A Brief Survey of Machine Learning

Methods
Abstract—This paper provides a brief survey of the basic projects, mobile health monitoring, networked security,
concepts and algorithms used for Machine Learning and manufacturing, self-driven automobiles, surveillance, intelligent
its applications. We begin with a broader definition of border control; every application has its idiosyncrasies and
machine learning and then introduce various learning requires customized features, adaptive learning, and data fusion.
modalities including supervised and unsupervised methods Data compression and statistical signal and data analysis has a
and deep learning paradigms. In the rest of the paper, we large role transmitting and interpreting data and producing
meaningful analytics. Machine Learning algorithms can be
discuss applications of machine learning algorithms in broadly classified into three categories based on the properties,
various fields including pattern recognition, sensor style of learning, and the way data are used [13]: supervised,
networks, anomaly detection, Internet of Things (IoT) and unsupervised and semi-supervised algorithms. This type of
health monitoring. In the final sections, we present some classification is important in identifying the role of the input
of the software tools and an extensive bibliography. data, the utility of the algorithms and learning models relative
to the applications.
I. INTRODUCTION
II. SUPERVISED LEARNING
Machine Learning [1-10,89], as described by Arthur
Samuel in 1959 [11], is a “Field of study that gives computers In supervised learning, “true” or “correct” labels of the
the ability to learn without being explicitly programmed.” In input dataset are available. The algorithm is “trained” using
1997, Tom Mitchell [12] gave a more formal definition, the labeled input dataset (training data) which means ground
namely: “A Computer program is said to learn from an truth samples are available for training. In the training process,
experience E with respect to some task T and some the algorithm makes appropriate predictions on the input data
performance measure P, if its performance on T, as measured and improves its estimates using the ground truth and
by P, improves with experience E.” reiterating until the algorithm reaches a desired level of
Although, the term machine learning has its origins in accuracy. In almost all the machine learning algorithms, we
computer science, there have been several vector quantization optimize a cost function or an objective function. The cost
methods [106] developed in telecommunications and signal function is typically a measure of the error between the ground
processing for coding and compression [105]. In computer and truth and the algorithm estimates. By minimizing the cost
data science, learning is accomplished based on examples function, we train our model to produce estimates that are
(data samples) and experience. A basic signal/data processing close to the correct values (ground truth). Minimization of the
[86- 88,90] framework that includes pre-processing, noise cost function is usually achieved using gradient descent
removal and segmentation is shown in Figure 1, where, the technique [116-118,121,122]. Variants of gradient descent
signal is acquired from the sensor and then processed, technique such as stochastic gradient descent for a minibatch,
typically in a frame-by-frame or batch mode [94]. Removal of
momentum based gradient descent [123,124], nesterov
noise and feature extraction follows next and finally the
machine learning training paradigms. Suppose we have ‘𝑚’
accelerated gradient descent [119] have been used in many
classification stage which will provide either an estimate or a
decision is at the end of the process.

data and can be represented in a pair:(x, 𝑦), here x represents

number of training examples, each one of them is a labelled

the input data and 𝑦 represents the class label. The input data
x can be an 𝑛 dimensional, whereas each dimension
Figure 1: Basic signal processing framework including pre-
corresponds to a feature or a variable. Supervised learning
processing, feature extraction and classification.
methods are used in various fields including the identification
Typically, the feature extraction stage will extract compact of phytoplankton species [14], mapping rainfall induced
information bearing parameters that can characterize the data. landslides [15], and classification of biomedical data [16]. In
The classification stage will have to be trained by a machine [91], a machine learning algorithm is integrated on an
learning algorithm to recognize and classify the collection of embedded sensor system for IoT applications. In the following
features. The field of machine learning is vast and applications sub-sections, we present supervised learning algorithms.
are expanding rapidly especially with the emergence of fast
mobile devices that also have access to cloud computing [108].
Compressing and extracting information from sensors and big
data have recently elevated interest in the area. Smart city
A. Linear Regression The output of the sigmoid function is a value between 0 and 1.
Regression [17-19] is a statistical technique of estimating All values below 0.5 belong to negative class and values
the relationship between input and output variables. It maps greater than or equal to 0.5 belong to positive class. The
the input variables to a continuous function. A simple application of Logistic Regression is seen in various fields
univariate linear regression [20-22, 24] model is shown in including evaluating Trauma care [27], patient severity
Figure 2. assessment [28], determining the risk of heart disease [29],
early detection and recognition of Glaucoma in ocular
thermographs [32], and in computer vision and adaptive object
tracking [33]. For a multiclass classification problem, we can
have one-vs-all implementation.
C. Support Vector Machines (SVM)
Figure 2: A simple Linear Support Vector Machines [1-4,34,35,37] are one of the
regression example with one Figure 3: Sigmoid curve
having a bound between 0 and popular supervised learning models, mainly used for binary
feature/variable.
1. classification as well as multi-class classification. SVM maps

‘𝑛− 1’ dimensional hyperplane to separate the data points

the input data as points in a ‘𝑛’ dimensional space and draws a

The training dataset consists of ‘𝑚’ labelled training

into

sets(x, 𝑦) < 𝑅𝑛+1 , x is the independent variable and 𝑦 is

two groups. This can be visualized easily for two-dimensional
data points as shown in the Figure 4. From the labeled dataset,
the dependent variable. The linear regression model assumes SVM algorithm tries to divide these points to two separate
the relationship between independent variable and dependent groups by a hyperplane, which is in this case a line, such that
variable is linear and fits a straight line to the data points. This the width of separation between the two groups is maximized.
relationship is expressed by a hypothesis function or a In the Figure 4, ‘B’ is a line which just separates two classes.
prediction function. It is expressed as However, the line ‘A’ gives the maximum separation between
ℎ(x) = w0 + w1𝑥1 + w 2 𝑥 2 +... +w𝑛𝑥𝑛 (1)
the classes. The data points which are close to the hyperplane

where 𝑥1, 𝑥2,. . . 𝑥𝑛 are the features and w0, w1, w2.. . w𝑛
(line ‘A’) are called support vectors. Maximum margin was
proposed by Vapnik in 1963 and the SVM algorithm was
are the weights of the model. As shown in [142] an FIR introduced in 1992 [36]. Vapnik et.al also proposed a
filtering technique to generate a non- linear hyperplane known as the
approach can be used to perform linear regression through “Kernel trick” when the data is non-linearly separable. The
slope filtering. Equation (1) is for a multivariate linear kernel trick is achieved by transforming the non-linearly
regression model. The output is the linear sum of the weighted separable input data to a higher dimensional space or Hilbert
input features. The weights are typically learned by weighted space, where, the transformed data is now linearly separable.
least squares minimization process. We can also make use of The linear hyperplane is drawn in this space and transformed
quadratic, cubic or higher polynomial [144-145] terms to
back into original feature space. Many types of kernels are
obtain completely different hypothesis function which can fit
used in practice including Gaussian kernels [130-134], the
quadratic [143], cubic or polynomial curves respectively,
rather than a simple straight line. Multivariate linear regression radial basis function [120], and the polynomial kernel [125-
is used for several applications, including activity recognition 128]. In 1995, Vapnik and Cortes proposed the soft- margin
and classification [23], steady state visual evoked potential approach [38] where the maximum margin constraint is
(SSVEP) recognition for BCI data [25,26]. relaxed by introducing the slack variables which allows
outliers of either class to be present on the other side of the
B. Logistic Regression hyperplane. A major advantage of SVM is that it avoids
The objective of multivariate regression model is to overfitting and is non-probabilistic. SVM can also be used for
determine a hypothesis function which outputs a continuous regression analysis as well as clustering [39-41]. The SVM
value. Now, we present another class of supervised learning algorithm is used in several applications including simple
algorithms: Classification, in which the objective is to obtain a binary classification [135] text categorization [136-138], hand
discrete output. Logistic regression [30,31] is a statistical way written digit recognition [139-141], novelty, anomaly or
of modelling a binomial outcome. As before, the input can outlier detection [42,43], intrusion detection [51], emotion
have one or more features (or variables). For a binary logistic recognition [67], stress detection [69], noise robust speech
regression, the outcome can be a 0 or 1 which performs binary recognition [129]. Different variations of SVM have also been
classification of positive class from negative class. Logistic proposed including the least square SVM (LS-SVM) [44],
regression uses a sigmoid curve shown in the Figure 3 to one-class SVM for anomaly detection [45-50, 85], and
output a probability value and thus performs the classification. adaptive SVM [53].

ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑆(w0 + w1𝑥1 + w2𝑥2+ . . . +w𝑛𝑥𝑛)

The hypothesis function for a logistic regression is given by
D. Naïve Bayes
Naïve Bayes [68] classifiers are simple probabilistic
where 𝑆( ) is a sigmoid function given by
(2)
1
classifiers. The term “Naïve” is used because of the strong
𝑆(𝑧) =
assumption of the algorithm, that, all the input features are
1 + 𝑒−𝑧
(3)
independent of each other and no correlation exists between
them. Naïve Bayes is based on Bayes’ theorem. Being a
probabilistic model, Naïve Bayes’ outputs a posterior III. UNSUPERVISED LEARNING
probability of belonging to a class given the input features.
In the case of unsupervised algorithms [70,71], there are no
𝑝(𝜔𝑐|x) = 𝑝(𝜔𝑐|𝑥1, 𝑥2, 𝑥 3 ,... 𝑥𝑛) (4) explicit labels associated with the training dataset. The
objective is to draw inferences from the input data and then

𝑝(𝜔|𝜔|x)
𝑝(x� 𝑐)𝑝=
(𝜔𝑐 )
model the hidden or the underlying structure and the

𝑝(x)
(5) distribution in the data, in order to learn more about the data.
� Clustering is the most common example of an unsupervised

for each 𝐶 possible outcomes or 𝐶 number of classes.

algorithm. The details of the same is mentioned below.

𝑝(𝜔𝑐|𝑥) is the posterior probability that given feature x

Here, A. Clustering

belongs to 𝑐th class 𝜔𝑐, and 𝑝(𝜔𝑐) is the prior probability of

Clustering [75,81,82] deals with finding a structure or

the class 𝜔𝑐 independent of the data, and 𝑝(x|𝜔𝑐) is the

pattern in a collection of unlabeled dataset. For a given
dataset, clustering algorithm groups the given data into K
likelihood which is the probability of the predictor given the number of clusters such that the data points within each cluster

𝑝(x) is the prior probability of the predictor which is the

class and are similar to each other and data points from different clusters
are dissimilar. Similar to k-NN algorithm, we make use of a
normalizing factor. There are many variations of Naïve Bayes similarity metric or distance metric. Different distance metrics
theorem, some of them tackle the poor assumptions of Naïve such as Euclidean, Mahalanobis, cosine, Minkowski etc. are
Bayes [54,55,56]. Naïve Bayes algorithm is used for text used. Although Euclidean distance metric is used more often,
classification [57], for credit scoring [58], for emotion it is shown in [74] that it is not a suitable metric to capture the
classification and recognition [67], and detection of epileptic quality of the clustering. The K-means algorithm is one of the
seizures from EEG signals [146]. simplest clustering algorithms and is an intuitive and iterative
algorithm. It clusters the data by separating them into K
E. k-Nearest Neighbors groups of equal variances, minimizing the inertia or within-
The k-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN) algorithm [1,60,61,65] is cluster sum-of-squares. However, the algorithm requires the
one of the simplest supervised machine learning algorithm. k- number of clusters to be specified before running the

cluster with the nearest mean 𝝁(j), which is also referred to as

NN can be used for classification of input points to discrete algorithm. Each observation or the data point is assigned to the
outcomes. A simple k-NN model is shown in Figure 5.
the Centroid of that cluster. Thus, the K clusters can be
specified by the K centroids. After the random assignment of
K centroids, the algorithms inner loop iterates over the

(i) Assign each observation x(𝑖) (x(𝑖) is the 𝑖th sample point) to
following two steps:

the closest cluster centroid 𝝁(j)

(ii) Update each cluster’s centroid to the mean of the points

𝑖 = 1,2,... 𝑚; Total of 𝑚 observations or data points

assigned to it.

j = 1,2,... 𝐾; Total of K clusters and hence K centroids

Figure 4: Maximum margin Figure 5: A simple k-NN model
intuition; hyperplane A has for different values of k
maximum separation. The inertia or the within-cluster sum-of-squares is given

k-NN can be used for regression analysis [64,147] where the by:
𝑚 2 𝐾
∑ ǁ =∑ −2 𝝁
ǁx 𝑚𝑖𝑛 −𝝁
∑ǁx
outcome of a dependent variable is predicted from the input
(6)
(𝑖) (𝑖)
ǁ (k)
j(𝑖)
independent variables. In Figure 5, for k =3, the test point (star)
𝝁(j)∈
𝑖= k=1
0 𝐶
is classified as belonging to class B and for k=6, the point is
𝑖∈𝐶
classified as belonging to class A. k-NN is a non-probabilistic 𝝁j(𝑖) denotes that, for the 𝑖 th sample, 𝝁j is the closest
and non-parametric model [62,63,93] and hence it is the first centroid. K-means clustering algorithms leads to Voronoi
choice for classification study when there is no prior tessellation. K-means algorithms iterations stops (converges)
knowledge about the distribution of data. k-NN stores all the when there is no change in the value of means of the
labelled input points to classify any unknown sample and this clusters. In Figure 6, a converged K-means algorithm is
makes it computationally expensive. The classification is shown. Clustering has several applications in many fields. In
based on the similarity measure (a distance metric). Any biology, clustering has been used to determine groups of genes
unknown sample is classified by the majority vote of its k that have similar functions [77-79], for detection of brain
nearest neighbors. The complexity increases as the tumor in [76], cardiogram data clustering [80], in business
dimensionality increases and hence dimensionality reduction and e-commerce analysis [83] and information retrieval
techniques [164] are performed before using k-NN to avoid [92], image segmentation [72] and compression [84], in
the effects of curse of dimensionality [66]. k-NN classifier is the study of
quantitative resolutions of nanoparticles [95], in fault detection
used for stress detection using physiological signals in [69]
in Solar PV panels [101,187,188] and in speech recognition
and detection of epileptic seizures [146].
[148].
 [152,154,170]. Each successive layer takes the output of the
previous layer and feeds the result to the next layer.

Figure 6: The K-means and the cluster centroids.

B. Vector Quantization
In its simplest form vector quantization [102,103,106]
organizes data in vectors and represents them by their Figure 9: Artificial Neural Network with four hidden layers.
centroids. It typically uses a K-means clustering algorithm to
train the quantizer. The centroids form codewords and all the Typical artificial neural networks challenges include
codewords are stored in a Codebook. Vector quantization is a initialization of the network parameters, overfitting, and long
lossy compression method and is used in several coding training time. We now have various techniques to address the
applications. As a result, the compressed data has errors that above problems. Batch normalization [182], normalization
are inversely proportional to density. This property is shown in propagation [183], weight normalization [184], layer
Figure 8 and compared with uniform quantization Figure 7. normalization [185] all help in accelerating the training of
deep neural networks. Dropouts [160] help in reducing
overfitting. There are several network architectures including
the one shown in Figure 9 which consists of dot product layers
(fully connected layers). A convolutional layer [167] processes
volume of activations rather than a vector and produces
feature maps. It also makes use of a subsampling layer or a
max- pooling layer to reduce the size of the feature maps.
Figure 10
Figure 7: Uniform quantization Figure 8: Vector quantization shows an example of a convolutional neural network (CNN).
of 2-dimensional Data. of 2-dimensional Data. Networks whose output depends on present and past inputs,
namely recurrent neural networks (RNNs) [169,172,173], have
The Vector quantization technique is used in various also been used in several applications.
speech applications including speech coding [103,107], Figure 10: A CNN with 3 convolutional, 2 subsampling layers.
emotion recognition [104], audio compression [105], large-
scale image classification [149] and image compression [150].
IV.DEEP LEARNING
In this section, a brief introduction to the field of
artificial neural networks is provided with the focus on deep
learning [151,153,161] methodologies and their applications.
Artificial neural networks are widely used in the areas of
image classification, pattern recognition and they have proved
V. SENSOR AND IOT APPLICATIONS
to be the most successful and they achieve superior results in
various fields including signal processing [163,168,171], The Internet of Things (IoT) [189] is a system of
computer vision [157], speech processing [162,165,166] and connected physical devices, smart machines or objects that
natural language processing [158,186]. Deep learning is a have unique identifiers. The devices will typically consist of
branch in machine learning that has gained popularity quite electronics, software, sensors, and radios enabling these
recently, capable of learning multiple levels of abstraction. objects to continuously collect and transfer data. Sensors that
Although, the inception of neural networks dates in 1960 consist of a transducer that will convert some form of physical
[156], deep learning gained more popularity since 2012 [155] process into an electrical signal. Examples include
because of the great advancements in the GPUs [99] and microphones, cameras, accelerometers, thermometers,
availability of large labeled datasets. In Figure 9, a simple pressure sensors etc. Perhaps a mobile phone is a good
artificial neural network with 4 hidden layers is shown. The example of a connected device that embeds several
last layer, namely the output layer, performs classification. heterogeneous sensors including microphone arrays, at least
The term “deep learning” [159] refers to several layers used to two cameras, magnetometers, accelerometers etc. First
learn multiple levels of representation generation smart phones for example typically included six
sensors. These days a Galaxy S5 has 26 sensors including
microphones, cameras, magnetometer,
accelerometer, proximity, IR, pressure, humidity, gyro etc. and NumPy [177,178]. TensorFlow [115,181] is an open
Accelerometers and magnetometers (Fig. 11) have been used source software library for numerical computation using data
in many applications, including machine monitoring, structural flow graphs and is very popular in deep learning and computer
monitoring, human activity, and healthcare [190-193]. Other vision. The Azure Machine Learning Studio [111,112,176] is a
areas of collaborative sensing and machine learning include drag and drop tool for analytics. IBM Bluemix [174,175] is a
localization [199-201] cloud platform that supports several programming languages
as well as integrated DevOps.
CONCLUSION
This Machine Learning short survey paper supported the
tutorial session of the IISA2017. The paper covered
supervised and unsupervised learning models. We also
provided a brief introduction to current deep learning
methodologies and outlined several applications including
pattern recognition, anomaly detection, computer vision, speech
processing, and IoT applications. The paper provides
Figure 11. A magnetometer can help align with the earth's field. extensive bibliography of machine algorithms and their
applications.
Clever entertainment and information exchange systems such
as smart speakers combine multiple technologies such as ACKNOWLEDGMENT
circular microphone arrays (Fig. 12), local and cloud based This work was supported in part by the NSF I/UCRC
machine learning and information retrieval algorithms. The award 1540040, IUSE award 1525716, NXP, and the ASU
Amazon Echo represents a recent example of an IoT device SenSIP Center.
that has a circular microphone array along with voice
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