SENSORS AND ACTUATORS

PRASHANTH B N
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Amrita School of Engineering
 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS
 To implement automation and process control, the control computer must collect data
from and transmit signals to the process.
 The components required to implement this interface are the following:
 Sensors to measure continuous and discrete process variables
 Actuators to drive continuous and discrete process parameters
 Devices to convert continuous analog signals into digital data and digital data into
analog signals
 Input/output devices for discrete data
 INTRODUCTION TO SENSORS

General arrangement of the control systems in CNC machine tools, industrial

robots, and PLC systems.
 SENSORS
 A wide variety of sensors are available for collecting data from the manufacturing
process for use in feedback control.
 A sensor is a transducer, which is a device that converts a physical variable of one form
into another form that is more useful for the given application.
 In particular, a sensor is a device that converts a physical stimulus or variable of interest
(such as temperature, force, pressure, or displacement) into a more convenient form
(usually an electrical quantity such as voltage) for the purpose of measuring the stimulus.
 The conversion process quantifies the variable, so that it can be interpreted as a numerical
value.
 Sensors can be classified in various ways, the most relevant of which for this discussion
is by the category of stimulus or physical variable measured.
 SENSORS

Stimulus Categories and Associated Physical Variables

 SENSORS
 In addition to the type of stimulus, sensors are also classified consistent with the
classification of process variables as
 Analog Sensor
 Discrete Sensor
 A significant trend in sensor technology has been the development of very small sensors.
 The term microsensor refers to measuring devices whose physical features have
dimensions in the micron range, where 1 micron (1 m) = 10-6 m.
 Microsensors are usually fabricated out of silicon using processing techniques associated
with integrated circuit manufacture.
 SENSORS
Analog Sensor
 Sensor produces a continuous analog signal such as electrical voltage, whose value varies
in an analogous manner with the variable being measured.
 Examples are thermocouples, strain gages, and potentiometers.
 The output signal from an analog measuring device must be converted to digital data by
an analog-to-digital converter in order to be used by a digital computer.

Discrete Sensor
 A sensor produces an output that can have only certain values.
 Discrete sensors are often divided into two categories:
 Binary Sensor
 Digital Sensor
 SENSORS
 Binary Sensor
 Sensor produces an on/off signal.
 The most common devices operate by closing an electrical contact from a normally
open position.
 Limit switches operate in this manner.
 Other binary sensors include photoelectric sensors and proximity switches.
 Digital Sensor
 Sensor produces a digital output signal, either in the form of a set of parallel status
bits (e.g., a photoelectric sensor array) or as a series of pulses that can be counted
(e.g., an optical encoder).
 In either case, the digital signal represents the quantity that is measured.
 Digital transducers are becoming increasingly common because they are easy to
read when used as standalone measuring instruments and because they are
compatible with digital computer systems.
 SENSORS
Sensors are distinguished as active or passive.
 Active Sensor
 An active sensor responds to the stimulus without the need for any external power.
 An example is a thermocouple, which responds to an increase in temperature by
generating a small voltage (millivolt range) that is functionally related to
temperature (in the ideal, its voltage is directly proportional to temperature).
 Passive Sensor
 A passive sensor requires an external source of power in order to operate.
 A thermistor illustrates this case.
 It also measures temperature, but its operation requires an electric current to be
passed through it.
 As the temperature increases, the thermistor’s electrical resistance is altered.
 The resistance can be measured and related back to temperature.
 SENSORS
 For each sensor, there is a transfer function, which is the relationship between the value
of the physical stimulus and the value of the signal produced by the sensor in response to
the stimulus.
 The transfer function is the input/output relationship.
 The stimulus is the input, and the signal generated by the device is the output.
 The transfer function can be expressed simply as:
S = f(s)
where, S = the output signal, usually voltage
s = the stimulus; and
f(s) is the functional relationship between them
 DEVICES USED IN AUTOMATION
Accelerometer
 Analog device used to measure vibration and shock. Can be based on various physical
phenomena (e.g., capacitive, piezoresistive, piezoelectric).
Ammeter
 Analog device that measures the strength of an electrical current.
Bimetallic Switch
 Binary switch that uses a bimetallic coil to open and close electrical contact as a result of
temperature change. A bimetallic coil consists of two metal strips of different thermal
expansion coefficients bonded together.
Bimetallic Thermometer
 Analog temperature-measuring device consisting of bimetallic coil that changes shape in
response to temperature change. Shape change of coil can be calibrated to indicate
temperature.
 DEVICES USED IN AUTOMATION

Dynamometer
 Analog device used to measure force, power, or torque. Can be based on various physical
phenomena (e.g., strain gage, piezoelectric effect).
Float Transducer
 Float attached to lever arm. Pivoting movement of lever arm can be used to measure
liquid level in vessel (analog device) or to activate contact switch (binary device).
Fluid Flow Sensor
 Analog measurement of liquid flow rate, usually based on pressure difference between
flow in two pipes of different diameter.
Fluid Flow Switch
 Binary switch similar to limit switch but activated by increase in fluid pressure rather
than by contacting object.
 DEVICES USED IN AUTOMATION
Limit Switch (Mechanical)
 Binary contact sensor in which lever arm or pushbutton closes (or opens) an electrical
contact.
Linear Encoder
 Digital device used to measure linear position and/or speed using a transducer that reads a
stationary linear scale indicating position. Speed can be measured as position divided by
time lapse. Transducer technologies include optical, magnetic, and capacitive.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
 Analog position sensor consisting of primary coil opposite two secondary coils separated
by a magnetic core. When primary coil is energized, induced voltage in secondary coil is
function of core position. Can also be adapted to measure force or pressure.
Ohmmeter
 Analog device that measures electrical resistance.
 DEVICES USED IN AUTOMATION
Manometer
 Analog device used to measure pressure of gas or liquid. It is based on comparison of
known and unknown pressure forces. A barometer is a specific type of manometer used to
measure atmospheric pressure.
Photoelectric Sensor Array
 Digital sensor consisting of linear series of photoelectric switches. Array is designed to
indicate height or size of object interrupting some but not all of the light beams.
Photoelectric Switch
 Binary noncontact sensor (switch) consisting of emitter (light source) and receiver
(photocell) triggered by interruption of light beam. Two common types are: (1)
transmitted type, in which object blocks light beam between emitter and receiver; and (2)
retroreflective type, in which emitter and receiver are located in one device and beam is
reflected off remote reflector except when object breaks the reflected light beam.
 DEVICES USED IN AUTOMATION
Photometer
 Analog sensor that measures illumination and light intensity. Can be based on various
photodetector devices, including photodiodes, phototransistors, and photoresistors.
Piezoelectric Transducer
 Analog device based on piezoelectric effect of certain materials (e.g., quartz) in which an
electrical charge is produced when the material is deformed. Charge can be measured and
is proportional to deformation. Can be used to measure force, pressure, and acceleration.
Potentiometer
 Analog position sensor consisting of resistor and contact slider. Position of slider on
resistor determines measured resistance. Available for both linear and rotational (angular)
measurements.
Tachometer
 Analog device consisting of DC generator that produces an electrical voltage proportional
to rotational speed.
 DEVICES USED IN AUTOMATION
Proximity Switch
 Binary noncontact sensor is triggered when nearby object induces changes in
electromagnetic field. Can be based on any of several physical principles, including
inductance, capacitance, ultrasonics, and optics.
Radiation Pyrometer
 Analog temperature-measuring device that senses electromagnetic radiation in the visible
and infrared range of spectrum.
Resistance-Temperature Detector
 Analog temperature-measuring device based on increase in electrical resistance of a
metallic material as temperature is increased.
Strain Gage
 Widely used analog sensor to measure force, torque, or pressure. It is based on change in
electrical resistance resulting from strain of a conducting material.
 DEVICES USED IN AUTOMATION
Rotary Encoder
 Digital device used to measure angular position and/or speed, using a transducer that
converts location on a circular scale into rotational position. Rotational speed can be
measured as position divided by time lapse. Transducer technologies include optical,
magnetic, and capacitive.
Tactile Sensor
 Measuring device that indicates physical contact between two objects. Can be based on
any of several physical devices such as electrical contact (for conducting materials) and
piezoelectric effect.
Thermistor
 Contraction of thermal and resistor. Analog temperature-measuring device based on
change in electrical resistance of a semiconductor material as temperature is increased.
 DEVICES USED IN AUTOMATION
Thermocouple
 Analog temperature-measuring device based on thermoelectric effect, in which the
junction of two dissimilar metal wires emits a small voltage that is a function of the
temperature of the junction. Common standard thermocouples include chromel-alumel,
iron-constantan, and chromel-constantan.
Ultrasonic Range Sensor
 Time lapse between emission and reflection (from object) of high-frequency sound pulses
is measured. Can be used to measure distance or simply to indicate presence of object.
FEATURES OF SENSORS FOR PROCESS CONTROL
 ACTUATORS
 A hardware device that converts a controller command signal into a change in a physical
parameter.
 The change in the physical parameter is usually mechanical, such as a position or velocity
change.
 An actuator is a transducer, because it changes one type of physical quantity, such as
electric current, into another type of physical quantity, such as rotational speed of an
electric motor.
 The controller command signal is usually low level, and so an actuator may also require
an amplifier to strengthen the signal sufficiently to drive the actuator.
 Most actuators can be classified into one of three categories, according to the type of
amplifier:
 Pneumatic
 Hydraulic
 Electric
 ACTUATORS
Pneumatic Actuators
 Use compressed air (typically “shop air” in the factory) as the driving power.
 Again, both linear and rotational pneumatic actuators are available.
 Because of the relatively low air pressures involved, these actuators are usually limited to
relatively low-force applications compared with hydraulic actuators.
Hydraulic Actuators
 Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command signal.
 The available devices provide either linear or rotational motion.
 Often specified when large forces are required.
Electric Actuators
 Most common and include electric motors of various kinds, solenoids, and
electromechanical relays.
 Either linear or rotational.
 PNEUMATICS ACTUATORS
 Devices used for converting pressure energy of compressed air into the mechanical
energy to perform useful work.
 In other words, Actuators are used to perform the task of exerting the required force at the
end of the stroke or used to create displacement by the movement of the piston.
 The pressurized air from the compressor is supplied to reservoir.
 The pressurized air from storage is supplied to pneumatic actuator to do work.
 The air cylinder is a simple and efficient device for providing linear thrust or straight line
motions with a rapid speed of response.
 Friction losses are low, often exceeds 5% with a cylinder in good condition, and cylinders
are particularly suitable for single purpose applications and /or where rapid movement is
required.
 Also suitable for use under conditions which prevent the employment of hydraulic
cylinders that is at high ambient temperature of up to 200 to 250.
 PNEUMATICS ACTUATORS
 Limitation is that the elastic nature of the compressed air makes them unsuitable for
powering movement where absolutely steady forces or motions are required applied
against a fluctuating load, or where extreme accuracy of feed is necessary.
 The air cylinder is also inherently limited in thrust output by the relatively low supply
pressure so that production of high output forces can only be achieved by a large size of
the cylinders.
 There are three types of pneumatic actuator: they are
 Linear Actuator or Pneumatic Cylinders
 Rotary Actuator or Air Motors
 Limited Angle Actuators
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
 Pneumatic cylinders are devices for converting the air pressure into linear mechanical
force and motion.
 The pneumatic cylinders are basically used for single purpose application such as
clamping, stamping, transferring, branching, allocating, ejecting, metering, tilting,
bending, turning and many other applications.
 The different classification scheme of the pneumatic cylinders are given below:
 Based on application for which air cylinders are used
• Light duty air cylinders
• Medium duty air cylinders
• Heavy duty air cylinders
 Based on cylinder’s movement
• Rotating type air cylinder
• Non rotating type air cylinder
LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
 Based on the cylinder action
• Single acting cylinder
• Double acting cylinder
o Single rod type double acting cylinder
o Double rod type double acting cylinder
 Based on the cylinder’s design
• Telescopic cylinder
• Tandem cylinder
• Rod less cylinder
o Cable cylinder,
o Sealing band Cylinder with slotted cylinder barrel
o Cylinder with Magnetically Coupled Slide
• Impact cylinder
• Duplex cylinders
• Cylinders with sensors
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on application for which air cylinders are used
 Air cylinders can be classified according to their intended use, as light duty, medium duty
or heavy duty types.
 Governs the strength of the cylinder, and thus typical choice of material of construction
and the form of construction is necessary.
 It should be noted that classification by duty does not necessarily affect the output
performance of the cylinder, as bore size for bore size; identical cylinder diameter will
give the same thrust on the same line pressure, regardless of whether the cylinder is rated
for light, medium or heavy duty.
 This form of rating, however, normally prevents the use of light classification for
cylinders of large size (and thus high thrust); and medium classification for cylinders of
even large size and very high thrust outputs.
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on application for which air cylinders are used
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder action
 Based on cylinder action we can classify the cylinders as single acting and double acting.
 Single acting cylinders have single air inlet line.
 Double acting cylinders have two air inlet lines.
 Advantages of double acting cylinders over single acting cylinders are
 In single acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only on one side. Hence this cylinder
can produce work only in one direction. But the compressed air moves the piston in
two directions in double acting cylinder, so they work in both directions
 In a single acting cylinder, the stroke length is limited by the compressed length of
the spring. But in principle, the stroke length is unlimited in a double acting cylinder
 While the piston moves forward in a single acting cylinder, air has to overcome the
pressure of the spring and hence some power is lost before the actual stroke of the
piston starts. But this problem is not present in a double acting cylinder.
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder action - Single acting cylinders
 Single acting cylinders are used where force is required to be exerted only in one
direction such as clamping, feeding, sorting, locking, ejecting, braking etc.
 Single acting cylinder is usually available in short stroke lengths [maximum length up to
80 mm] due to the natural length of the spring.
 Single Acting Cylinder exerts force only in one direction.
 Single acting cylinders require only about half the air volume consumed by a double
acting cylinder for one operating cycle.
 Varying designs of single acting cylinders:
 Diaphragm cylinder
 Rolling diaphragm cylinder
 Gravity return single acting cylinder
 Spring return single acting cylinder
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder action - Single acting cylinders
 Diaphragm cylinder
 Simplest form of single acting cylinder.
 Piston is replaced by a diaphragm of hard rubber, plastic or metal clamped between
the two halves of a metal casing expanded to form a wide, flat enclosure.
 Only short operating strokes can be executed up to a maximum of 50 mm.
 Used for short stoke application like clamping, riveting, lifting, embossing and
riveting.
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder action - Single acting cylinders
 Rolling diaphragm cylinder
 Contain a diaphragm instead of piston, which instantly rolls out along the inner
walls of the cylinder when air pressure is applied to the device, thereby causing the
operating stem to move outwards.
 Capable of executing appreciably longer operating strokes (averaging from 50 mm
to 800mm).
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder action - Single acting cylinders
 Gravity Return Single Acting Cylinder
 In a push type, the cylinder extends to lift a weight against the force of gravity by
applying oil pressure at the pressure end.
 In pull type gravity return type single acting cylinder, the cylinder lifts the weight by
retracting.
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder action - Single acting cylinders
 Spring Return Single Acting Cylinder
 In push type, the pressure is sent through pressure port situated at blank end of the
cylinder.
 In pull type, the cylinder retracts when the pressure port is connected to the pump
flow and extend whenever the pressure port is connected to the tank.
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder action - Double acting cylinders
 Cylinders are equipped with two working ports - one on the piston side and the other on
the rod side.
 To achieve forward motion of the cylinder, compressed air is admitted on the piston side
and the rod side is connected to exhaust.
 During return motion supply air admitted at the rod side while the piston side volume is
connected to the exhaust.
 Force is exerted by the piston both during forward and return motion of cylinder.
 Double acting cylinders are available in diameters from few mm to around 300 mm and
stroke lengths of few mm up to 2 meters.
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder action - Double acting cylinders
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder action - Double acting cylinders
 Base cap and Bearing cap are made of cast material, aluminium or malleable cast iron.
The two caps can be fastened to the cylinder barrel by tie rods, threads or flanges.
 Cylinder barrel is usually made of seamless drawn steel tube to increase the life of the
sealing components, the bearing surfaces of the cylinder are precision machined,. For
special applications, the cylinder barrel can be made of aluminium, brass or steel tube
with hard chromed bearing surface. These special designs are used where operation is
infrequent or where there are corrosive influences.
 The Piston rod It is preferably made from heat treated steel. A certain percentage of
chrome in the steel protects against rusting. Generally the threads are rolled to reduce the
danger of fracture. Piston seals are provided in between piston and barrel to avoid
leakage. Sealing ring is fitted in the bearing cap to seal the piston rod. The bearing bush
guides the piston rod and may be made of sintered bronze or plastic coated metal.
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder action - Double acting cylinders
 Double acting cylinder with piston rod on one side

 Double acting cylinder with piston rod on both sides

 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder movement
 Rotating type of cylinders are used in applications where cylinder body is connected to a
rotating member and air connection to the cylinder in a stationary housing.
 They are not widely used.
 Non-rotating type of cylinders are widely used in industries.
 Cylinder body is connected, air connection are mounted, stationary housing and piston
rod moves and exerts force.
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder’s design
 In industry, differentiation is made between special design of regular cylinder and the
special duty cylinders designed for a special purpose that are known by designation of
their own.
 Special design cylinders are basically natural variations of single or double acting
cylinders.
 Variations in special designs derived from standard production of cylinders and merely
exchanging selected parts for others of different shapes or material.
 Special duty cylinders on the other hand are from the start designed to non-standard
conditions of service or application.
 LINEAR ACTUATOR OR PNEUMATIC CYLINDERS
Based on the cylinder’s design

Telescopic cylinder Tandem cylinder

Impact cylinder

Duplex cylinders

Cylinders with sensors

Rod less cylinder
 FLUID POWER ACTUATORS
 Fluid power actuators receive fluid from a pump (typically driven by an electric motor).
 After the fluid has been pressure, flow, and directionally controlled, the actuator converts
its energy into rotary or linear motion to do useful work.
 Cylinders account for more than 90% of the actuators used in fluid power systems for
work output.
 Of the approximately 10% of actuators that produce rotary output, more than 90% are
hydraulic motors, while the rest are some form of rotary actuator.
 HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS
 Used in industrial process control, employ hydraulic pressure to drive an output member.
 Used where high speed and large forces are required.
 The fluid used in hydraulic actuator is highly incompressible so that pressure applied can
be transmitted instantaneously to the member attached to it.
 Based upon a principle discovered by the French scientist Pascal, it relates to the use of
confined fluids in transmitting power, multiplying force and modifying motions.
 In the early stages of the industrial revolution, a British mechanic named Joseph Bramah
utilized Pascal’s discovery in developing a hydraulic press.
 Bramah decided that, if a small force on a small area would create a proportionally larger
force on a larger area, the only limit to the force a machine can exert is the area to which
the pressure is applied.
 Hydraulic systems are used to control & transmit power.
 A pump driven by prime mover (electric motor) creates flow of fluid.
HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT SYSTEM COMPONENTS
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Electric Motor
 Part which provides drive and motion to the pump, which is the unit which drives the
fluid medium (hydraulic oil) around the hydraulic circuit system.
Oil Reservoir
 The oil is centrally held at this single location & any oil that flows out of components is
generally routed back to return here.
Filter
 Any particulate contamination from the oil reservoir that could damage the more
sensitive hydraulic components are screened out here.
Pressure Regulator
 Part of the hydraulic system that reduces the input pressure of a liquid to a desired value
at its output.
 HYDRAULIC CIRCUIT SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Control Valve
 Within the hydraulic system, a control valve will control the direction of supplied air, so
it can for example allow flow either only in or out.
Cylinder
 Part that plays the most wanted action, in providing actuation in either a lifting or
lowering movement.
 TYPES OF HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR
 Linear Actuator (Hydraulic Cylinder)
 Provides motion in straight line
 Linear displacement depends on stroke length
 Usually referred to as cylinders, rams (single acting cylinders) or jacks
 Rotary Actuators (Hydraulic Motors)
 Produces continuous rotational motion
 Pump shaft is rotated to generate flow
 A motor shaft is caused to rotate by fluid being forced into the driving chambers
 Semi rotary actuators
 Produces non-continuous rotational motion
 Limited to less than one revolution (<360°)
 Used to produce oscillatory motions in mechanisms
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
 The different classification scheme of the hydraulic cylinders are given below:
 Based on application for which fluid cylinders are used
• Light duty fluid cylinders
• Medium duty fluid cylinders
• Heavy duty fluid cylinders
 Based on cylinder’s movement
• Rotating type fluid cylinder
• Non rotating type fluid cylinder
 Based on the cylinder action
• Single acting cylinder
• Double acting cylinder
o Single rod type double acting cylinder
o Double rod type double acting cylinder
 HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS
 Based on the cylinder’s design
• Telescopic cylinder
• Tandem cylinder
• Rod less cylinder
o Cable cylinder,
o Sealing band Cylinder with slotted cylinder barrel
o Cylinder with Magnetically Coupled Slide
• Impact cylinder
• Duplex cylinders
• Cylinders with sensors
 APPLICATIONS OF HYDRAULIC ACTUATOR
 Hydraulic jack
 Hydraulic brake
 Hydraulic ram
 Used as sensor
 Close loop velocity controlling
 Highly precise positioning for heavy loads
PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT SYSTEM COMPONENTS
 PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Aftercooler
 Part that appears directly after the compressor & is designed to cool the air after it has
been pressurised.
Compressor
 Pumps the air though the pneumatic system at a high pressure so it can be used to actuate
certain parts with the pneumatic circuit. This driven by the electric motor.
Filter
 Primary part of the pneumatic system & performs the task of removing any particles from
entering the sensitive compressed air system.
Pressure Regulator
 Part of the pneumatic system that reduces the input pressure of a gas to a desired value at
its output.
 PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Control Valve
 Within the pneumatic system, a control valve will control the direction of supplied air, so
it can for example allow flow either only in or out.
Cylinder
 Part that plays the most wanted action, in providing actuation in either a lifting or
lowering movement.
Air Receiver
 Effect a large storage vessel for the pressurised air in the system & can store air at high
pressure for long periods of time.
Safety Valve
 Essential part of the pneumatic system, providing a safe means of releasing air should the
system become over pressurised.
 SYSTEM SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Pneumatics System
 Should the pneumatic system ever have maintenance performed on it, the system should
be depressurised.
 The supply of the air needs to be isolated correctly so no part of the circuit can be become
unwantedly pressurised.
 The same isolation procedure should also be applied to any electrical parts during
maintenance.
 SYSTEM SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
Hydraulics System
 Should the hydraulic system ever have maintenance performed on it, the system should
be depressurised.
 The supply of the oil needs to be isolated correctly so no part of the circuit can be become
unwantedly pressurised.
 The same isolation procedure should also be applied to any electrical parts during
maintenance.
 Any oil leaks require immediate cleaning as these could pose a health hazard to the
engineers maintaining the system and/or danger to the surrounding environment.
 PNEUMATICS SYSTEM MAINTENANCE CHECKS
 The safety valve would require checking for correct functioning under pressure and that
there is no physical damage to it.
 The air filter would require checking for its condition, possibly changing for a new one if
it has been in the system for some time.
 The compressor would be checked for mechanical and electrical integrity.
 The pressure gauge would require checking for correct functioning under pressure and no
physical damage is visible.
 The air receiver would require checking for its physical integrity, working at the correct
pressures & any air leaks.
 The cylinder would require checking for correct directional operation.
 The entire system of pipework would require checking for air leaks & its physical
condition.
 HYDRAULICS SYSTEM MAINTENANCE CHECKS
 If fitted with a safety valve would require checking for correct functioning under pressure
and that there is no physical damage to it.
 The oil filter would require checking or its condition, possibly changing for a new one if
it has been in the system for some time.
 The pump would be checked for mechanical and electrical integrity.
 The pressure gauge would require checking for correct functioning under pressure and
physical damage presence.
 The oil reservoir would require checking for its physical integrity, working at the correct
pressures & any oil leaks.
 The cylinder would require checking for correct directional operation.
 The entire system of pipework would require checking for oil leaks & its physical
condition.
 CONTROL VALVES
 One of the most important considerations in any fluid power system is control.
 If control components are not properly selected, the entire system will not function as
required.
 Fluid power is controlled primarily through the use of control devices called valves.
 The selection of these valves involves not only the type but also the size, actuating
technique, and remote-control capability.
 There are three basic types of valves:
 Directional Control Valves
 Pressure Control Valves
 Flow Control Valves
 CONTROL VALVES
Directional Control Valves
 Determine the path through which a fluid traverses a given circuit.
 For example, they establish the direction of motion of a hydraulic cylinder or motor.
 Control of the fluid path is accomplished primarily by check valves; shuttle valves; and
two-way, three-way, and four-way directional control valves.
Pressure Control Valves
 Protect the system against overpressure, which may occur due to excessive actuator loads
or due to the closing of a valve.
 In general pressure control is accomplished by pressure relief, pressure reducing,
sequence, unloading, and counterbalance valves.
 CONTROL VALVES
Flow Control Valves
 Fluid flow rate must be controlled in various lines of a hydraulic circuit and the type of
control is accomplished through the use of flow control valves.
 For example, the control of actuator speeds depends on flow rates.
 Non-compensated flow control valves are used where precise speed control is not
required since flow rate varies with pressure drop across a flow control valve.
 Pressure-compensated flow control valves automatically adjust to changes in pressure
drop to produce a constant flow rate.
 CONTROL VALVES
 A welding machine application in which a directional control valve, a check valve, and a
sequence valve are used as components of a hydraulic circuit for positioning and holding
parts during a welding operation.

Welding machine application Hydraulic circuit showing control valves used for
using hydraulic control valves. welding application.
 CONTROL VALVES
 Welding application requires a sequencing system for fast and positive holding of these
parts.
 Accomplished by placing a sequence valve in the line leading to the second of the two
hydraulic cylinders.
 When the four-way directional control valve is actuated, the first cylinder extends to the
end of its stroke to complete the “positioning” cycle.
 Oil pressure then builds up, overcoming the sequence valve setting.
 This opens the sequence valve to allow oil to flow to the second cylinder so that it can
extend to complete the “hold” cycle.
 The check valve allows the second cylinder to retract, along with the first cylinder, when
the four-way valve is shifted to allow oil to flow to the rod end of both cylinders.
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
 Used to control the direction of flow in a hydraulic circuit.
 Any valve (regardless of its design) contains ports that are external openings through
which fluid can enter and leave via connecting pipelines.
 The number of ports on a directional control valve (DCV) is identified using the term
way.
 For example, a valve with four ports is a four-way valve.
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Check Valves
 The simplest type of direction control valve is a check valve, which is a two-way valve
because it contains two ports.
 The purpose of a check valve is to permit free flow in one direction and prevent any flow
in the opposite direction.
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Pilot-Operated Check Valve
 Type of check valve always permits free flow in one direction but permits flow in the
normally blocked opposite direction only if pilot pressure is applied at the pilot pressure
port of the valve.
 Pilot check valves are frequently used for locking hydraulic cylinders in position.
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Three-Way Valves
 Contain three ports, are typically of the spool design rather than poppet design.
 The flow paths through a three-way valve uses two positions of the spool and such a
valve is called a three-way, two-position directional control valve.
 Typically used to control the flow directions to and from single-acting cylinders.

P – Pump Port connected to the pump discharge pipe

A - Outlet Port
T – Tank Port connected to the pipe leading to the oil tank
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Four-Way Valves
 Contain four ports and flow paths through a four-way, two-position directional control
valve.
 Typically used to control the flow directions to and from double-acting cylinders.
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Manually Actuated Valves
 The directional control valves are manually actuated by the use of a lever.
 Four-way valve and a spring-centered, three-position and two-position directional control
valve.

Manually actuated,
Manually actuated, spring-centered, three-position, four-way two-position, spring-offset, four-way
valve. valve.
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Mechanically Actuated Valves
 A two-position, four-way, spring-offset valve that is mechanically rather than manually
actuated.
 The graphic symbol is the same except that actuation is depicted as being mechanical (the
circle represents the cam-driven roller) rather than manual.
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Pilot-Actuated Valves
 Directional control valves can also be shifted by applying air pressure against a piston at
either end of the valve spool.
 A four-way, three-position, spring-centered, air pilot–actuated directional control valve.
 In the graphic symbol, the dashed lines represent pilot pressure lines.
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Solenoid-Actuated Valves
 A very common way to actuate a spool valve is by using a solenoid
 When the electric coil (solenoid) is energized, it creates a magnetic force that pulls the
armature into the coil which causes the armature to push on the push pin to move the
spool of the valve.
 Solenoids are actuators that are bolted to the valve housing.
 Like mechanical or pilot actuators, solenoids work against a push pin, which is sealed to
prevent external leakage of oil.

Solenoid-actuated, three-position, spring-centered,

four-way directional control valve.
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Solenoid-Actuated Valves
 There are two types of solenoid designs used to dissipate the heat created by the electric
current flowing in the wire of the coil.
 Air Gap Solenoid – Simply dissipates the heat to the surrounding air.
 Wet Pin Solenoid – The push pin contains an internal passageway that allows tank
port oil to communicate between the housing of the valve and the housing of the
solenoid.

Single solenoid-actuated, four-way, Solenoid-controlled, pilot

two-position, spring offset operated directional control
directional control valve. valve.
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Center Flow Path Configurations for Three-Position, Four-Way Valves
 Most three-position valves have a variety of possible flow path configurations.
 Each four-way valve has an identical flow path configuration in the actuated position but
a different spring-centered flow path.
 The open-center-type connects all ports together.
 The tandem design results in a locked actuator.

Various center flow

paths for three-position,
four-way valves.
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
Shuttle Valves
 Type of directional control valve.
 Permits a system to operate from either of two fluid power sources.
 A shuttle valve consists of a floating piston that can be shuttled to one side or the other of
the valve depending on which side of the piston has the greater pressure.
 Shuttle valves may be spring-loaded in one direction to favor one of the supply sources or
unbiased so that direction of flow through the valve is determined by circuit conditions.
 A shuttle valve is essentially a direct-acting double-check valve with a cross-bleed.
 The double arrows on the graphic symbol, reverse flow is permitted.
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Simple Pressure Relief Valves
 The most widely used type of pressure control valve and is found in practically every
hydraulic system.
 Normally a closed valve whose function is to limit the pressure to a specified maximum
value by diverting pump flow back to the tank.

Pressure versus flow curve for

simple relief valve.

Simple pressure relief valve.

 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Simple Pressure Relief Valves
 If the hydraulic system does not accept any flow, then all the pump flow must return to
the tank via the relief valve.
 The pressure relief valve provides protection against any overloads experienced by the
actuators in the hydraulic system.
 Obviously one important function of a pressure relief valve is to limit the force or torque
produced by hydraulic cylinders and motors.

Symbolic representation of partial

hydraulic circuit.
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Compound Pressure Relief Valves
 Operates in two stages.
 The pilot stage is located in the upper valve body and contains a pressure-limiting poppet
that is held against a seat by an adjustable spring.
 The lower body contains the port connections.
 Diversion of the full pump flow is accomplished by the balanced piston in the lower
body.

External and cutaway views of an

actual compound relief valve.
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Compound Pressure Relief Valves

Compound pressure relief valve

with integral solenoid-actuated,
two-way vent valve having remote
operation capability.
Operation of compound pressure relief valve.
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Pressure-Reducing Valves
 Valve (which is normally open) is used to maintain reduced pressures in specified
locations of hydraulic systems.
 Actuated by downstream pressure & tends to close as the pressure reaches valve setting.
 Uses a spring-loaded spool to control the downstream pressure.

Operation of a pressure-reducing valve.

 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Unloading Valves
 Valve is used to permit a pump to build pressure to an adjustable pressure setting and then
allow it to discharge oil to the tank at essentially zero pressure as long as pilot pressure is
maintained on the valve from a remote source.
 Hence, the pump has essentially no load and is therefore developing a minimum amount
of power.
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Sequence Valves
 Designed to cause a hydraulic system to operate in a pressure sequence.
 PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Counterbalance Valves
 The purpose of a counterbalance valve is to maintain control of a vertical hydraulic
cylinder to prevent it from descending due to the weight of its external load.
 FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Orifice as a Flow Meter or Flow Control Device
 An orifice (a disk with a hole through which fluid flows) installed in a pipe is a device
used as a flowmeter by measuring the pressure drop across the orifice.
 Greater the flow rate, the greater will be the pressure drop and vice versa for a given
orifice.
 An orifice can also be used as a flow control device.
 Smaller the orifice area, the smaller will be the flow rate and vice versa for a given
pressure drop.
 FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Needle Valves
 Designed to give fine control of flow in small-diameter piping.
 Name is derived from their sharp, pointed conical disk and matching seat.
 For a given opening position, a needle valve behaves as an orifice.
 However, unlike an orifice, the flow area (A) in a needle valve can be varied.
 FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Non-Pressure-Compensated Valves
 Used where system pressures are relatively constant and motoring speeds are not too
critical.
 Work on the principle that the flow through an orifice will be constant if the pressure
drop remains constant.
 FLOW CONTROL VALVES
Pressure-Compensated Valves
 If the load on an actuator changes significantly, system pressure will change appreciably.
 Thus, the flow-rate through a non-pressure-compensated valve will change for the same
flow-rate setting.
 ELECTRIC MOTORS
 Motor converts electrical power into mechanical power.
 Most electric motors are rotational.
 Available in many different styles and sizes.
 The motor consists of two basic components, a stator and a rotor.
 The stator is the ring-shaped stationary component, and the rotor is the cylindrical part
that rotates inside the stator.
 The rotor is assembled around a shaft that is supported by bearings, and the shaft can be
coupled to machinery components such as gears, pulleys, leadscrews, or spindles.
 ELECTRIC MOTORS
 Electric current supplied to the motor generates a continuously switching magnetic field
that causes the rotor to develop torque and rotate in its attempt to align its poles with the
opposite poles of the stator.
 The details relating to type of current (alternating or direct), how the continuously
switching magnetic field is created, and other aspects of the motor’s construction give
rise to a great variety of electric motors.
 The simplest and most common classification is between direct current (DC) motors and
alternating current (AC) motors.
 Within each category, there are several subcategories.
 Four types that are used in automation and industrial control are
 DC Motors
 AC Motors
 Stepper Motors
 Linear Motors
 ELECTRIC - DC MOTORS
 DC motors are widely used for the convenience of using direct current as the power
source.
 For example, the small electric motors in automobiles are DC because the car’s battery
supplies direct current.
 The popularity of DC motors is that their torque–speed relationships are attractive in
many applications compared to AC motors.
 DC servomotors are a common type of DC motor used in mechanized and automated
systems, and it will be used to represent this class of electric motors.
 The term servomotor simply means that a feedback loop is used to regulate speed.
 In a DC servomotor, the stator typically consists of two permanent magnets on opposite
sides of the rotor.
 The rotor, called the armature in a DC motor, consists of copper wire windings around a
ferrous metal core.
 ELECTRIC - DC MOTORS
 Input current is provided to the windings through the commutator and interacts with the
magnetic field of the stator to produce the torque that drives the rotor.
 Although DC motors have several attractive features, they have two important
disadvantages:
 The commutator and brushes used to conduct current from the stator assembly to the
rotor result in maintenance problems with these motors
 The most common electrical power source in industry is alternating current, not
direct current
 ELECTRIC - AC MOTORS
 In order to use AC power to drive a DC motor, a rectifier must be added to convert the
alternating current to direct current.
 For these reasons, AC motors are widely used in many industrial applications.
 AC motors do not use brushes, and they are compatible with the predominant type of
electrical power.
 Alternating current motors operate by generating a rotating magnetic field in the stator,
and the rotational speed of the rotor depends on the frequency of the input electrical
power.
 The rotor is forced to turn at a speed that depends on the rotating magnetic field.
 AC motors can be classified into two broad categories:
 Synchronous Motors
 Induction Motors
 ELECTRIC - AC MOTORS
Synchronous Motors
 Operate by energizing the rotor with alternating current, which generates a magnetic field
in the gap separating the rotor and the stator.
 The magnetic field creates a torque that turns the rotor at the same rotational speed as the
magnetic forces in the stator.
 The term synchronous derives from the fact that the rotor rotation is synchronized with
the AC frequency in steady-state operation.
 Synchronous motors cannot start by themselves from zero speed; they require a device,
sometimes called an exciter, to initiate rotation of the rotor when power is first supplied
to the motor.
 The exciter, which may be an electric motor itself, accelerates the rotational speed of the
rotor so that it can be synchronized with that of the stator’s rotating magnetic field.
 ELECTRIC - AC MOTORS
Induction Motors
 Probably the most widely used motors in the world, due to their relatively simple
construction and low manufacturing cost.
 A magnetic field is induced in the rotor from the stator.
 The rotor in most induction motors does not need electrical current from an external
power supply.
 No brushes or other means of connection are required for the rotating component of an
induction motor.
 Unlike synchronous motors, induction motors operate at speeds that are slower than the
synchronous speed.
 The steady-state rotational speed depends on the load that the motor is driving.
 if the rotor speed were equal to the synchronous speed of the stator magnetic field, then
no induced voltage and no torque would be generated in the rotor.
 ELECTRIC - AC MOTORS
 When AC power is first applied to an induction motor, the induced magnetic field and
torque are maximum, so no exciter is needed to start the motor turning.
 Both synchronous motors and induction motors operate at constant speeds.
 Most of their applications are those in which running at a fixed speed is required.
 This is a disadvantage in many automation applications because frequent speed changes
are often necessary with much starting and stopping.
 The speed issue is sometimes addressed by using adjustable-frequency drives (called
inverters) that control the cycle rate of the AC power to the motor.
 Motor speed is proportional to frequency, so changing the frequency changes the motor
speed.
 Advances in solid-state electronics have also improved speed control for AC motors, and
they are now competitive in some applications traditionally reserved for DC motors.
 ELECTRIC – STEPPER MOTORS
 Also called step motors and stepping motors, provides rotation in the form of discrete
angular displacements, called step angles.
 Each angular step is actuated by a discrete electrical pulse.
 The total angular rotation is controlled by the number of pulses received by the motor,
and rotational speed is controlled by the frequency of the pulses.
 The step angle is related to the number of steps for the motor according to the
relationship

where, a = the step angle, degrees, °;

ns = the number of steps for the stepper motor, which must
be an integer value
Typical values for the step angle in commercially available stepper motors are 7.5°, 3.6°, and
1.8°, corresponding to 48, 100, and 200 steps (pulses) per revolution of the motor.
 ELECTRIC – STEPPER MOTORS
 Used in open-loop control systems for applications in which torque and power
requirements are low to modest.
 Widely used in machine tools and other production machines, industrial robots, x–y
plotters, medical and scientific instruments, and computer peripherals.
 Probably the most common application is to drive the hands of analog quartz watches.
 ROTARY-TO-LINEAR MOTION CONVERSION
 Many actuator applications require linear motion and the application of force.
 A rotating motor can be used by converting its rotary motion into linear or translational
motion.
 The following are some of the common conversion mechanisms used:
 Leadscrews and Ball Screws - The motor shaft is connected to a leadscrew or ball
screw, which have helical threads throughout their lengths.
 Pulley Systems - The motor shaft is connected to the driver wheel in a pulley
system, around which a belt, chain, or other flexible material forms a loop with an
idler wheel.
 Rack and Pinion - The motor shaft is connected to a pinion gear that is mated with
a rack, which is a straight gear with tooth spacings that match those of the gear.
 ROTARY-TO-LINEAR MOTION CONVERSION
 The use of leadscrews and ball screws is most common in machine tools, industrial
robots, and other automation applications.
 A gear reduction box is often inserted between the motor shaft and the screw to reduce
speed and increase torque and precision.
 Ball screws are to leadscrews as ball bearings are to conventional sliding bearings.
 ROTARY-TO-LINEAR MOTION CONVERSION
 Pulley systems are common in material transport equipment such as belt and chain
conveyors and hoists.
 Belt-driven pulley systems can also be used for positioning.

 Rack-and-pinion mechanisms are found in gear systems, for example, rack-and-pinion

steering in automobiles.
 LINEAR MOTORS
 A linear electric motor provides a linear motion directly; it does not require a rotary-to-
linear conversion.
 Operation is similar to that of rotary electric motors, except that the ring-shaped stator
and cylindrical-shaped rotor are straight rather than circular.
 The rotor, known as the forcer in linear motor terminology, consists of wire windings
encased in a non-conducting material such as epoxy, and the magnetic field that drives
the forcer consists of a series of magnets contained in a straight track, which corresponds
to the stator
 Just as a rotary motor requires bearings to align the rotor inside the stator, creating a
small air gap between them, a linear motor requires straight guideways that support the
forcer and maintain a gap between it and the magnetic track.
 Linear encoders can be used to indicate the position & speed of the forcer along the track,
just as rotary encoders are used to determine angular position and speed of a rotary motor.
 LINEAR MOTORS
 Applications include mechanical and electronic assembly, metrology, and laser
positioning.
 One limitation is that they should not be used where vertical lifting is required, because if
power to the motor is lost, gravity would cause any load that had been lifted to fall.
 Linear motors are available in three styles:
a) Flat
b) U-channel
c) Cylindrical
 ELECTRIC ACTUATORS
There are other types of electrical actuators in addition to motors which include solenoids
and relays, which are electromagnetic devices like electric motors, but they operate
differently.
 Electromechanical Relay
 An on–off electrical switch consisting of two main components, a stationary coil and
a movable arm that can be made to open or close an electrical contact by means of a
magnetic field that is generated when current is passed through the coil.
 The reason for using a relay is that it can be operated with relatively low current
levels, but it opens and closes circuits that carry high currents and/or voltages.
 Relays are a safe way to remotely switch on and off equipment that requires high
electrical power.
 ELECTRIC ACTUATORS
 Solenoid
 Consists of a movable plunger inside a stationary wire
coil.
 When a current is applied to the coil, it acts as a magnet,
drawing the plunger into the coil.
 When current is switched off, a spring returns the plunger
to its previous position.
 Linear solenoids are often used to open and close valves in
fluid flow systems, such as chemical processing equipment
where, the solenoid provides a linear push or pull action.
 Rotary solenoids are also available to provide rotary
motion, usually over a limited angular range (e.g., neutral
position to between 25° and 90°).