary meanings; however, the total meaning would consist of
meanings of the words ( symbols) together with the tone and the attitude of the sender as treated
by the structure of the message and the choice of words used by him (the sender).
The receiver is most likely to receive a message accurately if:
 There is no physical interruption of the message.
 The receiver’s mind processes the message as the sender intends (they should have the
same frame of reference).
5. Feedback- refers to the verbal and visual responses to a message. Feedback is the only
means a sender can know whether or not messages sent are interpreted as intended. The
success or failure of communication is indicated with the feedback received from the
receiver.
Advantages of feedback
 Increases employee understanding and performance and minimizes mistakes.
 Increases employee satisfaction with the job because of the opportunity to ask or make
suggestions.
Disadvantages of feedback
 Feedback is difficult to extract or elicit
 Feedback is time consuming. It takes time to make sure that everyone understands the
message.
 Feedback may cause people to feel psychologically under attack. When feedback seems
negative people often become defensive.
Ways to improve feedback
a. Tell people you want feedback.
b. Let them know that you consider feedback not only useful but also necessary.
c. Use silence to encourage feedback
d. Ask questions for more clear feedback
e. Watch for non-verbal responses
f. Use statements and sentences that encourage feedback. Use such words as really,
interesting, aha, etc. and nodding head.
g. Reward feedback. Thank people for their question, comments, ideas, and compliment
6. Environment – includes the time, place, physical and social settings in which the
communicators find themselves.
 7. Noise- anything that interferes with communication and distorts or blocks a message is
noise. Noise can be external or internal.
 External Noise- includes distractions in the environment such as the speakers’ poor
grammar, phones ringing, people talking, room temperature, poor lighting etc.
 Internal Noise- refers to conditions of the receiver himself such as a headache,
daydreaming, lack of sleep, pre occupation of mind with other problems, lack of
knowledge about the topic etc.
2.3. Barriers to communication
Barriers to communication are disturbances, obstacles, and roadblocks which hinder effective
communication. Barriers to communication block the effective transmission of the messages
from the sender to the receiver. There are different barriers to communication which include:
1) Semantics-these are barriers which arise because of the different meanings that different
words have in different contexts. The same word may have one meaning in the mind of the
sender and a different meaning in the mind of the receiver which can block the
understanding between the two.
Words and symbols may not have similar uses and meanings for different individuals
from different cultural group, language and living style so it may create some barrier in
the communication process. Semantic barriers include:
a. Interpretations of words: is a situation where you and your friend understood a
word communicated by somebody else in a different way. Receivers decode
words & phrases in conformity with their own network, while may be very
different from those of senders. Words are capable communicating a variety of
meanings. It is quite possible that the receiver do not assign the same meaning
to a word as the sender has intended, that may lead to miscommunication.
b. Bypassed i n s t r u c t i o n s : when the message sender & receiver attribute
different meanings to the same words or use different words though intending
the same meaning, bypassing often occurs.
c. Perception of reality: The reality of an object, an event, or a person is different to
different people. Reality is not a fixed concept; it is complex, infinite and
continually changing. Besides, each human being has limited sensory
perceptions-touch. Sight, hearings, smell, and taste and each person’s mental
 filter are unique. People perceive reality in different ways. No two persons
perceive reality in identical manners.
d. Attitudes & Opinions: communication effectiveness is influenced also by the attitudes
& opinions the communicators have in their mental filters. People tend to react
favorably when the message they receive agrees with their views towards the
information, the set of facts, & the sender. For example, when you are angry, it is
harder to consider the other person’s viewpoint & to choose words carefully.
Likewise, the receiver will have difficulty-decoding message when her/his emotions
are strong.
2) Motivation and interest –our interest to send or to receive a message can determine the
effectiveness of communication. The more we are interested, the more we will be motivated
to communicate. Lack of interest and motivation in either sending or receiving message is
an obstacle for communication.
3) Perfunctory attention – this is a difference between speaking and listening capabilities of
the communicating parties. If the speaking speed is more than the listening speed, the
receiver may not grasp all the messages of the sender. Similarly if the listening speed is
more than the speaking speed, there will be an idle time between listening and speaking that
will make listener divert his/her attention to other ideas.
4) Source credibility- the source of the message often determines the accuracy and reliability
of the information. Messages which originate from incredible sources often creates barrier to
communication. People often associate personality of communication to the credibility of
their messages.
5) Filtering and serial distortion –filtering is selecting and identifying relevant and irrelevant
information. Filtering usually depends on the nature of the communicating parties. In the
process of filtering information to get only relevant ones, people often forget or ignore
important messages which should not be ignored.
Serial distortion is the loss of the content of a message as it passes from one person to other.
As message passes from one person to other person, it losses some of its content and finally
when it reaches its final destination, most of its original content will be lost. Especially
when message passes from top level of an organization to lower level down the hierarchy, it
loses its content at every step.
6) Hidden agenda – sometimes people express what they want through other forms without
directly speaking or writing it, i.e. they express their real message by being tactful or
diplomat. This is barrier to communication since the receiver may not clearly understand
what the sender wants to express.
7) Hoarding- this is a barrier which arises because of the feeling of superiority of some people
on their positions. People sometimes feel that they are so important to “play God” because
of the central position they assume. This feeling makes them reluctant or careless in passing
essential information to concerned parties. It hinders the right amount and quality of
information that the receiver needs at the right time. This is often seen in the different levels
of an organization.
8) Information overload- information which exists beyond the processing capacity of a
person often leads to barriers to communication. This is because as information is
excessively available, it needs too much time for sorting and analyzing and in this process
very important information can be omitted or distorted, which becomes barrier to
communication.
9) Organizational culture- the style of leadership in organizations, the type of social
relationship and other organizational factors highly affect the movement of information in
the organization. E.g.- An autocratic type of leadership is a strong barrier to communication
since the message often flows in one way and there is little or no free circulation of
information.
10) Language- different terminologies and words may not be clearly understood by
communicators. Especially some international, professional and technical words and
expressions are difficult to understand and this creates barrier to effective communication.
E.g. computer languages, terms on machines, electronics etc.
11) Disorganization of ideas and statements- lack of appropriate coherence, unity and
development of ideas and statements in a message is barrier to communication since the
receiver may to identify the main idea of the message and finally end up in confusion.
12) Perceptual Difference- the sender and the receiver may look at the same idea from
different angles and according to their own understanding. Since different people may have
different viewpoints misunderstanding is likely to arise between the communicating parties.
13) Physical barriers: these include noise, and time & distance.
 a. Noise: Anything that interferes with communication & distorts or blocks the
message is noise. Noise is quite often a barrier to communication. In factories
oral communication could be difficult by the loud noise of machines. Electronic
noise like ear-splitting often interferes in communication by telephone.
b. Distance: D istance also act as barriers of communication. Modern
communication facilities like fax, telephone and internet are not available
everywhere. Even when these technologies are available, sometimes mechanical
breakdowns render these facilities ineffective. In such cases the distance
between the transmitter and the receiver becomes a barrier. There is a kind of
communication gap between persons working in different shifts of a factory. Can
you imagine how difficult it would be to send an urgent message to a business
partner living in England if it had to be done through postal mail?
There are also other barriers which block the free flow of the message from the sender to the
receiver. These include: time pressure, distance, lack of feedback, emotions, and biases etc.
2.4. Guidelines to Overcome Communication Barriers
The following are ways which are suggested so as to make your communication in the
work place as smooth and effective as possible.
There are six factors or themes that contribute to effective
communication.
1) Fostering an open communication climate.
2) Committing to ethical communication
3) Understanding the difficulties involved in intercultural communication.
4) Adopting an audience-centered approach to communication.
5) Using technology wisely and responsibly to obtain and share information.
6) Creating and processing messages effectively and efficiently.
 CHAPTER THREE
COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES
To compose effective messages, you need to apply certain specific communications principles.
They tie in closely with the basic concepts of the communication process and are important for
both written and oral communications. They provide guidelines for choice of content and style
of presentation adapted to the purpose and receiver of your message, called the Seven C’s namely
clarity, completeness, conciseness, concreteness, correctness, consideration, and courtesy.
1. Clarity
This is getting your message understood by others. The receiver must interpret your message
with the same meaning in your (sender’s) mind.
Guidelines
a. Choose short, familiar, and conversational words. Avoid Greek, Latin or other technical
words
Say Don’t say
-After - Subsequent
-Home - Domicile
-Payment - Remuneration
-Registration form - Slip
b. Construct short sentences and paragraphs.
Generally short sentences and paragraphs are preferred; however a pleasing Varity of length is
also desirable. The average length of sentences suggested is 17-20 words.
c. Unity –have one main idea in sentence, and any other points or ideas must be closely related
to it. Similarly in paragraph, have one main idea. Usually a topic sentence is a good way to
express the main idea. The other sentences should contain details to develop the main idea.
d. Coherence – words should be correctly arranged so that they clearly express the intended
meaning.
e. Include examples, illustration, and visual aids when desirable. Some important statements,
words, or phrases may be underlined, numbered, typed in capital or italics.
2. Completeness
Your message is complete when it contains all facts the receiver needs. Incomplete messages:
 - Result in additional expenses - Leads to confusion and debates
- Spoil goodwill
Guidelines
a. Answer all question asked; both implied and stated.
b. Give something extra when desirable. Sometimes customers may not know what they should
ask or their questions may be inadequate.
c. Check for the five W‘s and any other essentials. The five W’s questions include what, when,
where, who, why and others like how and how much. This method is especially useful when you
request for information or provide information.
Example: To order merchandise makes clear
-What you want and how much
-When you need it
-Where it is to be sent
- To whom it is to be sent
-How payment will be made
3. Conciseness
This is saying what you have to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing
completeness and other “C” qualities.
Guidelines
a. Eliminate wordy expressions
Wordy Concise
 Consensus of opinion - Consensus
 Date of the policy - Policy date
 During the year of - During
 In accordance with your request - As you requested
 In due course - Soon
 In spite of the fact that - Although
b. Include only relevant words, phrases or statements: Avoid the irrelevant ones.
c. Stick to the purpose of the message
d. Omit information obvious to the communicating parties- don’t repeat at length what
The sender has already said.
 e. Avoid long introductions, unnecessary explanations, repetitions and excessive adjustments.
4. Concreteness
Communicating concretely means being specific, definite and vivid rather than general and
vague
Guidelines
a. Use specific facts and figures
E.g. Say Don’t say

-Product F42 has won 1st prize. - Our product has won
prize.
b. Don’t repeatedly use vague words like many, large, fast, early, good, beautiful etc.
Except in situations when:
- You have no sufficient data to be specific
- You want to be diplomat
- Exact figures are not important
5. Correctness
Communication is correct when it bears real information and uses formally appropriate titles of
persons, words etc to express matters.
This can be explained by the following guidelines.
a. Use the right level of language. There are three levels of language –formal, informal, and sub
formal.
The formal level of language is used for scholarly dissertation, master and doctoral thesis,
government agreements, legal documents, etc.
-The informal language refers to the language of business used for letters, memos, reports etc.
E.g. Formal: Anticipated Procure Inventory
Informal: Expect get stock
The substandard level of language is incorrect.
Say Don’t Say
Isn’t, aren’t, - Ain’t
I can hardly -I can’t hardly
b. Check the accuracy of words, figures and facts. The following words are often confusing: a
and an, anxious and eager, between and among, counsel and council etc.
c. Maintain acceptable writing mechanisms. This refers to: Spelling errors, Punctuation marks,
Capitalization, Grammatical accuracy, Sentences and paragraph structures, Format for memos,
letters, reports etc.
d. Choose non-discriminatory expressions
E.g. -Equal treatment of sexes
-Use humankind rather than mankind
-Use chairperson rather than chairman.
6. Consideration
Consideration refers to giving thoughtful attention to the receiver/sender. You have to prepare
every message with the receiver in mind and try to put yourself in his/her place.
Try to visualize your readers/ listeners with their desires, problems, circumstances, emotions, and
probable reactions to your messages.
Guidelines
a. Focus on ‘you’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘We’. People are usually concerned about themselves than
about others. They are likely to read your messages when they see their names and the pronoun
‘you’ rather than ‘I’ or ‘we’
E.g.
-‘We pay 8% interest’ is not preferred rather say ‘you earn 8% interest’
- Say ‘Congratulations on your successes rather than ‘I want to send my congratulations on
your success.
b. Show interest in readers/ listeners or show reader benefits. Your message should show interest
in and concern for the reader’s needs or viewpoints. Whenever possible and true, show how your
receivers will benefit from whatever the message asks or announces. If so, they will be more
likely to react favorably.
c. Emphasize the positive, pleasant facts. For most people negative words like no, impossible, I
cannot etc. have unpleasant emotions. By making clear what you can or will do, you (by
implication) make clear what you cannot do without using a single negative word.
E.g. Say-As soon as your signature card reaches us, we will gladly open an account for you.
Don’t say-It is impossible to open an account for you today.
d. Apply integrity and Ethics- integrity refers to high moral standards as honesty, sincerity,
decent character etc. Ethics on the other hand is concerned with what is right human conduct.
7. Courtesy
Courtesy is a combination of consideration and showing good manners. You can be courteous in
your business communication by being thoughtful, appreciative, and sincerely tactful.
a. Avoid expressions that irritate, hurt or belittle others
b. Do not ignore answering customers’ or employees’ inquires no matter how busy you are.
Sometimes silence (neglect) may be considered significantly discourtesy. Totally
ignoring inquires communicates unfavorable nonverbal messages that may lead to loss of
business or employee morale.
c. Avoid blunt behavior. Blunt behavior is common cause of discourtesy. Consider the
following responses to an inquire
Blunt -Obviously, if you had read your policy carefully you would be able to answer this
question yourself.
Polite - Sometimes policy wording is a little hard to understand. I am glad to clear up these
questions for you.
CHAPTER FOUR
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN ORGANIZATIONS
Internal and External Communication
Each organization has its own approach to transmitting information, both within the organization
and to the outside world. Depending on where the business communication occurred we can
categorize communication into External and Internal. That is communication can be divided into
two based on when it is made: Internal and external.
External Communication
External communication is communication with people outside an organization. It is the
organization’s means of establishing contact with the outside word. Externally it has to
communicate with other business houses, banks, government offices, the press, customers,
suppliers and the general public. It can be done through business letters, press releases,
advertisements, leaflets, invitations, telegrams, tele-messages, proposals, etc. Messages to
persons outside the organization can have a far-reaching effect on its reputation & ultimate
success. The right letter, proposal, or personal conversation can win back a disgruntled customer,
create a desire for a firm’s product or service, help negotiate a profitable sale, encourage
collections, motivate performance, in general create good-will.
Internal Communication
Internal communication involves transmission of information within the organization. Among
various ways of communicating within companies are memos, Reports, Meetings, face-to-face
discussions, teleconference, videoconference, notices, etc. Internal communication is a vital
means of attending to matters of company concern. Internal communication is of two types,
formal or official and informal. To maintain a healthy flow of information, effective managers
use both formal and informal communication channels.
Formal Communication
Formal communication flows along the organization’s lines of authority. Formal channels of
communication are intentionally defined & designed by the organization. They represent the
flow of communication within the formal organizational structure. Formal communication may
move vertically, horizontally or diagonally. Vertical communication can follow downward (from
superiors to subordinates) or upward (from subordinates to superiors), horizontal communication
flows between employees of equal or comparable ranks/status, whereas diagonal communication
is the exchange of information among employees in different work units.

A. Downward Communication
This type of communication flows from a superior to a subordinate. The managing director
communicating with the department managers, a manager giving a directive to an assistant
manager or a supervisor, a foreman instructing a worker are all engaged in the process of
downward communication. Usually, this type of communication involves job directions,
assignment of tasks & responsibilities, performance feedback, certain information concerning the
organization’s strategies & goals. Speeches, policy & procedure manuals, employee handbooks,
company leaflets, briefings on the organization’s mission & strategies, staff meetings, & job
descriptions are all examples of downward communication.
Most downward communication involves information in one of five categories:
 Job instructions – directions about what to do or how to do it. “When you stock the
shelves, put the new merchandise behind the old stock.”
  Job rational-explanations of how one task relates to other tasks. Explaining the
relationship between a task & other organizational tasks. “We rotate the stock like that so
the customer won’t wind up with state merchandise.”
 Policy & procedures: practice of the organization or rules, regulations and benefits of the
organization. “Don’t try to argue with unhappy customers. If you can’t handle them
yourself, call the manager”
 Feedback-Information about how efficiently a person is performing. “You are really
catching on fast. If you keep up the good work, you’ll be an assistant manager by the end
of the year”.
 Indoctrination-Information aimed at motivating employees by impressing the
organizations mission upon them and specifying how they should related to it. Efforts to
encourage a sense of mission & dedication to the goals of the organization. “If everyone
will put in a little extra effort, we can become the number one producer of X
components.”
Limitations of Downward Communication
1. Under–communication and over-communication- Downward communication is often
marred by either under or over communication. A superior may either talk too little or too
much about a job. Sometimes the superior acts in a presumptuous manner; they
communicate the decisions but withhold relevant background information about how
those decisions were arrived at. Under communication may also involve incomplete
instructions, which will surely lead to unsatisfactory performance. Over communication
or talking too much, on the other hand may lead to leakage of confidential information.
2. Delay- The lines of communication in downward communication being very long,
transmitting information to the lowest worker - process.
3. Loss of information- Unless communication is fully written, it is not likely to be
transmitted downwards in its entirety. Part of it is mostly certain to be lost. In fact, it has
been experimentally verified that only 20% of the communication sent downward
through five levels of management finally get to the workers’ level.
4. Distortion- In the long lines of communication, information is not only lost, but even
distorted. Exaggerating, making under-statements, giving unconscious twists to the facts
are a part of human nature. Whenever a piece of information passes on from one
 individual to another, it loses a little of its authenticity. By the time it reaches its
destination, it may not contain even an iota of truth.
5. Built in resistance- Downward communication smacks of too much authoritarianism.
The subordinate do not get any opportunity of participating in the decision-making
process. They are expected to receive the policy decisions and directives without
questioning their appropriateness, utility or validity which they resent.
B. Upward Communication
Upward Communication- is transmission of information from subordinates to superiors
through organizational hierarchy. It is flow of opinions, ideas, complaints, and other kinds of
information from subordinates up to managers. Upward communication is important for several
reasons. First managers need to know how their subordinates feel about their jobs, their working
conditions and the company policies and procedures. Second, upward communication
encourages workers to discuss particular job related problems, which may affect productivity.
Third, it provides managers with feedback on the workers reactions to policy change,
developments in their departments and so on. When workers are encouraged to communicate
with upper level managers, workers will less resist downward messages such as policy changes.

However, upward communication is not as successful as downward communication because of

the following reasons:
 Subordinates fear to expose failure of their superiors (boss)
 Being afraid of punishment
 Feel of subordinates being inferior
To encourage workers upward communication, managers should prepare suggestion boxes so
that workers can express their feelings without fear. Engaging workers in focus groups will also
enhance effective upward communication since get together will form sense of informal
atmosphere where workers feel free to express their feelings. An “open door policy” where
managers are always available to deal with ideas, suggestions, and comments of employees has
also a great contribution in encouraging up ward communication.
Ways to improve upward communication
To encourage upward communication, managers can use the following ways.
  Open door policy- employees feeling that manager’s doors are always open to them.
Whatever they like, they can walk into manager’s room, without any hesitation and talk
with him/her about their problems.
 Complaints-and-suggestions boxes- At some convenient places in the office or the
factory, complaints and suggestion boxes should be installed. Employees are encouraged
to drop their complaints or suggestions, if any, into these boxes.
 Social gatherings- frequently arranging social gatherings in different departments. These
gatherings offer a very informal atmosphere in which employees shed their inhibitions
and feel free to talk about their problems.
 Direct correspondence- Sometimes the manager may directly write to an employee and
ask him to communicate with him, or the employees may write to their high-ups on their
own initiative.
 Reports- Employees are required to submit reports about the progress of their work at
regular intervals.
 Counseling- encouraging employees to seek counsel of their superiors on their personal
problems. As they feel encouraged to talk about themselves freely, they provide the
managers with valuable information. While counseling helps the employees solve their
problems, the information provided by them is utilized by the managers to give a better
shape to their future policies.
Limitations of Upward Communication
Though no one can dispute the utility and importance of upward communication, it is not very
easy to have smooth upward flow. Moving against the force of gravity, which seems to be very
difficult, upward communication suffers from a number of limitations, more prominent of which
are the following:
1. Employees are usually reluctant to initiate upward communication. The managers might
keep their doors open, but they cannot force the employees to walk into their rooms,
employees do experience an awe of authority and fight shyness of contacting their
superiors (status).
2. Employees often feel that if they communicate their problems to their superiors, it may
adversely reflect on their own efficiency. If a supervisor experiences some difficulty in
getting cooperation from his workers and point it out to the department manager, the
 latter might feel that the supervisor himself is incompetent. If a clerk who has just joined
the office complains that the filling system of the office is in total disarray, his superior
might conclude that the clerk is not efficient enough to handle filing properly.
3. Upward communication is more prone to distortion than downward communication. In
downward communication, distortion is often unconscious. But upward communication
is deliberately distorted. Some managers lose their coolness if they are confronted with
unpleasant or unpalatable facts. Some information, particularly of the unpalatable sort is
suitably exciting before it is passed on to them. While transmitting communication
upwards, the transmitter is always conscious of how it will be received and he cannot
resist the temptation of sugar coating the information.
4. Sometimes in the process of upward communication workers become too bold, ignore
their immediate superiors and directly approach the top most authorities with their
suggestions or complaints. This proves harmful in two ways: The officers who have been
by-passed feel slighted while the high-ups get suspicious of the worker’s intentions. The
relations between the workers and their immediate superiors get stained and work suffers.
5. Any negligence shown towards upward communication makes the workers cynical. They
carry the impression that the opportunity to communicate upward, management will
claim to have provided to them is only an eyewash.
DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION vs. UPWARD COMMUNICATION
Downward Communication Upward Communication
 Downward communication flow is from higher to
 Flow is from lower to upward.
lower.
 These messages provide the information that
 It is essentially directive in nature and demands
lower level employees possess and essentially
action by superiors.
non-directive.
 Orders, inst5ructions, information, counseling,  Reports, ideas, suggestions, complaints,
interviews, lectures, conferences, etc. are the protest, attitude surveys, union, publications,
downward communication. etc. are the upward means of communication.
 Downward communication travels fast  Upward communication tends to travel slowly.
 Basic purpose is to translate plans into concrete  Basic objective is to obtain feedback on action/
action. results.

C. Horizontal Communication (Lateral Communication)

Horizontal communication involves exchange of information among individuals on the same
organizational level, such as across or within departments. Horizontal information informs,
supports, & coordinates activities both across and within departments. Considerable horizontal
communication in organizations stems from staff specialists, in areas such as engineering,
accounting, & human resources management, who provide advice to managers in various
departments. Horizontal communication is important to help coordinate work assignments, share
information on plans and activities, negotiate differences and develop inter personal support,
thereby creating a more cohesive work unit. The more that, individuals or departments within an
organization interact with each other to accomplish their objectives the more frequent and
intense will be the horizontal communication. Horizontal communication is especially important
in an organization for the following purposes:
 To coordinate task when several employees or departments are each working on part of
an important project.
 To solve problems such as how to reduce waste or how to increase the number of items
assembled each hour.
 To share information such as an easier way to perform a task or the results of a new
survey.
 To solve conflicts such as jealousy or disagreements between co-workers.
 To build rapport: peer support.
Limitations of Horizontal Communication
 Rivalry among individuals and departments can influence individuals to hide
information that is potentially damaging to themselves or that may aid others.
 Specialization may cause individuals to be concerned mainly about the work of their
own unit and have little appreciation for the work and communication needs of others.
 Lack of motivation when subordinate horizontal communication is not encouraged or
rewarded workers may not be interested to communicate horizontally.
D. Diagonal Communication (Cross Channel Communication)
Diagonal communication is the exchange of information among employees in different work
units who are neither subordinate nor superior to each other. Staff specialists use cross channel
communications frequently because their responsibilities typically involve many departments
within the organization. Because they lack line authority to direct those to whom they
communicate, they must often rely on their persuasive skills, as for instance when the human
resource department encourages employees to complete a job satisfaction questionnaire. Some
organizational structures employ teams comprised of members from different functional areas,
even different levels of the hierarchy. With more & more firms reducing the number of
management layers & increasing the use of self-managed work teams, many workers are being
required to communicate with others in different departments & on different levels to solve
problems & coordinate work. For instance, a team might be formed from all functional areas
(accounting, marketing, operations, & human resources) to work on a specific product project to
ensure that all points of view are considered.
2. Informal communication
In addition to formal channels, organizations also have informal channels of communication.
Informal communication arises from the social relationships that evolve in the organization and
they are not available or feasible through formal channels.
Not all messages flow along the official paths prescribed by the organizations chain of
command. Many messages flow along an informal network commonly called the “grapevine”.
Informal channels exist because of their unique advantages and because of the weakness inherent
in formal channels of communication. Informal channels allow people to handle predictable
routine situations well, because they tend to be filled with oral rather than written messages, they
are effective means of transmitting broad, general kind of information. But communication
through formal channels is so laborious process that involves long delays between the times a
worker first sends a message and the time a reply is received, consequently, formal channels are
inefficient means:
 for meeting unanticipated communication needs
 for managing crises
 for effectively communicating complex or detailed information
 for sharing information
All organizations have informal networks, but the type of information the grapevine carries
depends on the general condition of the organization. If an organization’s managers are fairly
open with employees and send all necessary information through formal channels, the grapevine
usually carries personal interest items. However, when the formal communication channels fail
to do the job, the grapevine begins to carry information about the organization. In other words
“the grapevine busies itself with official matters only when the formal channels of
communication fail to deliver, are not understood, or are not accepted by the people for whom
the message are intended.
Researchers have found that although some entirely false rumours are spread by the grapevine,
information passed by this means is 75 to 95 percent are accurate. Informal messages may be
more accurate than formal ones because status, power and rank differences are temporarily set
aside. Managers who listen carefully to the informal communication network find it a useful
source of information about employee concerns and problems. Some managers “leak’’ new ideas
or proposals to the grapevine to test the workers’ response. If an idea is greeted with hostility,
they drop it or revise it, if the idea is received positively they introduce it in to official channels.
Characteristics of Informal Communication
1. It is very fast and spontaneous -easy and fast to disseminate information
2. It is not entirely reliable- it might not be accurate information and even sometimes it
might be impossible to know the source.
3. Its messages are difficult to stop or counter once they get started.
4. It is accessible to every person in the organization -once disseminated there is no
limitation
5. It can be supportive or obstacle to management effort.

Types of informal Communication

1. Single strand chain –one person communicates with only one another. Information is often
distorted in this type of communication
.
A B D
C
2. Gossip Chain-one individual disseminates the information to others. So information
distortion can be minimized.

D E
C F
B

A
3. Probability Chain: communication is random, so information is transmitted in a random
manner without specific selection.

F
C
G
B D

A
4. Cluster Chain: is similar to probability but their major difference is in cluster chain there is
a specific selection of individuals when disseminating information.

F
H G
I
D C

E B
A
Importance of the Grapevine
 Safety-valve- Apprehensions experienced by workers on matters like promotions and
retrenchments become an obsession with them. Talking about them may not alleviate their
fears, but it certainly provides them emotional relief. Since the grapevine does not follow any
formal channel, nobody can be held accountable for anything he has said. While relaying the
information to another fellow, a person is quite free to give it a twist he likes. This twist helps
him to express his personal emotions. Thus the grapevine acts as a kind of safety valve for
the pent-up emotions of the subordinates.
 Promotes organizational solidarity and cohesion- The existence of the grapevine proves
that all workers are interested in their associates. The very fact that they talk among
themselves helps to promote organizational solidarity and cohesion. Properly used grapevine
may even raise the morale of the workers.
 Supplement to other channels- All information cannot be transmitted to the employees
through the official channels. If there is some useful information unsuitable for being
transmitted through official channels, it can be transmitted through the grapevine, thus it acts
as a supplement to other channels of communication.
 Quick transmission- The speed with which information is transmitted through the grapevine
is just remarkable. Rumors, they say spread like wild fire in the forest. Just spot a leader of
the grapevine and give him some information, cleverly describing it as “top secret” and
within minutes, it will have reached everybody.
 Feedback – The grapevine provides feedback to the management. It enables them to know
what subordinates think about the organization and its various activities.
Limitations of Grapevine
 Distortion- One of the major drawbacks of the grapevine is that it may spread baseless or
distorted news, which may sometimes prove harmful even to the employees. If a supervisor
is summoned to the manager’s room and is kept busy there for a couple of hours, all kinds
of rumors have spread about him before he comes out. The grapevine respects nobody and it
may ascribe the worst possible motives to the noblest people.
 Incomplete information- The grapevine information is usually incomplete, so there is the
likelihood of being misunderstood or misinterpreted.
 Damaging swiftness- The swiftness with which the grapevine transmits information may
even be damaging. It may spread and cause serious damage before the management
becomes aware of it and it can take any rectifying steps.

How to use the Grapevine Effectively

Because of the damaging effect the grapevine is capable of producing; some managers are highly
suspicious of it and want to stop it completely. They don’t realize that the grapevine can neither
wither nor die. The more they try to block its flow, the greater the force with which it will erupt.
Instead of trying to curb it growth, it is much better to feed, water and cultivate it so that it can be
used for the benefit of the organization.
The grapevine can be effectively used in the following ways:
 The managers should to spot the leaders. They should try to find out the people who are
most active on the grapevine and keep them well informed so that harmful rumors do not
reach the employees.
 The grapevine should be used to feel the pulse of the employees. The management can
carefully listen to the grapevine, sense the mood of the employees and modify the
policies accordingly.
 If there is any false rumor, the management should immediately use the official channels
to contradict and to dispel the fears of the employees.
 If the workers are associated with the decision making, the rumourmongers will be
automatically frustrated.