Measuring Earthquakes

Earthquakes are recorded by a seismographic

network. Each seismic station in the network
measures the movement of the ground at the site.
There are many different ways to measure
different aspects of an earthquake. The most
commonly indicators of the size of earthquake
are the
• Magnitude
• Intensity
 Measuring Earthquakes
Magnitude
• Measurement of actual physical energy released from its source as estimated from
instrumental observations.
• It is calculated from measurements of the ground vibrations recorded by seismographs.
• It gives an idea of the strength of an earthquake.
• It is based on the amplitude of the earthquake waves recorded on instruments which have a
common calibration.
• The magnitude of an earthquake is thus represented by a single, instrumentally determined
value.
• For an unit increase on the Magnitude, the energy released by an earthquake is
represented by logarithmic scale corresponds to a 101.5 about 32 times greater than the
unit below.
• So, a magnitude 6 earthquake releases 32 times as much energy than a magnitude 5
earthquake, and 1000 times as much energy as a magnitude 4 earthquake. This does not
mean there will be 1,000 times more shaking at your home. A bigger earthquake will last
longer and release its energy over a much larger area.
Several scales have been defined, but the most commonly used are
– Local magnitude (ML), commonly referred to as "Richter magnitude"
– Moment Magnitude Scale (Mw)
– Surface-wave magnitude (Ms)
– Body-wave magnitude (Mb)
 Measuring Earthquakes
Intensity：
• Measurement of the felt or the degree of earthquake shaking or effects of
earthquake at a given location based on the amount of damage.
• For the same earthquake, its intensity will vary from place to place depending on
the location of the observer with respect to the earthquake epicenter. Usually, it is
greatest near the epicentre, and it gets smaller further away.
• Intensity is not measured on instruments. It is worked out by considering the effects
of ground shaking on people, buildings and natural features.
Several formal intensity scales have been proposed for use in different parts of the
world.
Modified Mercalli (MM) Scale
• 12-point scale, ranges from barely perceptible earthquakes at MM I
to near total destruction at MM XII (Wood and Neumann 1931).
Cancani,1904 (Mercalli revised and amplified to XII degrees)
MCS, 1930: Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg (Cancani improved)

3
 Magnitude vs Intensity
The severity of an earthquake can be expressed in
terms of both intensity and magnitude.
• Magnitude refers to the force of the earthquake as a
whole, while intensity refers to the effects of an
earthquake at a particular site.
• An earthquake can have just one magnitude, while
intensity is usually strongest close to the epicenter & is
weaker the farther a site is from the epicenter.
• The intensity of an earthquake is more applicable to
its public health consequences than its magnitude.
 Intensity Scale vs Magnitude Scale
• Intensity Scales: Measure the degree of shaking and amount of DAMAGE done
– Modified Mercalli Scale
– RF, end ‘800 : Rossi and Forel, (X degrees)
– Mercalli, 1883, 1902 (RF revised)
– Cancani,1904 (Mercalli revised and amplified to XII degrees)
– MCS, 1930: Mercalli-Cancani-Sieberg (Cancani improved)
– MM, 1931, 1956: Modified Mercalli
– MSK, 1964: Medvedev, Sponheuer and Kárník (MCS, previous Medvedev scale,
Wood and Neumann and Richter’s work rearranged)
– EMS98, 1998: European Macroseismic scale (MSK revised, XII degrees)
– JMA, 1996: Japanese Meteorological Agency scale (9 degrees)
– INQUA Scale (International Union for Quaternary Research)
• Magnitude Scale: Relies on calculations of estimated energy released by seismic waves.
– Richter Scale
– Moment Magnitude scale
– Surface-wave magnitude
– Body-wave magnitude
The Richter scale - Most Widely Known Magnitude Scale
• Presented by Charles Richter in 1936.
• Open-ended scale, The oldest & most widely used.
• The seismic waves are measured by a seismograph.
• Denoted by ML or ML
• Calibrated from 0 to 9.
• Measure the interval (in seconds) between the arrival of the first P
and S waves.
• Measure the amplitude of the largest S waves.
• Use nomogram to estimate distance from earthquake (S-P
interval) and magnitude (join points on S-P interval scale and S
amplitude scale).
• Use seismograms from at least three geographic locations to
locate epicenter by triangulation.
The Richter scale - Most Widely Known Magnitude Scale

Nomogram
 Charles Richter
26 April 1900 – 30 September 1985

• Full Name Charles Francis Richter

• Born in April 26, 1900 at Overpeck,
Ohio.
• Studied at Los Angeles High School,
Stanford University, California Institute
of Technology
• Field of Interest was
Seismology, Physics
• Was a professor at the California
Institute of Technology (CalTech).
• Developed the Richter Magnitude
Scale with his partner Beno
Gutenberg in 1935.
• Died in September 30,
1985 (aged 85) at Pasadena,
California
 Moment Magnitude (Mw) Scale.
• Geologists today often use the moment magnitude scale, a rating system
that estimates the total energy released by an earthquake.
• Scales 1-3 have limited range and applicability and do not satisfactorily
measure the size of the largest earthquakes.
• The moment magnitude scale is based on the total moment release of the
earthquake. So is uniformly applicable to all sizes of earthquakes but is
more difficult to compute than the other types. Moment is a product of the
distance a fault moved and the force required to move it.
• It is derived from modeling recordings of the earthquake at multiple
stations. Moment magnitude estimates are about the same as Richter
magnitudes for small to large earthquakes.
• But only the moment magnitude scale is capable of measuring Magnitude 8
and greater events accurately.
• Its denoted as Mw or M.
• Developed by Hanks and Kanamori, in 1979.
 Moment Magnitude (Mw) Scale.
• Moment magnitude has many advantages over other magnitude scales.
• First, all earthquakes can be compared on the same scale. (Richter
magnitude is only precise for earthquakes of a certain size and distance
from a seismometer.)
• Second, because it can be determined either instrumentally or from geology,
it can be used to measure old earthquakes and compare them to
instrumentally recorded earthquakes.
• Third, by estimating how large a section of fault will likely move in the
future, the magnitude of that earthquake can be calculated with confidence.

The moment magnitude is given by

Mw = (log10M0-9.1)/1.5
Where,
Mw is the moment magnitude
M0 is the seismic moment in N-m.
 Moment Magnitude (Mw) Scale.
Example:
Calculate the moment magnitude of an earthquake with the rupture area
dimensions of length 35 km, width 15 km and slip 1 meter. Assume modulus of
rigidity, Mu = 3.5 x 1010 N/m2.

Solution:
Given,
Length of ruptured area of fault : 35 km
Width of ruptured area of fault : 15 km
Average slip : 1 m

Seismic moment = Mu x Length x Width x Slip

= 3.5 x 1010 x (35 x 1000) x (15 x 1000) x 1
= 1.84 x 1019 N-m
Earthquake magnitude,
Mw = [log(1.84 x 1019) – 9.1]/1.5 = 6.8
 Largest earthquake in the world
More than 2,000 killed, 3,000 injured, 2,000,000
homeless, and $550 million damage in southern
Chile.
Chile : 1960 May 22 Tsunami caused 61 deaths $75 million damage in
Hawaii; 138 deaths and $50 million damage in
19:11:14 UTC Japan; 32 dead and missing in the Philippines;
Magnitude 9.5 and $500,000 damage to the west coast of the
United States.
 10 Most Destructive Earthquakes
Location Date Magnitude
Chile May 22, 1960 9.5
Prince William Sound, March 28, 1964 9.2
Alaska
Andréa of Islands, Aleutian March 9, 1957 9.1
Islands
Kamchatka Nov. 4, 1952 9.0
Off western coast of Dec. 26, 2004 9.0
Sumatra, Indonesia
Off the coast of Ecuador Jan. 31, 1906 8.8
Rat Islands, Aleutian Islands Feb. 4, 1965 8.7
Northern Sumatra, Indonesia March 28, 2005 8.7
India-China border Aug. 15, 1950 8.6
Kamchatka Feb. 3, 1923 8.5
 Magnitude vs Duration
A longer fault can produce a bigger earthquake that lasts a longer time.
Magnitude Date Location Rupture Length Duration
(kilometers) (seconds)

9.1 December 26, 2004 Sumatra, Indonesia 1200 500

7.9 January 9, 1857 Fort Tejon, CA 360 130
7.9 May 12, 2008 Sichuan, China 300 120

7.8 April 18, 1906 San Francisco, CA 400 110

7.3 June 28, 1992 Landers, CA 70 24

7.3 August 17, 1959 Hebgen Lake, MT 44 12
7.0 October 17, 1989 Loma Prieta, CA 40 7
7.0 October 28, 1983 Borah Peak, ID 34 9
6.8 February 28, 2001 Nisqually, WA 20 6
6.7 January 17, 1994 Northridge, CA 14 7
6.4 March 10, 1933 Long Beach, CA 15 5

5.9 October 1, 1987 Whittier Narrows, CA 6 3

5.4 July 29, 2008 Chino Hills, CA 5 1

Frequency of Occurrence of Earthquakes
Descriptor Magnitude Average Annually
Great 8 and higher 1
Major 7 - 7.9 17
Strong 6 - 6.9 134
Moderate 5 - 5.9 1319
13,000
Light 4 - 4.9
(estimated)
130,000
Minor 3 - 3.9
(estimated)
1,300,000
Very Minor 2 - 2.9
(estimated)

* Based on observations since 1900.

 Intensity Measurement
Macroseismic study is a classification of the strength of shaking at any
place during an earthquake, in terms of its observed effects on
humans, objects, nature, and damage to buildings.
In the macroseismic study to measure the intensity of an earthquake,
the following simple steps are followed:
I. Data acquisition: This may be done by questionnaire survey, field
visit, appeals for information, literature search or by other means.
II. Data sorting: The data may be organized into a form in which it
can be interpreted. This may be done by arranging the questionnaire
indicating the place of origin. Uses common terms such as "noticeable
by people" "damage to buildings" chimneys collapse" "fissures open
in the ground”.
III. Intensity assignment: Data are interpreted using the intensity scale,
and a table indicating places with intensities may be prepared.
 MODIFIED MERCALLI SCALE
Was developed to rate earthquakes according to the level of damage at a given place.
The 12 steps of the scale describe an earthquakes effects.
I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions.
II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. Delicately suspended objects may swing.
III. Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Many people do not recognize it as
an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibrations similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated.
IV. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed;
walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably.
V. Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows broken. A few instances of cracked plaster,
Unstable objects overturned. Disturbance of trees, poles and other tall objects noticed sometimes. Pendulum clocks may
stop.
VI. Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster or damaged chimneys.
Damage slight.
VII. Everybody runs outdoors, Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in
well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken.
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial
collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy
furniture overturned. Sand and mud eject in small amounts; changes in well water; and disturbs persons driving motor
cars
IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage
great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations. Ground cracked conspicuously; and
underground pipes broken.
X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations. Rails
bent; ground badly cracked; landslides considerable from river banks and steep slopes; shifted sand and mud; and
water splashed over banks.
XI. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed; underground pipelines completely out of
service; earth slumps and landslips in soft ground and Rails bent greatly.
XII. Damage total. Waves seen on ground surfaces. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
Comparison of Magnitude and Intensity
• Comparisons between magnitude and intensity are fraught with
difficulty.
• Firstly, intensity varies with distance from the epicenter.
• Secondly, a large earthquake may occur away from inhabited areas
and therefore cause little apparent damage.
• Focal depth, ground conditions and quality of building construction
can have a considerable effect on subjective assessments of
damage.
• Magnitude-intensity relationships are not favored for engineering
purposes.
• In 1956, Richter tries to propose a simple relationship between
magnitude and epicenter intensity, and found its varies with location.
• However, it is found that correlations between intensity and
magnitude are not particularly accurate for estimation of
earthquake magnitude.
 Earthquake Energy
• Gutenberg and Richter (1956) Formula for
evaluation of Earthquake Energy
• log E = 11.4 + 1.5 Ms
 What does a Seismogram tell us
• Size of ground motion at the measurement station
• When the different type of waves, i.e. the P-waves, the S-waves and
the surface waves, arrived at the measuring station
• What sort of rock they passed through on the way there
• Information to calculate the magnitude of the earthquake

20
 Comparison of Frequency, Magnitude and Intensity
Mercalli Average frequency of
Magnitude Description Average earthquake effects
intensity occurrence (estimated)
Continual/several million
1.0–1.9 Micro I Micro earthquakes, not felt, or felt rarely. Recorded by seismographs.
per year
2.0–2.9 I to II Felt slightly by some people. No damage to buildings. Over one million per year
Minor Often felt by people, but very rarely causes damage. Shaking of indoor
3.0–3.9 III to IV Over 100,000 per year
objects can be noticeable.
Noticeable shaking of indoor objects and rattling noises. Felt by most
people in the affected area. Slightly felt outside. Generally causes none
4.0–4.9 Light IV to VI 10,000 to 15,000 per year
to minimal damage. Moderate to significant damage very unlikely.
Some objects may fall off shelves or be knocked over.

Can cause damage of varying severity to poorly constructed buildings.

5.0–5.9 Moderate VI to VII 1,000 to 1,500 per year
At most, none to slight damage to all other buildings. Felt by everyone.

Damage to a moderate number of well-built structures in populated

areas. Earthquake-resistant structures survive with slight to moderate
6.0–6.9 Strong VIII to X damage. Poorly designed structures receive moderate to severe 100 to 150 per year
damage. Felt in wider areas; up to hundreds of miles/kilometers from
the epicenter. Strong to violent shaking in epicentral area.
Causes damage to most buildings, some to partially or completely
collapse or receive severe damage. Well-designed structures are likely
7.0–7.9 Major 10 to 20 per year
to receive damage. Felt across great distances with major damage
mostly limited to 250 km from epicenter.
Major damage to buildings, structures likely to be destroyed. Will cause
X or greater
8.0–8.9 moderate to heavy damage to sturdy or earthquake-resistant buildings. One per year
Damaging in large areas. Felt in extremely large regions.
Great
At or near total destruction – severe damage or collapse to all
9.0 and
buildings. Heavy damage and shaking extends to distant locations. One per 10 to 50 years
greater
Permanent changes in ground topography.
Comparison of Frequency, Magnitude and Energy Release
 Intensity Scales (Qualitative)
• Poarid (Italian)– 1627; first attempt to classify earthquakes by intensity in
1627; four levels of intensity use to describe effects of earthquakes
experienced at different towns.

• More attempts made in 18th and 19th centuries.

• Early 1900’s Mercalli’s scale; 12 levels of intensity.

• Modified version (1931) published by Wood & Neumann. Known as the

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale of 1931, it has become the standard used
by the United States engineering seismology community (incl. National
Geophysical Data Center and the U.S. Geological Survey.)
 Mercalli Scale
In 1902 G. Mercalli developed a fairly reliable intensity scale
which assesses the damage to various types of structures at a
specific location.
Measures the Intensity of an earthquake on a twelve (XII) point
scale.
Note that earthquake intensity is determined by several factors
including:
1) Strength of earthquake
2) Distance from epicenter
3) Nature of surface materials
4) Building design
 Modified Mercalli Intensity
• Numerous intensity scales have been developed over the last several hundred
years, but the one currently used in U.S. is the Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity
Scale.
– Developed in 1931 by the American seismologists Harry Wood and Frank
Neumann, based on scale developed in 1902 by Italian seismologist
Giuseppe Mercalli.
• Scale is composed of 12 increasing levels of intensity that range from
imperceptible shaking to catastrophic destruction.
• 12 levels, with 1 denoting a weak earthquake and 12 one that causes almost
complete destruction.
• Roman numerals.
• It does not have a mathematical basis; instead it Quantifies the effects of an
earthquake on the Earth's surface, humans, objects of nature, and man-made
structures.
• MMI assigned to a specific site after an EQ has a more meaningful measure of
severity to the nonscientist than the magnitude because intensity refers to the
effects actually experienced at that place.
 Abbreviated Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale
I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions.
II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings.
III. Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Many people do not
recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibrations similar to the passing of a
truck. Duration estimated.
IV. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors
disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars rocked
noticeably.
V. Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows broken. Unstable objects overturned.
Pendulum clocks may stop.
VI. Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.
VII. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary
structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken.
VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with
partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments,
walls. Heavy furniture overturned.
IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; well-designed frame structures thrown out of plumb.
Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations.
X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations.
Rails bent.
XI. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent greatly.
XII. Damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
 USGS Earthquake investigations.
• USGS is the Federal agency responsible for collecting earthquake intensity
data.
• Used “Earthquake Report” questionnaire and field investigators to analyze
earthquake damage in serious earthquakes.
– Questionnaires sent to postmasters, National Weather Service offices,
military installations, etc. requesting a report of all effects of the
earthquake in their area. Newspaper accounts, published scientific
reports, and reports provided by seismology collaborators were also
used.
– Expert observers may investigate and photograph the damage.
– In the end, a seismologist analyzes each report and assigns intensities on
the basis of the effects at each town;
– Intensity (or isoseismal) maps are then constructed for earthquakes felt
over large areas.
– Since January 2002, the MMS has been the scale used to calculate and
report magnitudes for all modern large earthquakes.
 Richter Scale rating and Mercalli Scale rating
These two ratings describe the power of the earthquake from two different perspectives.
 Magnitude Scale - Richter Scale
o The Richter Scale is used to rate the magnitude of an earthquake -- the amount of
energy it released
o This is calculated using information gathered by a seismograph.
o Richter ratings only give you a rough idea of the actual impact of an earthquake
o Largest magnitude recorded on a Wood-Anderson seismograph was 8.9 (earthquake
in Chile, 1960 –
o Magnitudes less than 2.0 are not felt by humans
 Intensity Scale - Mercalli Scale
o The extent of damage is rated on the Mercalli Scale.
o An earthquake's destructive power varies depending on the composition of the ground
in an area and the design and placement of manmade structures.
o Mercalli ratings, which are given as Roman numerals, are based on largely subjective
interpretations.
o A low intensity earthquake, one in which only some people feel the vibration and there
is no significant property damage, is rated as a II.
o The highest rating, a XII, is applied only to earthquakes in which structures are
destroyed, the ground is cracked and other natural disasters, such as landslides or
Tsunamis, are initiated.
28
 The Richter Scale
Frequency of
Richter Magnitudes Description Earthquake Effects
Occurrence

Less than 2.0 Micro Micro-earthquakes, not felt. About 8,000 per day

2.0-2.9 Minor Generally not felt, but recorded. About 1,000 per day

49,000 per year

3.0-3.9 Minor Often felt, but rarely causes damage.
(est.)
Noticeable shaking of indoor items, rattling noises. Significant damage
4.0-4.9 Light 6,200 per year (est.)
unlikely.
Can cause major damage to poorly constructed buildings over small
5.0-5.9 Moderate 800 per year
regions. At most slight damage to well-designed buildings.
Can be destructive in areas up to about 100 miles across in populated
6.0-6.9 Strong 120 per year
areas.
7.0-7.9 Major Can cause serious damage over larger areas. 18 per year
8.0-8.9 Great Can cause serious damage in areas several hundred miles across. 1 per year

9.0-9.9 Great Devastating in areas several thousand miles across. 1 per 20 years

Extremely rare
10.0+ Great Never recorded; see below for equivalent seismic energy yield.
(Unknown)

Complications of the Richter scale include:

1. The Richter scale originally only applied to shallow-focus earthquakes in southern California
so now must be modified.
29
2. Magnitudes calculated from seismograms above 7 tend to be inaccurate.
Magnitude / Intensity Comparison

Typical Maximum
Magnitude
Modified Mercalli Intensity

1.0 – 3.0 I

3.0 – 3.9 II – III

4.0 – 4.9 IV - V

5.0 – 5.9 VI – VII

6.0 – 6.9 VII – IX

7.0 to Higher VIII to Higher

 Chronology of Instrumentation
132 – First Seismoscope (Heng, China)
1751 – Seismoscope which etched in sand (Bina, Italy)
1784 – First attempt to record ground motion as a function of time
using a series of Seismoscopes (Cavalli, Italy)
1875 – First true Seismograph (Cecchi, Italy)
1889 – First known Seismogram from a distant earthquake is
generated (Rebeur-Paschwitz, Germany)
1914 – First Seismometer to use electromagnetic transducer to sense
ground motion (Galitzin, Russia)
1969 – First digital Seismograph (data recorded in discrete samples
on a magnetic tape) (U.S. researchers)
1990 – Broadcast of real time seismic data via internet
 Measuring Instrument

The first known instrument for earthquakes measurement is the

Chang seismoscope built in China in 132 B.C.
Balls were held in the dragons’ mouths by lever devices connected
to an internal pendulum. The direction of the epicenter was
reputed to be indicated by the first ball released.
Modern Seismic Monitoring
 Global Seismographic Network (GSN)
• The GSN was formed in 1986 as a partnership involving the
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), the National Science Foundation
(NSF), and the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology
(IRIS, a university consortium) and serves as a multi-use scientific
facility and societal resource for monitoring, research, and
education.
• The Global Seismographic Network (GSN) is a permanent,
digital network of more than 150 modern stations in over 80
countries, connected by a telecommunications network, from the
South Pole to Siberia and from the Pacific basin to the southern
tip of Africa.
• All GSN data are freely and openly available to the public
and scientists around the world from the IRIS Data Management
Center.
Global Seismographic Network (GSN)
• http://scecinfo.usc.edu/eqcountry/roots/shaki
ng.html
• https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-are-
earthquakes-recorded-how-are-earthquakes-
measured-how-magnitude-earthquake-
determined?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-
news_science_products