Luminescence

LED

Optoelectronics an Introduction : Wilson

 pn Junction Energy Band Diagram
E (a ) E –E (b )
o o
p n
M
E E
c c e(V o– V )
eV o
Ec
Ec EFn
E Fp E Fp eV
E Fn Ev
Ev
E v
E
p n v p n

SCL I
V

E o
+E (c ) E +E (d )
o
E c E c
e (V o + V r) e (V o + V r)
T h e rm a l
E Fp EFp g e n e r a tio n
E c E
Ev E Ev
c
Fn E Fn

E v E v
p n p n

I = V e r y S m a ll
V r
V r

Energy band diagrams for a pn junction under (a) open circuit, (b) forward
bias and (c) reverse bias conditions. (d) Thermal generation of electron hole
pairs in the depletion region results in a small reverse current.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Energy Band Diagram of LED

Electron energy

p n+ p n+
Ec
eVo
Eg Ec
(a) EF EF Eg (b)
Ev h ­ E g
eVo
Ev

Distance into device V

Electron in CB
Hole in VB
(a) The energy band diagram of a p-n + (heavily n­type doped) junction without any bias.
Built­in potential Vo prevents electrons from diffusing from n + to p side. (b) The applied
bias reduces Vo and thereby allows electrons to diffuse, be injected, into the p­side.
Recombination around the junction and within the diffusion length of the electrons in the
p­side leads to photon emission.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 Light output Light output

Insulator (oxide)
p p
Epitaxial layers Epitaxial layer
n+ n+
n+
n+
Substrate Substrate

(a ) (b )
Metal electrode

A schematic illustration of typical planar surface emitting LED devices. (a) p­layer
grown epitaxially on an n + substrate. (b) First n + is epitaxially grown and then p region
is formed by dopant diffusion into the epitaxial layer.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 LED Device Structures

 LEDS are typically formed by epitaxially growing doped

semiconductors layers on suitable substrate. The substrate is
then essentially a mechanical support for the device

 However if the epi film and the substrate have mismatched

lattice sizes then the lattice strain on the LED leads to
crystalline defects that cause indirect recombination of EHPs
and a loss of electroluminescence (photon emission). Thus the
substrate is usually the same material as the epi layers

 To ensure that recombination occurs on the p side, the n side is

very heavily doped. Photons emitted toward the n side become
absorbed or reflected back at the substrate interface.

 The use of segmented metal electrodes on the back promotes

reflections 3
 Basics of Light Emitting Diodes

 LEDs are pn junctions usually made from direct bandgap semiconductors.

 Direct electron hole pair (EHP) recombination results in emission of a

photon
 Photon energy is approximately equal to the bandgap energy, Egh
 Application of a forward bias drops the depletion region allowing more
electrons into the p side of the device and increasing the probability of
recombination in the depletion region
 The recombination zone is called the active region and is the volume in
which photons are generated
 Light emission from EHP recombination as a result of minority carrier
injection as shown here is called injection electroluminescence
 The statistical nature of this process requires that the p side be sufficiently
narrow to prevent reabsorption of the emitted photons
 LED Efficiencies
The main function of an LED is to convert electrical energy into light in
the visible part of the spectrum for display and illumination purposes.
Different terms of LED efficiencies
1) Injection Efficiency (ηinj)

2) Internal Quantum Efficiency(ηi)/Recombination Efficiency/Radiative Efficiency(ηr)

3) Extraction Efficiency(ηe) / Optical Efficiency (ηop)

Net External Quantum Efficiency=(Internal Quantum Efficiency)×(Optical Efficiency)

4) Luminous Efficiency/ Luminosity (ηL)

5) Coupling Efficiency(ηC)
Knowing the origins of these efficiencies, optimization can be made
accordingly.
 Overall LED Efficiency

1) Injection Efficiency (ηinj)

2) Internal Quantum Efficiency(ηi)/Recombination Efficiency/Radiative Efficiency(ηr)

3) Extraction Efficiency(ηe) / Optical Efficiency (ηop)

Net External Quantum Efficiency=(Internal Quantum Efficiency)×(Optical Efficiency)

4) Luminous Efficiency/ Luminosity (ηL)

5) Coupling Efficiency(ηC)

Overall LED Efficiency, ηo = ηinj× ηr× ηop× ηL (considering eye response)

Injection Efficiency(ηinj)
 Injection Efficiency

For GaAs,
Injection efficiency ~0.8 can be easily achieved
For GaP, internally generated photon efficiency
0.6 to 0.8
 Internal Quantum Efficiency(ηin)/ Recombination Efficiency/
Radiative Efficiency(ηr)

Internal Quantum Efficiency:

For a given input power, the radiative recombination
processes are in direct competition with the nonradiative
ones. Each of the band­to­band transitions and
transitions via traps can be either radiative or
nonradiative. Examples of nonradiative band­to­band
recombination are those in indirect­bandgap
semiconductors.
Conversely, examples of radiative recombination via
traps are those via isoelectronic levels.
 Internal Quantum Efficiency(ηin)/ Recombination
Efficiency/ Radiative Efficiency(ηr)

The internal quantum efficiency is the efficiency of converting carrier

current to photons, defined as

The main non radiative processes in LEDs:

 Schockley­Read­Hall recombination
 Recombination via surface states
 Band­to­band and trap assisted Auger
recombination
Band-to-band absorption and recombination
process in Semiconductors

Band­to­band
absorption and
recombination
process in a)
Direct and
b & c) Indirect
Semiconductors
Capture/Emission via Traps

(Physiscs of Semiconductor
Devices: Michael Shur)
Recombination/Generation
Radiative recombination

(Physiscs of Semiconductor
Devices: Michael Shur)
The four basic trapping and emission processes
 Basic Trapping and Emission Processes

• The four basic processes are as follows:

• Process 1: The capture of an electron from the conduction band
by an initially neutral empty trap.
• Process 2: The inverse of process 1— the emission of an
electron that is initially occupying a trap level back into the
conduction band.
• Process 3: The capture of a hole from the valence band by a
trap containing an electron.
• Process 4: The inverse of process 3— the emission of a hole
from a neutral trap into the valence band. e-,hole are being
lost ie recombined
• Process 1 and 3 forward bias (recombination)
• Process 2 and 4 reverse bias (generation)
 Rate of Capture/Emission

• In process 1, the rate at which electrons from the

conduction band are captured by the traps is
proportional to the density of electrons in the
conduction band and proportional to the density of
empty trap states.

• For process 2, the rate at which electrons are emitted

from filled traps back into the conduction band is
proportional to the number of filled traps.
Generation

Current in a
reverse-biased p-n
junction due to
thermal generation
of carriers by
(a) band-to-band
EHP generation,
and (b) generation
from a recombination
level.
I-V Characteristics
 Auger Recombination
due to high P- type
due to high N type
doping
doping

(Physiscs of Semiconductor Devices: Michael Shur)

Auger Recombination

Carrier concentration (n) dependent

total recombination rate leading to
spontaneous emission,

R(n)= An+Bn2+Cn3

1st term, accounts for SRH

recombination at defects/traps
2nd term, spontaneous radiative
recombination
3rd term, accounts for Auger
recombination

C-conduction
H: Heavy-hole
L: Light-hole
S: Split-off bands

(Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices: Bhattacharya)

Auger Recombination

(Physiscs of Semiconductor Devices: Michael Shur)

 Internal Quantum Efficiency(ηin)/ Recombination
Efficiency/ Radiative Efficiency(ηr)

Related to the fraction of the injected carriers that combine radiatively to the
total recombination rate,

Rr and Rnr, are the radiative and nonradiative recombination rates,

τr, and τnr, are radiative and nonradiative lifetimes.
For low­level injection, the radiative recombination rate in the p­side of the
junction is given by, Rr=Recnp≈ Rec∆nNA,
Rec is the recombination coefficient and ∆n is the excess carrier density which
is much larger than the minority carrier density in equilibrium ∆n >> np0.
Rec, is a function of the band structure and temperature.
(Rec ≈ 10­10cm3/s for direct­bandgap materials, and ≈ 10­15cm3/s for indirect­
bandgap materials.)
 Internal Quantum Efficiency(ηin)/ Recombination
Efficiency/ Radiative Efficiency(ηr)

For low­level injection (∆n < pp0,), the radiative lifetime τr, is related to the
recombination coefficient by,

The nonradiative lifetime is usually attributed to traps (of density Nt) or

recombination centers,

σ is the capture cross section.

The radiative lifetime τr, needs to be small to yield high internal quantum
efficiency.
 Net external quantum efficiency (ηex)
External Quantum Efficiency:
the optics inside and outside the device has to be considered. The
parameter to measure the efficiency of getting the light out externally is
the optical efficiency ηop, sometimes called the extraction efficiency.
With this factored in, the net external quantum efficiency is defined as

Where,
 Major Loss Mechanisms
Three major loss mechanisms reduce the quantity of emitted photons:
(1) absorption within the LED material,
(2) Fresnel loss, and
(3) critical­angle loss.
The absorption loss for LEDs on GaAs substrates is large since the substrate
is opaque to light and it absorbs about 85% of the photons emitted at the
junction.
For LEDs on transparent substrates such as GaP with isoelectronic centers,
photons emitted downward can be reflected back with only about 25%
absorption; the efficiency can be significantly improved.

The Fresnel loss is due to internal reflection back to the semiconductor.

The third loss mechanism is caused by the total internal reflection of photons
incident to the surface at angles greater than the critical angle, θc.
PL and Absorption (GaP/GaAs)

(1) absorption within the LED material,

The absorption loss for LEDs on GaAs
substrates is large since the substrate is
opaque to light and it absorbs about 85%
of the photons emitted at the junction.
For LEDs on transparent substrates such as
GaP with isoelectronic centers, photons
emitted downward can be reflected back
with only about 25% absorption; the
efficiency can be significantly improved.
Optical Paths at the Semiconductor/Ambient Interface

.
A: Normal incidence has
little effect.
B: Angles of refraction
(θ0>θs) corresponding to
Snell's law.
C: Ray outside the lighte­
scape cone (θs>θc) has
total reflection
 Fresnel Loss and Critical Angle Loss

(Physics of Semiconductor Devices:Sze and Ng )

 Optical Efficiency

The optical efficiency due to the critical­angle loss, ignoring the absorption
loss and the Fresnel loss for the sake of simplicity
 The solid angle of the light­escape cone can be calculated to be
Solid angle = 2 π (1 ­ cos θc)
The total solid angle from a point source is 4π, the optical efficiency can be
simply given by the fraction

(Series expansion for cosθ, has been used.)

For a typical semiconductor LED with planar surface, it is seen here that the
optical efficiency is only in the order of 2%.
 Light Emission Pattern

• One interesting phenomenon arising from the Snell's law is that even
though light inside the semiconductor has uniform intensity, light emitted
into the ambient after refraction at the interface has an angle dependence. It
has a maximum intensity when the light is normal to the interface, and
decreases when the angle θ0 is increased.
• Equating the light energy below and above the interface, it can be shown
that for a common planar LED structure, the emitted light intensity has an
angle dependence of

where Ps, is the power of the light source and r the distance of the surface
from the source. Such an emission pattern is called the Lambertian emission
pattern
 Cross section of three LEDs

Cross section of three LEDs (a) hemisphere (b) Truncated sphere (c)
Paraboloid.
Radiation Pattern of LEDs

Fig. LED structures for optical­

efficiency consideration:
(a) Planar.
(b) hemispherical.
(c) Parabolic
(d) Their normalized Lambertian
emission patterns. (Physics of
Semiconductor Devices:Sze and
Ng )
Radiation Pattern of LEDs
 LED Encapsulation

(a) (b) (c)

Light output Plastic dome
Light Domed
semiconductor

p
pn Junction
n+
n+
Substrate
Electrodes Electrodes

(a) Some light suffers total internal reflection and cannot escape. (b) Internal reflections
can be reduced and hence more light can be collected by shaping the semiconductor into a
dome so that the angles of incidence at the semiconductor­air surface are smaller than the
critical angle. (b) An economic method of allowing more light to escape from the LED is
to encapsulate it in a transparent plastic dome.

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

Luminous Efficiency (ηL)
 Radiometric and Photometric Relation

The lumen, according to CIE standard, is defined as follows:

At 555 nm, at the peak response of photopic vision sensitivity, 1 watt
radiometric flux produces 683 lumens of photometric flux, or
1 lumen= 1/683 W at 555 nm
Photon energy at 555 nm is
E=hν=hc/λ= (6.626×10 ­34)(3×108)/(555 ×10­9)= 3.582 ×10­19 J
1 lumen= 1/683 W = 1.464 ×10­3 W or J/s
Therefore, n= 1.464 ×10­3 / 3.582 ×10­19 = 4.087 ×1015 photons/s
Therefore, the lumen is equivalent to a flux 4.087 ×1015 photons/s of at
555nm

The International Commission on Illumination ­ also known as the CIE from

its French title, the Commission Internationale de l´Eclairage ­ publishes
standards guiding the science and art of light and lighting, color and vision,
photobiology and image technology.
Luminous Efficiency (ηL)
 Power Efficiency (ηP)

The power efficiency ηP is simply defined as the ratio of the light power
output to the electrical power input

Since the bias is approximately equal to the energy gap and light energy (qV =
hν), it follows that the power efficiency is similar to the external quantum
efficiency

The Responsivity, ℛ, of an LED is defined as the ratio of the optical power

output P0=Φ0hν to the injection current I.
ℛ = P0 /I =Φ0hν /I= η0hν /q=1.24 η0/λ (μm) (W/A)
 Energy Band Diagram of a pn+ Junction

Figure (a) The energy band diagram of a pn+ junction without any bias. Built­in
potential Vo prevents electrons from diffusing from n+ to p­side.
(b) V reduces Vo and thereby allows electrons to diffuse, be injected, into the p­
side. Recombination around the junction and within the diffusion length of the
electrons in the p­side leads to spontaneous photon emission.
(c) Quasi­Fermi levels EFp and EFn for holes and electrons across a forward­
biased pn­junction.
 Double Heterojunction LED (DHLED)

in active region
hence radiative
recomb rate incr.

Higher carrier densities and improved carrier confinement in a double

heterojunction.
pn junction and DH LED

(a) Under forward bias

of a p­n junction,
electrons injected
from n­side
recombine with holes
injected from p­side.
(b) Higher carrier
densities and
improved carrier
confinement in a
double
heterojunction.
 Homojunction vs. heterojunction LEDS

 Require narrow p type wells to

channel photons out of the device in
order to avoid absorption
 Narrow channels lead to nonradiative homojunction
recombination of electrons that reach
defects located at the top surface of
the p‐type material, thereby reducing
efficiency
 Heterostructure devices (HD) are
devices between two different
bandgap semiconductors such as heterojunction
AlGaAs and GaAs

11
Double Heterojunction LED (DHLED)

DH
 Double Heterojunction LED (DHLED)

60­70 m

L
Stripe electrode
Insulation
+
p ­InP (Eg = 1.35 eV, Cladding layer)
+
p ­InGaAsP (Eg  1 eV, Confining layer)
n­InGaAs (Eg  0.83 eV, Active layer)
n+­InGaAsP (Eg  1 eV, Confining layer) 2 1 3
n+­InP (Eg = 1.35 eV, Cladding/Substrate) Current 200­300 m
Electrode Substrate
paths

Cleaved reflecting surface

Light beam Active region (emission region)

Schematic illustration of the the structure of a double heterojunction stripe

contact edge emitting LED
© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)
 DH LEDS
 Adding a double heterostructure (DH) reduces non radiative recombination
 Confining layer
 Introduces a higher bandgap behind the pn junction that localizes the optical
generation region.
 Since the bandgap of AlGaAs is larger than that of GaAs emitted photons cannot
get reabsorbed in the AlGaAs regions
 Metal reflects light from the back side
 the confining layer improving efficiency
 n+ layer is used as top side of the device to reduce lattice defects in the active
region and improve device efficiency
 The refractive index, n, depends directly on the bandgap.
 Cladding layer
 wide bandgap semiconductors have lower refractive indices.
 design the dielectric waveguide within the device and channel the photons out from
the recombination region
 LEDs for Optical Fiber Communications
Light
For optical communications

For short-haul applications, for example, Light

local networks, LEDs are preferred: Double

heterostructure

 they are simpler to drive, (a) Surface emitting LED (b) Edge emitting LED

© 1999 S.O. Kasap,Optoelectronics(Prentice Hall)

 more economic,
 have a longer lifetime, and
 provide the necessary output power even though their output spectrum is
much wider than that of a laser diode.
For long-haul and wide-bandwidth communications,
laser diodes (LDs) are used because of their
 narrow linewidth,
 high output power, and
 higher signal bandwidth capability.
Surface Emitter and Edge Emitter DHLED

Light

Light
Double
heterostructure

(a) Surface emitting LED (b) Edge emitting LED

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

LED structures showing the direction of emitted light from

(a) surface emitter and
(b) edge emitter.
 Surface Emitter and Edge Emitter DHLED

Fiber (multimode)
Fiber
Epoxy resin
Microlens (Ti2O3:SiO2 glass)
Electrode

Etched well
Double heterostructure
SiO2 (insulator)
Electrode
(b)
(a)
Light is coupled from a surface emitting LED A microlens focuses diverging light from a surface
into a multimode fiber using an index matching emitting LED into a multimode optical fiber.
epoxy. The fiber is bonded to the LED
structure.

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

LEDs are frequently used with graded index fibers.

 Surface Emitter and Edge Emitter DHLED
Coupling the radiation from a surface- Epoxy resin
Fiber (multimode)

Electrode
Fiber

M ic ro le n s (T i2O 3:S iO 2 g la s s)

emitting LED into an optical fiber is to etch Etched well

Double heterostructure
S iO 2 (in s u la to r)
Electrode

a well in the planar LED structure and lower

(b)
(a)
Light is coupled from a surface emitting LED A microlens focuses diverging light from a surface
into a multimode fiber using an index matching emitting LED into a multimode optical fiber.
epoxy. The fiber is bonded to the LED
structure.

the fiber into the well as close as possible to

© 1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

the active region where emission occurs. LEDs are frequently used with
This type of structure is called a Burrus- graded index fibers.
type device (after its originator).
An epoxy resin is used to bond the fiber and provide refractive index
matching between the glass fiber and the LED material to capture as much of
the light rays as possible. The photons emitted from the active region, with a
smaller bandgap, do not get absorbed by the neighboring layer with a wider
bandgap.
Another method is to use a truncated spherical lens (a microlens) with a high
refractive index (n = 1.9 - 2) to focus the light into the fiber. The lens is
bonded to the LED with a refractive index– matching cement and, in addition,
the fiber can be bonded to the lens with a similar cement.
 A Graded Index (GRIN) Rod Lens
GRIN-rod lens
Lens Single mode fiber
ELED Multimode fiber ELED
Generally some kind of lens
Active layer
system is used to
conveniently couple the
(a) (b)
Light from an edge emitting LED is coupled into a fiber typically by using a lens or a emitted radiation from an
GRIN rod lens.
ELED into a fiber.
© 1999 S.O. Kasap,Optoelectronics(Prentice Hall)

For example a hemispherical lens attached to the fiber end is used for
collimating the beam into the fiber. A graded index (GRIN) rod lens is a
glass rod that has a parabolic refractive index profile across its cross-section
with the maximum index on the rod axis.
It is like a large diameter short length graded index “fiber” (typical diameters
are 0.5–2 mm). A GRIN rod lens can be used to focus the light from an
ELED into a fiber. This coupling is particularly useful for single mode fibers.
Their core diameters are typically 10 μm.
(a) Energy band diagram of a semiconductor, assuming that the Fermi level is near the
middle of the bandgap.
(b) Density of states (number of states per unit energy per unit volume).
(c) Fermi–Dirac probability function (probability of occupancy of a state).
(d) The product of g(E) and f (E) is the energy density of electrons in the CB (number of
electrons per unit energy per unit volume). The area under nE (E) vs. E is the electron
concentration.
Band Diagram, Density of States, Fermi-Dirac Distribution, The
Carrier Concentrations

Schematic band
diagram, density of
states, Fermi-Dirac
distribution, and the
carrier concentrations
for
(a) intrinsic,
(b) n-type, and
(c) p-type
semiconductors
at thermal
equilibrium.
 Output Spectrum

(a) Energy band diagram with possible recombination paths. (b) Energy distribution of
electrons in the CB and holes in the VB. The highest electron concentration is (1/2)
kBT above Ec. (c) A simplified E–k diagram and direct recombination paths in which k
is conserved. (d) The relative light intensity as a function of photon energy
 Output Spectrum
The electron concentration as a
function of energy in the CB is
given by g(E)f(E), where g(E) is
the density of states in the CB and
f(E) is the Fermi–Dirac function
(probability of finding an electron
in a state with energy E). The
product g(E) f(E) represents the
electron concentration per unit
energy, nE(E)
 CB conduction as a function of energy is asymmetrical with a peak at 1/2kBTabove
Ec
 The energy spread of electrons is typically 1.8 kBT ~2kBT . (m kBT)
 Similar observation is made in the VB.
 Highest energy photon emissions have small probability
 Highest intensity comesfrom largest carrier concentration
 Intensity falls off again with carrier concentration near the CB band edge
 Output Spectrum

LED spectrum in frequency

Output Spectrum
 LED Device Characteristics

 CB conductionas a function of energy is asymmetrical with a peak at 1/2kBTabove Ec

 The energy spread of electrons is typically2kBT
 Similar observation is made in the VB.
 Highest energy photon emissions have small probability
 Highest intensity comesfrom largest carrier concentration
 Intensity falls off again with carrierconcentration near the CB band edge
(a) Forward-biased degenerately doped pn junction. The bandgap E΄g is narrower
than that in the undoped bulk crystal. The quasi-Fermi levels EFn and EFp
overlap around the junction.
(b) The transitions involved in a degenerately doped pn junction.
Electrons occupy states from the CB edge Ec up to about 1.5kBT above EFn.
The emission spectrum will extend from hν ≈ Eg to about Eg + EFn+ 1.5kBT
so the width is roughly EFn + 1.5kBT.
GaAs LED Emission Spectra

GaAs diode emission

spectra at T =300 K
and T =77 K.
(From Sze and Ng [17].)
Emission Spectra with Temp
Emission Spectra for SLED and ELED

LED structures
showing the
direction of emitted
light from
(a) surface emitter
and
(b) edge emitter.
 Emission Spectra for SLED and ELED

The output spectra from surface and

edge-emitting LEDs using the same
semiconductor material are not
necessarily the same.

The first reason is that the active layers have different doping levels. The
second is the self-absorption of some of the photons guided along the active
layer as in the ELED. Typically the linewidth of the output spectrum from an
ELED is Less than that from a SLED. For example, in a particular set of
experiments on an InGaAsP ELED operating near 1300 nm, the emission
linewidth was reported as 75 nm whereas the corresponding SLED at the
same wavelength had a linewidth of 125 nm, which is significantly wider.
 LED Device Characteristics
Spread of available carrier
recombination probabilities generates
a spread in optical wavelength emitted

Linewidth of the spectral output

istypically between 2.5 and 3.5kBT

 The relative intensity does not match the probabilistic intensity

 This is due to the fact that as heavily doped n type semiconductors used to
create efficiency in active p‐type regions create a donor band that
overlaps the conduction band and lowers the effective output wavelength
 Turn on voltage is achieved at low operating currents and remains flat as
current is increased
 Below the turn on voltage, no light is emitted
 The number of populated electrons in the p‐ type region CB increases and
thus the relative light intensity also increases with increasing current
 Quantum Well High Intensity LEDs

A single quantum well (SQW) of a smaller bandgap material (Eg1) of

thickness d along x surrounded by a thicker material of wider bandgap (Eg2).
 Quantum Well High Intensity LEDs

(b) The electron energy levels associated with motion along x are quantized as
E1, E2, E3, etc. Each level is characterized by a quantum number n.
(c) The density of states for a bulk semiconductor and a QW.
 Quantum Well High Intensity LEDs
The energy of the
electron in the QW must
reflect its 1D
quantization in the x-
direction, and its
freedom in the yz plane.
If En is the electron
energy in the well, then

where n is a quantum number having the values 1, 2, . , and ky (kz) are the
wave vectors of the electron along y (z) directions. PE barriers are Ec along x
and electron affinity (energy required to take the electron from Ec to vacuum)
along y and z. The second term is the energy of an electron in an infinite PE
well, whereas we have a finite PE well of depth Ec. Thus, the second term is
only an approximation. The minimum energy E1 corresponds to n = 1 and is
above Ec of the Eg1-semiconductor. For any given n value, we have a sub-band
of energies due to ky and kz terms in Eq.
 Quantum Well High Intensity LEDs

An infinite potential energy quantum

well with dimensions d along x, and D y

and D along y and z directions.

z

The energy of an electron with respect

to the bottom of the well is then given
by

where n, ny, and nz are quantum numbers having the values 1, 2, 3, …

Typical value about d = 10 nm, Dx = Dy = 2 μm, and me* = 0.067me.
Quantum Well High Intensity LEDs

The charge carriers that are

brought in by the current fall
into the lowest energy level in
the well and then recombine,
emitting a photon. The
electrons at a particular
energy level also have kinetic
energies in the yz plane,
which is not quantized. The
electrons are therefore spread
in energy above En. The same
notion also applies to holes in
the Ev well.
 Quantum Well High Intensity LEDs

The comparison of light power output vs. current characteristics for an SQW
and an MQW LED
Energy levels in the quantum well
 LED Materials

LED materials from the visible spectrum to the infrared, including wavelengths
used in optical communications. Grey region and dashed lines are indirect Eg
materials. Only material compositions of importance have been shown.
 LED Structures

A schematic illustration of various typical LED structures.

(a) A planar surface-emitting homojunction green GaP:N LED.
(b) AlGaInP high-intensity heterostructure LED.
(c) III-Nitride-based (GaN/InGaN) MQW LED for emission from the UV to
green.
 LED Structures
(a) Some of the internally generated light
suffers TIR at the semiconductor–air
interface and cannot be emitted into the
outside.
(b) A simple structure that overcomes the TIR
problem by placing a hemispherical plastic
dome. The epoxy is refractive index matched
to the semiconductor and the rays reaching
the dome’s surface do not suffer TIR.

(c) An example of a textured surface that allows light to escape after a couple
of (or more) reflections.
(d) A distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) under the confining layer (below the
active region in grey) acts as a dielectric mirror, and increases the extraction
ratio.
(e) An RCLED is an LED with an optical resonant cavity (RC) formed by two
DBRs has a narrower emission spectrum.
Light Extraction Ratio
Up Converter
LED Efficiencies
LED Efficiencies and Luminous Flux
LED Efficiencies and Luminous Flux
The Luminous Efficacy
The Luminous Efficiency of the Light-Adapted (Photopic) Eye
Progression of LED Luminous Efficiency

Progression
of LED
luminous
efficiency
with time
 External Quantum and Luminous Efficiency

Typical (a) external quantum efficiency and (b) luminous efficacy of various selected
LEDs, and how they stand against other light sources such as the fluorescent tube, arc,
and gas discharge lamps and the incandescent lamp.
LED Efficiencies
LED Brightness
 LED Current-Voltage Characteristics

Current-voltage characteristics of a few LEDs emitting at different

wavelengths from the IR to blue.
The Emitted Optical Output Power vs. DC Current

Log-log plot of the emitted optical

output power vs. DC current for
three commercial devices emitting
at IR (890 nm), red and green. The
vertical scale is in arbitrary units
and the curves have been shifted to
show the dependence of Po on I.
The ideal linear behavior Po∞I is
also shown.
 Phosphors and White LEDs

(a) A simplified energy diagram to explain the principle of photoluminescence. The activator
is pumped from E1΄ to E2΄́́ . It decays nonradiately down to E2΄. The transition from E2΄
down to E1΄́́ emits a photon with a lower energy than the excitation photon.
(b) Schematic structure of a blue chip yellow phosphor white LED
(c) The spectral distribution of light emitted by a white LED. Blue luminescence is emitted by
GaInN chip and “yellow” phosphorescence is produced by phosphor. The combined
spectrum looks “white.”
Franck–Condon principle

The Franck–Condon principle is a rule

in spectroscopy and quantum
chemistry that explains the intensity of
vibronic transitions. Vibronic
transitions are the simultaneous
changes in electronic and vibrational
energy levels of a molecule due to the
absorption or emission of a photon of
the appropriate energy. The principle
states that during an electronic
transition, a change from one
vibrational energy level to another will
be more likely to happen if the two
vibrational wave functions overlap
more significantly
Franck–Condon principle

Classically, the Franck–Condon principle is

the approximation that an electronic
transition is most likely to occur without
changes in the positions of the nuclei in the
molecular entity and its environment. The
resulting state is called a Franck–Condon
state, and the transition involved, a vertical
transition. The quantum mechanical
formulation of this principle is that the
intensity of a vibronic transition is
proportional to the square of the overlap
integral between the vibrational
wavefunctions of the two states that are
involved in the transition.
 Phosphors and White LEDs

 Typically, a phosphor is composed of an inorganic host substance that

contains optically active dopants; the dopants are the atoms that emit the
lower energy photons, that is, the activators.
 Yttrium aluminum garnet (YAG) is a common host material. For white LED
applications, it is usually doped with one of the rare-earth elements or a rare-
earth compound.
 Cerium (Ce) is a common dopant element in YAG phosphors designed for
white light–emitting diodes in so- called blue chip and yellow phosphor
white LEDs.
 White LEDs are now challenging the existing incandescent sources for
general lighting.
 In applications requiring a full spectrum of colors from a single point source,
red, green, and blue (RGB)–emitting chips in a single package are used.
 White Light LEDs
 One important application is to use white-light LEDs for general-purpose
high brightness illumination. It is in direct competition with conventional
lightings, i.e., incandescent and fluorescent lightings. Examples of day-to-
day usage are house lamps, decorative lights, flashlights, outdoor signs,
automobile headlights, etc.
 White light can be produced by mixing two or three colors of an appropriate
intensity ratio.
 There are basically two approaches to achieve while light. The first is to
combine LEDs of different colors: red, green, and blue.
 This is not a popular approach since it is more costly, and mixing of multiple
colors of narrow bandwidth does not produce good color rendering. The
second approach, most commonly used, is to have a single LED covered
with a color converter. A color converter is a material that absorbs the
original LED light and emits light of different frequency. The converter
material can be phosphor, organic dye, or another semiconductor. Of the
three materials, phosphor is the most common.
 White Light LEDs

 One popular version is to use a blue LED together with a yellow

phosphor. In this scheme, the LED light is partially absorbed by
phosphor.
 The blue LED light is mixed with yellow light produced by the
phosphor to give white light.
 Another version is to use a UV LED.
 The LED light is completely absorbed by the phosphor, and a
wide spectrum of light is reproduced that emulates white light.
 Phosphors and White LEDs

 Photoluminescence is the emission of light by a material, called a phosphor,

that has been first excited by light of higher frequency; higher energy
photons are first absorbed, and then lower energy photons are emitted.
 Typically the emission of light occurs from certain dopants, impurities, or
even defects, called luminescent or luminescence centers, introduced into a
host matrix, which may be a crystal or glass. The luminescent center is also
called an activator. Many phosphors are based on activators doped into a
host matrix; for example, Eu3+ (europium ion) in a Y2O3 (yttrium oxide)
matrix is a widely used modern phosphor. When excited by UV radiation, it
provides an efficient luminescence emission in the red (around 613 nm).
 It is used as the red-emitting phosphor in color TV tubes and in modern
tricolor fluorescent lamps.
 Another important phosphor is Ce3+ in Y3Al5O12 (YAG), written as
Y3Al5O12 : Ce3+, which is used in white LEDs.
 YAG: Ce3+ can absorb blue radiation and emit yellow light.
Phosphors and White LEDs
 Phosphors and White LEDs

 The energy of an activator in a host matrix by the highly simplified energy

diagram in Figure 3.48 (a).
 very roughly represent the energy of Ce3+ in YAG.
 There are actually two manifolds of energies involved in blue absorption and
yellow emission.
 There is a manifold of energies, labeled E1, starting at E1, which represents
the ground energy of the activator.
 There is a higher manifold of energies, labeled E2, starting at E2.
 A manifold such as E1 has a number of energy levels that are closely spaced.
 Phosphors and White LEDs

 The energy levels within the E1- and E2-manifolds represent the
vibrational energies of the Ce3+-ion in the host (YAG).
 The slight horizontal shifts in the energy levels in a manifold indicate the
relative position (or the tiny little displacement) of the Ce3+ ion in the host.
 Radiative transitions (absorption or emission of a photon) occur quickly
compared with the time scale of vibrations of the Ce3+ -ion so that, during
the radiative transition, the Ce3+ ion is essentially stationary.
 Thus, these radiative transitions are vertical lines in the activator energy
diagram; this rule is called the Franck–Condon principle.
 Phosphors and White LEDs

 The slight horizontal shifts in the energy levels in a manifold indicate the
relative position (or the tiny little displacement) of the Ce3+ ion in the host.
 Radiative transitions (absorption or emission of a photon) occur quickly
compared with the time scale of vibrations of the Ce3+ -ion so that, during
the radiative transition, the Ce3+ ion is essentially stationary.
Phosphors and White LEDs
9
2
LEDMaterials
 Various direct bandgap semiconductor pn GaAs1 y Py
junctions can be used to make LEDs that
emit in the red and infra red range y  0.45
 III‐V ternary alloys based on GaAs and   870nm
GaP allow light in the visiblespectrum
 Doping of Ga materials with different As,
P, and Al ratios maintains thelattice
constant while allowing for precise control
of the bandgap (photon energyemitted)
 GaAsP with As concentrations greater than
0.55% are direct band gap semiconductors
 GaAsP with As concentrations less than
0.55% are indirect band gap
semiconductors
 However, adding isoelectronic impurities
such as N (same grp V as P) into the
semiconductor to substitute for P atoms
provides a trap for indirect EC
recombination and generates direct
bandgap emission between the trap and
the hole.
 Reduces light efficiency and alters
wavelength
9
3 LED Materials(cont.)

 Blue LED materials

 GaN is a direct bandgap with Eg =
3.4eV
 InGaN alloy has Eg = 2.7 eV (blue)
 Less efficient is Al doped SiC (indirect)
 Aluminum captures holes and in a
similar manner to N in GaAsPN
materials and reduces the effective
direct emission energy and efficiency
of thedevice
 II‐VI ZnSe semiconductors provide a
direct bandgap blue emission
9
4 LED Materials (cont.)

 Red and Infrared

 Three to four element alloys.
 Al1‐xGaxAs with x<0.43 gives 870nm
 Composition variances provide 650 – 870 nm
 In1‐xGaxAl1‐yPy can be varied to span 870 nm (GaAs) to 3.5 um (InAs)
9
5 LED Materials(cont.)
 LightEmitting Materials andEfficiency
• External efficiency
Color Wavelength Voltage Semiconductor Material Gallium arsenide
– Quantifies the efficiency of [nm] [V] (GaAs)
conversion from electrical Infrared
Aluminium gallium arsenide(AlGaAs)
energy into emittedexternal λ > 760 ΔV < 1.9
Aluminiumgallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
optical energy Gallium arsenide phosphide(GaAsP)
Red 610 < λ <760 1.63 < ΔV <2.03
external  Pou(tOptical)  100% Aluminium gallium indium phosphide
(AlGaInP)
IV Gallium(III) phosphide(GaP)
– Typically less than 20% for Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Orange 590 < λ <610 2.03 < ΔV <2.10
direct bandgapsemiconductors Aluminium gallium indium phosphide
– Less than 1% for indirect (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide(GaP)
bandgap semiconductors Yellow 570 < λ <590 2.10 < ΔV <2.18 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
• Efficiency has been increased Aluminium gallium indium phosphide
by altering the shape, (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide(GaP)
periodicity,and material Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)/Gallium(III)
interfaces within adevice Green 500 < λ <570 1.9[29] < ΔV <4.0 nitride (GaN)
Gallium(III) phosphide(GaP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide
(AlGaInP) Aluminium gallium
• White light(wikipedia) phosphide(AlGaP)
• There are two primary ways of Blue 450 < λ <500 2.48 < ΔV <3.7 Zinc selenide (ZnSe)
producing high intensity Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) Silicon
white‐light using LEDs. One is carbide (SiC) assubstrate
Violet 400 < λ <450 2.76 < ΔV <4.0
to use individual LEDs that emit Silicon (Si) as substrate — (under
three primary colors[36] – red, development)
Purple multiple types 2.48 < ΔV <3.7
green, and blue, and then mix Indium gallium nitride(InGaN) Dual
all the colors to produce white blue/red LEDs,
light. The other is to use a blue with redphosphor,
phosphor material to convert Ultraviolet λ< 3.1 < ΔV or white with purpleplastic
monochromatic light from a blue 400 <4.4 diamond (C) Aluminium nitride(AlN)
or UV LED to broad‐spectrum Aluminium gallium nitride(AlGaN)
white light, much in the same White Broadspectrum ΔV = Aluminium gallium indium nitride
way a fluorescent light bulb 3.5
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light‐emitting
(AlGaInN) — (down to 210 nm[30])
works. _diode
Blue/UV diode with yellowphosphor
99
LED Electronics

(a) The circuit to drive an LED

involves connecting it to a voltage
supply (V) through a resistor R.
(b). Bipolar junction transistors are
well suited for supplying a constant
current. Using an IC and negative
feedback, the current is linearly
controlled by V.
(c) There are various commercial
LED driver modules that can be easily
configured to drive a number of LEDs
in parallel and/or series. The example
has a module driving four LEDs, a
dimmer (R), and an on /off switch.
DH LED
Surface Emitter LED
Edge Emitter LED
 Truncated stripe Edge Emitter LED

The stripe geometry of the edge emitter allows very high

carrier injection densities for given drive currents.
Superluminescent LED (SLD)

Superluminescent LED
structures:
(a) AlGaAs contact
stripe SLD

(b) High output power

InGaAsP SLD
Surface, Edge Emitter and Superluminescent LED
LED Characteristics
LED Characteristics
 LED Characteristics

Light output (power) against d.c. drive current for typically LEDs
(a) an A1GaAs surface emitter with a 50 μm diameter dot contact;
(b) an AlGaAs edge emitter with a 65 μm wide stripe and 100 μm length
LED Characteristics

Light output temperature

dependence for three
important LED structures
emitting at a wavelength
of 1.3 μm
 LED Characteristics

Output power of an AlGaInP LED at two different operating

temperatures
LED Output Spectrum

LED output
spectra for an
InGaAsP
surface emitter
showing both
the lightly
doped and
heavily doped
cases.
 LED Output Spectrum

Typical spectral output characteristics for InGaAsP surface- and edge

emitting LEDs operating in the 1.3 μm wavelength region
 LED Output Spectrum

Typical spectral variation of the output characteristic with

temperature for an AlGaAs surface-emitting LED
 Space Charge Recombination Current

 From Shockley-Read-Hall theory, the current due to space

charge recombination is given by

I rec= qW/2 s vth NT ni A (exp(qVf/2kBT)-1)

where s and NT are, respectively, the capture cross section and

density of the recombination center/traps that are present
vth = (3kBT/m*)1/2 is the thermal velocity of the carriers
ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration
A and W are the area and depletion layer width, respectively
Vf is the applied forward voltage
 Responsivity of an LED

 The Responsivity of an LED is defined as the ratio of the

emitted optical power P0 to the injection current I.

ℛ= P0/I = Φ0hν/nq= (Φ0/n) (hν/q) =η0 (hν/q)

= 1243 η0 /λ(nm) (W /A)
 Optical Power Output and Optical Bandwidth of an LED

 (a) Sinusoidal modulation of an LED.

 (b) The frequency response where fc is the cutoff frequency at which Po( f )/Po(0) is
0.707.
 (c) The electrical power output from the detector as a function of frequency. At fc, [Iph(f)
/Iph(0)]2 is 0.5.
 Optical Power Output and Optical Bandwidth of an LED

 Fig: An LED in a digital circuit is turned on and off by a logic gate,

assumed to have a buffered output as shown, to avoid being loaded. A BJT
can be used after the logic gate to drive the LED as well. Definitions of rise
and fall times are shown in the light output pulse.
 Most LED data sheets quote the rise and fall times tR and tF for LEDs that
have been pulsed. tR is the rise time from 10% to 90% of the final pulse
height. Similarly the fall time tF is the time it takes for the pulse to drop
from its 90% to 10% value before the turn-off was triggered
 Modulation Bandwidth

The frequency response for an optical fiber system showing the

electrical and optical bandwidths
Modulation Bandwidth: Electrical
Modulation Bandwidth: Optical
Modulation
Bandwidth