AMA211 Introduction to Calculus and Linear Algebra

Lecture 2: Limits and Their Properties

Dr. Kaibin Huang

Dept. of AMA
Hong Kong Polytechnic University

1
 !x " c! < ! x is within ! units of c.

What is Limit?
says that x is within a distance ! of c.

DEFINITION OF LIMIT
Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing c (except possibly
at c) and let L be a real number. The statement
lim f "x# & L
x→c

means that for each % > 0 there exists a ! > 0 such that if

! !
0 < x " c < !, then ! f "x# " L! < %.

NOTE Throughout this text, the expression

For
lim f "x# & L L +ε
x→c
(c, L)
implies two statements—the limit exists and the limit is L. L ■
L−ε
ical Some functions do not have limits as x → c, but those that do cannot have two
he different limits as x → c. That is, if the limit of a function exists, it is unique (see
Exercise 81).

c +δ
c
c−δ
2
 2.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 73

What is Limit?
The next three examples should help you develop a better understanding of the
#-$ definition of limit.

EXAMPLE 6 Finding a ! for a Given "

y = 1.01
Given the limit
y=1
lim "2x ! 5# " 1 y = 0.99
x→3

find $ such that !"2x ! 5# ! 1! < 0.01 whenever 0 < !x ! 3! < $.

Solution In this problem, you are working with a given value of #—namely, x = 2.995
y
# " 0.01. To find an appropriate $, notice that x=3
!"2x ! 5# ! 1! " !2x ! 6! " 2!x ! 3!. 2
x = 3.005
x Because the inequality !"2x ! 5# ! 1! < 0.01 is equivalent to 2!x ! 3! < 0.01, you
4 1
can choose $ " 2"0.01# " 0.005. This choice works because
1
0 < !x ! 3! < 0.005
−5
implies that
x
3 is 1. !"2x ! 5# ! 1! " 2!x ! 3! < 2"0.005# " 0.01 1 2 3 4
as shown in Figure 2.13. ■
−1

NOTE In Example 6, note that 0.005 is the largest value of $ that will guarantee f(x) = 2x − 5
! ! ! !
"2x ! 5# ! 1 < 0.01 whenever 0 < x ! 3 < $. Any smaller positive value of $ would, of −2
course, also work. ■

In Example 6, you found a $-value for a given #. This does not prove the existence The limit of f "x# as x approaches 3 is 1.
of the limit. To do that, you must prove that you can find a $ for any #, as shown in Figure 2.13
the next example.

EXAMPLE 7 Using the "-! Definition of Limit

Use the #-$ definition of limit to prove that
3
 course, also work. ■

What is Limit?
In Example 6, you found a $-value for a given #. This does not prove the existence
of the limit. To do that, you must prove that you can find a $ for any #, as shown in
the next example.

y=4+ε EXAMPLE 7 Using the "-! Definition of Limit

y=4
Use the #-$ definition of limit to prove that
y=4−ε
lim "3x ! 2# " 4.
x→2
x=2+δ
x=2 Solution You must show that for each # > 0, there exists a $ > 0 such that
y x=2−δ
!"3x ! 2# ! 4! < # whenever 0 < !x ! 2! < $. Because your choice of $ depends
on #, you need to establish a connection between the absolute values !"3x ! 2# ! 4!
4 and !x ! 2!.

3 !"3x ! 2# ! 4! " !3x ! 6! " 3!x ! 2!

So, for a given # > 0 you can choose $ " #&3. This choice works because
2
#
0 < !x ! 2! < $ "
3
1 f (x) = 3x − 2
implies that
x
$%
#
1 2 3 4
!"3x ! 2# ! 4! " 3!x ! 2! < 3 3
"#
The limit of f "x# as x approaches 2 is 4.
Figure 2.14 as shown in Figure 2.14. ■

Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

4
 x→c

Such well-behaved functions are continuous at c. You will examine this concept more
closely in Section 2.4. Properties of Limits

THEOREM 2.1 SOME BASIC LIMITS

Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer.
1. lim b ! b 2. lim x ! c 3. lim x n ! c n
x→c x→c x→c

PROOF To prove Property 2 of Theorem 2.1, you need to show that for each % > 0
% % % %
there exists a $ > 0 such that x # c < % whenever 0 < x # c < $. Because the
second inequality is a stricter version of the first, you can simply choose $ ! %, as
shown in Figure 2.16. This completes the proof. (Proofs of the other properties of
limits in this section are listed in Appendix A or are discussed in the exercises.) ■

EXAMPLE 1 Evaluating Basic Limits

a. lim 3 ! 3 b. lim x ! #4 c. lim x 2 ! 2 2 ! 4 ■

x→2 x→#4 x→2

THEOREM 2.2 PROPERTIES OF LIMITS

5
are a. lim 3 ! 3 b. lim x ! #4 c. lim x 2 ! 2 2 ! 4 ■
ple x→2 Properties of Limits
x→#4 x→2

THEOREM 2.2 PROPERTIES OF LIMITS

Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and let f and g be
functions with the following limits.
lim f "x# ! L and lim g "x# ! K
x→c x→c

1. Scalar multiple: lim !b f "x#$ ! bL

x→c

2. Sum or difference: lim ! f "x# ± g"x#$ ! L ± K

x→c

3. Product: lim ! f "x#g"x#$ ! LK

x→c

f "x# L
4. Quotient: lim ! , provided K " 0
x→c g"x# K
5. Power: lim ! f "x#$n ! Ln
x→c

6
 EXAMPLE
lim p!x" "3p!2The
" " Limit of 3a "
4!22" ! Rational
19 Function
x→2
2 ! x ! 2
This direct x
substitution property is valid for all polynomial and rational functions with
Find the limit: lim
nonzero denominators.
x→1 Properties of Limits
x!1
.

Solution Because the denominator is not 0 when x " 1, you can apply Theorem 2.3
THEOREM 2.3 LIMITS OF POLYNOMIAL AND RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
to obtain
If p isxa2 polynomial
! x ! 2 function and
12 ! 1 ! 2 c is4 a real number, then
lim " " " 2. ■
x→1
lim xp!!x" 1" p!c". 1 ! 1 2
x→c

If r is a rational function given by r !x" " p!x"&q!x" and c is a real number

Polynomial functions and rational functions are two of the three basic types of
such that q!c" # 0, then
algebraic functions. The following theorem deals with the limit of the third type of
algebraic function—one that p!c"involves a radical. See Appendix A for a proof of this
lim r !x" " r !c" " .
theorem. x→c q!c"
L
square THEOREM 2.4 THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION INVOLVING A RADICAL
ury. EXAMPLE 3 The Limit of a Rational Function
%, Let n be a positive integer. The following limit is valid for all c if n is odd,
l was and is valid for cx 2>!0xif!n 2is even.
se r, to
Find the limit: lim .
lim %x " %c x ! 1
n x→1 n
g root. x→c
Solution Because the denominator is not 0 when x " 1, you can apply Theorem 2.3
to obtain
x 2 ! x ! 2 12 ! 1 ! 2 4
lim " " " 2. ■
x→1 x!1 1!1 2
ge Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Polynomial functions and rational functions are two of the three basic types of
algebraic functions. The following theorem deals with the limit of the third type of 7
 Because
The following theorem greatly expands your ability to evaluate limits because it
shows lim !
howx 2 # 4" ! 0 2 # 4 ! 4
to analyze the limit of aand lim #function.
composite x ! #4 See
! 2Appendix A for a proof
o x→0
of this theorem.
Properties of Limits
x→4
e it follows that
lim #x2 # 4 ! #4 ! 2. ■
THEOREM
x→0 2.5 THE LIMIT OF A COMPOSITE FUNCTION
ch
IfYou
f andhave
g areseen
functions such
that the thatoflim
limits g!x" algebraic
many ! L and lim f !x" !can
functions f !L"be
, then
evaluated by
x→c x→L

and logarithmic)
x→c !
also possess "
direct substitution. The basic transcendental functions (trigonometric, exponential,
lim f !g !x"" ! f lim g!x" ! f !L".
x→c this desirable quality, as shown in the next theorem (pre-

sented without proof).

o-
EXAMPLE
THEOREM42.6 The LimitOFofTRANSCENDENTAL
LIMITS a Composite Function
FUNCTIONS
Let c be a real number in the domain of the given trigonometric function.
Because
1.lim
lim!xsin
2 #x4!
" sin0 2c # 4 ! 4 2.
! andlimlim
cos #
x!
x cos
! #c4 ! 2
o x→0x→c x→c x→4
e 3. lim that
it follows tan x ! tan c 4. lim cot x ! cot c
x→c x→c

5.lim x2 #
lim#sec 4!
x! sec#c4 ! 2. 6. lim csc x ! csc c ■
x→0
x→c x→c
ch
7. lim a x ! a c, a > 0 8. lim ln x ! ln c
You
x→chave seen that the limits of x→c
many algebraic functions can be evaluated by
direct substitution. The basic transcendental functions (trigonometric, exponential,
and logarithmic) also possess this desirable quality, as shown in the next theorem (pre-
sented without proof). 8
be evaluated by direct substitution. This knowledge, together with the following
theorem, can be used to develop a strategy for finding limits. A proof of this theorem
Strategies for Finding Limits
is given in Appendix A.

THEOREM 2.7 FUNCTIONS THAT AGREE AT ALL BUT ONE POINT

Let c be a real number and let f !x" ! g!x" for all x $ c in an open interval
containing c. If the limit of g!x" as x approaches c exists, then the limit of f !x"
also exists and
lim f !x" ! lim g!x".
x→c x→c

EXAMPLE 6 Finding the Limit of a Function

x3 # 1
Find the limit: lim .
x→1 x # 1

Solution Let f !x" ! !x3 # 1"#!x # 1". By factoring and dividing out like factors,
you can rewrite f as
!x # 1"!x2 " x " 1"
f !x" ! ! x2 " x " 1 ! g!x", x $ 1.
!x # 1"
So, for all x-values other than x ! 1, the functions f and g agree, as shown in Figure
2.17. Because lim g!x" exists, you can apply Theorem 2.7 to conclude that f and g 9
 y be evaluated by direct substitution. This knowledge, together with the following
3
f (x) = x − 1 also exists
theorem, can beand
used to develop a strategy for finding limits. A proof of this theorem
x−1 is given in Appendix A.
lim f !x" ! lim g!x".
3
Strategies for Finding Limits
x→c x→c
THEOREM 2.7 FUNCTIONS THAT AGREE AT ALL BUT ONE POINT
Let c be a real number and let f !x" ! g!x" for all x $ c in an open interval
2
containing c. If the limit of g!x" as x approaches c exists, then the limit of f !x"
3
f (x) = x − 1
y
EXAMPLE 6 Finding the Limit of a Function
also exists and
x−1
lim f !x" ! lim 3g!x".
3
x→c x #1
x→c
Find the limit: lim .
x→1 x#1
2
x EXAMPLELet6 f !xFinding
Solution " ! !x3the#Limit
1"#!xof # 1". By factoring and dividing out like factors,
a Function
2 −1 1
you can rewrite f as3
x #1
Find the limit: lim .
!x # 1x"!#x21"
x→1 x " 1"
y f !x" ! ! x2 " x " 1 ! g!x", x $ 1.
x !x!x#3 #1"1"#!x # 1". By factoring and dividing out like factors,
Solution Let f !x" !
−2 −1 1
you can rewrite f as
3 So, for all x-values other than x ! 1, the functions f and g agree, as shown in Figure
!x # 1"!x2 " x " 1"
y 2.17. fBecause
!x" ! lim g!x" exists,! xyou can
2 " x " 1apply
! g!x"Theorem
, x $ 1. 2.7 to conclude that f and g
!x
x→1 # 1"
have
So, the same
for all limit
x-values at xthan
other ! x1.! 1, the functions f and g agree, as shown in Figure
2 3
2.17. Because lim g!x" exists, you can2 apply Theorem 2.7 to conclude that f and g
x 3 # x→1
1 !x # 1"!x " x " 1"
lim ! lim
have the same limit at x ! 1. Factor.
2 x→1 x#1 x→1 x#1
x3 # 1 !x # 1"!x 2 " x2 " 1"
lim ! lim !x # 1"!x " x " 1" Factor.
g(x) = x 2 + x + 1 x→1 x # 1 !x→1 lim x#1 Divide out like factors.
x→1 x#1
!x # 1"!x2 " x " 1"
g(x) = x 2 + ! lim Divide out like factors.
2 −1 1
x x+1
lim !x 2 "
!x→1 x #x 1" 1" Apply Theorem 2.7.
x→1
−2 −1 1
x
! lim !x 2 " x " 1" Apply Theorem 2.7.
x→12
d g agree at all but one point. !1 "1"1 Use direct substitution.
! 12 " 1 " 1 Use direct substitution.
ure 2.17f and g agree at all but one point. !3 Simplify. ■
Figure 2.17 !3 Simplify. ■

When
UDY TIP STUDY When applying
TIP applying this this
strategy for finding a limit, remember A ASTRATEGY
STRATEGY FOR
FORFINDING LIMITS
FINDING LIMITS
tegy for finding a limit, remember 10
 !1 "1"1 Use direct substitution.
!3 Simplify. ■
Strategies for Finding Limits
A STRATEGY FOR FINDING LIMITS
1. Learn to recognize which limits can be evaluated by direct substitution.
(These limits are listed in Theorems 2.1 through 2.6.)
2. If the limit of f !x" as x approaches c cannot be evaluated by direct substitu-
tion, try to find a function g that agrees with f for all x other than x ! c.
[Choose g such that the limit of g!x" can be evaluated by direct substitution.]
3. Apply Theorem 2.7 to conclude analytically that
lim f !x" ! lim g!x" ! g!c".
x→c x→c

4. Use a graph or table to reinforce your conclusion.

ning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

11
 Dividing Out and Rationalizing Techniques
Two techniques for finding limits analytically are shown in Examples 7 and 8. The
Strategies for Finding Limits: Dividing Out
dividing out technique involves dividing out common factors, and the rationalizing
technique involves rationalizing the numerator of a fractional expression.

EXAMPLE 7 Dividing Out Technique

x2 # x ! 6
Find the limit: lim .
x→!3 x#3
Solution Although you are taking the limit of a rational function, you cannot apply
Theorem 2.3 because the limit of the denominator is 0.
lim "x 2 # x ! 6# " 0
x→!3
x2 # x ! 6
x lim Direct substitution fails.
x→!3 x#3
lim "x # 3# " 0
x→!3
x−6
+3
Because the limit of the numerator is also 0, the numerator and denominator have
a common factor of "x # 3#. So, for all x $ !3, you can divide out this factor to obtain
x 2 # x ! 6 "x # 3#"x ! 2#
f "x# " " " x ! 2 " g"x#, x $ !3.
x#3 x#3
Using Theorem 2.7, it follows that
x2 # x ! 6
lim " lim "x ! 2# Apply Theorem 2.7.
x→!3 x#3 x→!3

" !5. Use direct substitution.

mple 7,
of the This result is shown graphically in Figure 2.18. Note that the graph of the function f
is coincides with the graph of the function g"x# " x ! 2, except that the graph of f has
of a a gap at the point "!3, !5#. ■
a factor 12
84 Strategies for Finding Limits: Rationalizing
Chapter 2 Limits and Their Properties

EXAMPLE 8 Rationalizing Technique

!x " 1 # 1
Find the limit: lim .
x→0 x
Solution By direct substitution, you obtain the indeterminate form 0&0.
lim "!x " 1 # 1# ! 0
x→0

!x " 1 # 1
lim Direct substitution fails.
x→0 x
lim x ! 0
x→0

In this case, you can rewrite the fraction by rationalizing the numerator.
!x " 1 # 1
x
! $ !x " 1 # 1
x %$ !x " 1 " 1
!x " 1 " 1 %
"x " 1# # 1
!
x " !x " 1 " 1 #
y x
!
x " !x " 1 " 1 #
x +1−1
f(x) = 1
1 x ! , x$0
!x " 1 " 1

Now, using Theorem 2.7, you can evaluate the limit as shown.
x !x " 1 # 1 1
−1 1 lim ! lim
x→0 x x→0 !x " 1 " 1

1
!
−1 1"1
1
!
1 2
The limit of f "x# as x approaches 0 is 2.
1 13
 The next theorem concerns the limit of a function that is squeezed between two other
functions, each of which has the same limit at a given x-value, as shown in Figure
Strategies for Finding Limits: Squeeze Theorem
2.21. (The proof of this theorem is given in Appendix A.)

THEOREM 2.8 THE SQUEEZE THEOREM

If h!x" $ f !x" $ g!x" for all x in an open interval containing c, except possibly
at c itself, and if
lim h!x" " L " lim g!x"
x→c x→c
x
then lim f !x" exists and is equal to L.
x→c

The
h(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ g(x) The
You can see the usefulness of the Squeeze Theorem (also called the Sandwich
Theorem or the Pinching Theorem) in the proof of Theorem 2.9.
y func
2.21
f lies in here.
THEOREM 2.9 THREE SPECIAL LIMITS g
g T
sin x 1 # cos x f 3. lim !1 ! x"1#x " e
1. lim "1 2. lim "0 f
x→0 x x→0 x x→0
I
a
h
PROOF To avoid the confusion of two different uses h of x, the proof of the first
limit is presented using the variable %, where % is an acute positive angle measured in
x
tan θ ) radians. Figure 2.22 shows a circular sector that is squeezed between c two triangles. t
The Squeeze Theorem 14
 x→c THEOREM
THEOREM 2.8 THE SQUEEZE (1, tan θ ) radians. Figure 2.22 shows a circular sector that is squeezed between two triangles.

If h!x" $ f !x" $ g!x" for all x in an open interval containing c, except possibly

Strategies for Finding Limits: Squeeze Theorem

at c itself, and if
lim h!x" " L " lim g!x"
θ (1, 0)

1
x tan θ
sin θ
x→c
You can see the usefulness of the Squeeze Theorem
x→c
θ (also called
θ the Sandwich
θ
then lim f !x" exists and is equal to L.
x→c Theorem or the Pinching Theorem) in the proof of 1Theorem 2.9. 1 1
Area of triangle ' Area of sector ' Area of triangle
tan % % sin %
A circular sector ' '
You can see the usefulness of the Squeeze Theorem (alsois called
used to prove
the Theorem 2.9.
Sandwich 2 2 2
Figure 2.22
THEOREM 2.9 THREE SPECIAL LIMITS
Theorem or the Pinching Theorem) in the proof of Theorem 2.9. Multiplying each expression by 2#sin % produces
1 %
' 1
sin x
THEOREM 2.9 THREE SPECIAL LIMITS 1 # cos x cos %
'
sin %
sin x 1. lim "x 1
1 # cos 2. lim lim !and
" 0and taking3.reciprocals 1! x " 1#x
" e yields
1. lim "1 2. lim x
x→0 "0 3. lim !1 ! x" " ex
x→0 1#x x→0 reversing the inequalities
x→0 x x x→0 x→0
sin %
cos % $ $ 1.
%
PROOF To avoid the confusion of two different uses of x, the proof of the first Because cos % " cos !#%" and !sin %"#% " $sin!# %"%#!# %", you can conclude that
limit is presented using the variable %, where % is an acute positive angle measured in this inequality is valid for all nonzero % in the open interval !# &#2, &#2". Finally,
n θ)
PROOF To avoid the confusion of two different uses of x, the proof of the first
radians. Figure 2.22 shows a circular sector that is squeezed between two triangles. because lim cos % " 1 and lim 1 " 1, you can apply the Squeeze Theorem to
% →0 % →0
limit is presented using the variable %, where %conclude
NOTE The third limit of Theorem 2.9
will be used in Chapter 3 in the develop-
is an that
acute positive
lim !sin %"#% " 1. Theangle
proof of measured
% →0
the second limit isinleft as an exercise (see

1, xtan θ ) radians. Figure 2.22 shows

ment of the a circular
formula sector
for the derivative
the exponential function f !x" " e .
of that is
Exercise
number e.
squeezed
129). Recall frombetween
x
two
Section 1.6 that triangles.
the third limit is actually the definition of the
■
tan θ
sin θ
θ θ θ
1 1 1
, 0) Copyright 2010 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Area of triangle ' Area of sector ' Area of triangle
x tan % % tan θ sin %
orem 2.9. ' '
2 2 2 sin θ
Multiplying each expression by 2#sin % produces
θ θ θ
1 %
' ' 1
cos % sin % 1 1 1
and taking reciprocals and reversing the inequalities yields
Area of triangle ' Area of sector ' Area of triangle
sin %
cos % $ tan %$ 1. % sin %
TheoremBecause
% '
2.9. cos % " cos!#%" and2 !sin %"#% " $sin!# %"%#!# %", you can conclude '
2 that 2
this inequality is valid for all nonzero % in the open interval !# &#2, &#2". Finally,
Multiplying% each expression by 2#sin % produces
because lim cos % " 1 and lim 1 " 1, you can apply the Squeeze Theorem to
% →0 →0
em 2.9
conclude that lim !sin %"#% " 1. The proof of the second limit is left as an exercise (see
evelop- % →0
ative of 1 %
Exercise 129). Recall from Section 1.6 that the third limit is actually the definition of the
x
. number e. ' ' 1 ■ 15
 Strategies for Finding Limits: Squeeze Theorem
nd Their Properties

EXAMPLE 9 A Limit Involving a Trigonometric Function

tan x
Find the limit: lim .
x→0 x
Solution Direct substitution yields the indeterminate form 0%0. To solve this
problem, you can write tan x as !sin x"%!cos x" and obtain

lim
x→0
tan x
x
! lim
x→0
#
sin x
x $# 1
cos x$.

Now, because
sin x 1
lim !1 and lim !1
x→0 x x→0 cos x

you can obtain

lim
x→0
tan x
x #
! lim
x→0
sin x
x $# lim
1
x→0 cos x $
! !1"!1"
! 1.
1.
(See Figure 2.23.) 16
 tion in the graph of f at c. That is, its graph is unbroken at c and there are no holes,
n jumps, or gaps. Figure 2.25 identifies three values of x at which the graph of f is not
Continuity
continuous. At all other points in the interval !a, b", the graph of f is uninterrupted and
continuous.
h-
y y y

ou
l? f (c) is lim f(x)
x→c
not defined. does not exist. lim f (x) ≠ f(c)
x→c

al
3"

3" x x x
a c b a c b a c b

&" Three conditions exist for which the graph of f is not continuous at x ! c.
Figure 2.25

3" In Figure 2.25, it appears that continuity at x ! c can be destroyed by any one of
the following conditions.
3"
1. The function is not defined at x ! c.
2. The limit of f !x" does not exist at x ! c.
3. The limit of f !x" exists at x ! c, but it is not equal to f !c". 17
 3. The limit of f !x" exists at x ! c, but it is not equal to f !c".
If none of the three conditions above is true, the function f is called continuous at c,
Continuity
as indicated in the following important definition.

DEFINITION OF CONTINUITY
Continuity at a Point: A function f is continuous at c if the following three
conditions are met.
1. f !c" is defined.
2. lim f !x" exists.
x→c
3. lim f !x" ! f !c"
x→c

Continuity on an Open Interval: A function is continuous on an open

interval #a, b$ if it is continuous at each point in the interval. A function that is
continuous on the entire real line !" #, #" is everywhere continuous.

ing, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.

18
 Continuity x EXAMPLE
x 1
a c b a c b
(a) Removable discontinuity Discuss 2.4 C
the con
(b) Nonremovable discontinuity
1
y y a. f !x" !
y open interval
Consider an I that xcont
defined on I (except possibly at c), and f
Solution
have a discontinuity at c. Discontinuities
nonremovable. A discontinuity at cdomain
a. The is calle
by appropriately defining (or redefining)
that f is contf
Figures 2.26(a) and (c) have removable dis
discontinuity
in Figure 2.26(b) has a nonremovable
f !0" so disco
as to
b. The domain
x EXAMPLEx 1 Continuity of a Functio
concludex tha
a c b a c b a c hasba remov
Discuss the continuity of each function.
(a) Removable discontinuity the “newly d
(b) Nonremovable discontinuity (c) Removable discontinuity
1 Figure 2.26 xc.2 " 1 domain
The
y y a. f !x" ! b. g!x" ! c. h
x x "!0,1 #", and,
Solution as shown in
d. The domain
19
d Their Properties

One-Sided Continuity
One-Sided Limits and Continuity on a Closed Interval
To understand continuity on a closed interval, you first need to look at a different type
92 Chapter 2 Limits and Their Properties
of limit called a one-sided limit. For example, the limit from the right (or right-hand
limit) means that x approaches c from values greater than c [see Figure 2.28(a)]. This
limit is denoted as
One-Sided Limits
x y
lim! f #x$ " L. To understand continuit
Limit from the right
x→c of limit called a one-sid
ht. limit) means that x appr
Similarly, the limit from the left (or left-hand limit) means that x approaches c fromlimit is denoted as
92
values lessChapter
than c 2[see Limits
Figure and TheirThis
2.28(b)]. Properties L
limit is denoted as f (x)
x
c x
lim# f #x$ " L. < x the left
Limitc from
x→c
One-Sided Limits and Continuity on a Close
(a) Limit as x approaches c from the right.
y
Similarly, the limit from
x
To understand
One-sided limits are useful in taking limits continuity
yof functions on radicals.
involving a closed interval,
Forvaluesyou
less first
than need
c [seetoF
instance, if n is an even integer, of limit called a one-sided limit. For example, the limit from
limit) means that x approaches c from values greater than c [s
t.
n limit is denoted as
L f (x) lim! % x " 0.f(x)
x→0 L
x One-sided limits are u
c x x c lim! fx#x$ " L. Limit
c<x x→c instance, if n is an even
c>x
EXAMPLE 2 A One-Sided Limit
(a) Limit as x approaches c from the right. (b) Limit as x approaches c from the left.
Similarly,
Figure the limit from the left (or left-hand limit) means th
2.28
Find the limit of f #x$ " %4 # x as x approaches #2 from the right.
2
y values less than c [see Figure 2.28(b)]. This limit is denoted a
Solution As shown in Figure 2.29, the limit as x approaches #2 from the right is 20
 f(x) = 4 − x2
!x" " greatest integer n such that n $ x. Greatest integer function

One-Sided Continuity
For instance, !2.5" " 2 and !#2.5" " #3.
1

EXAMPLE 3 The Greatest Integer Function

x
Find the limit of the greatest integer function f #x$ " !x" as x approaches 0 from
− 2 the − 1 1 2
left and from the right.
−1
Solution As shown in Figure 2.30, the limit as x approaches 0 from the left is given
by The limit of f #x$ as x approaches #2 from
lim !x" " #1 the right is 0.
x→0#
Figure 2.29
and the limit as x approaches 0 from the right is given by
lim !x" " 0.
x→0!

The greatest integer function has a discontinuity at zero because the left- and right- y
f(x) = [[x]]
hand limits at zero are different. By similar reasoning, you can see that the greatest
integer function has a discontinuity at any integer n. ■ 2

x
ning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
−2 −1 1 2 3

−2

Greatest integer function 21

 When the limit from the left is not equal to the limit from the right, the (two-
Let f be a function and let c and L be real numbers. The limit of f $x% as x
sided) limit does not exist. The next theorem makes this more explicit. The proof of
One-Sided Continuity
approaches c is L if and only if
this theorem follows directly from the definition of a one-sided limit.
lim! f $x% " L and lim# f $x% " L.
x→c x→c
THEOREM 2.10 THE EXISTENCE OF A LIMIT
Let f be a function and let c and L be real numbers. The limit of f $x% as x
The concept
approaches c isofL aifone-sided
and only limit
if allows you to extend the definition of continuity
to closed intervals. Basically, a function is continuous on a closed interval if it is
continuous f $x%the
lim! in L andof the
" interior f $x% "and
liminterval L. exhibits one-sided continuity at the
x→c x→c #

endpoints. This is stated formally as follows.

DEFINITION
The concept ofOFaCONTINUITY ONallows
one-sided limit A CLOSED
you toINTERVAL
extend the definition of continuity
to closed intervals. Basically, a function is continuous on a closed interval if it is
A function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous on
continuous in the interior of the interval and exhibits one-sided continuity at the
the open interval $a, b% and
endpoints. This is stated formally as follows.
x
lim# f $x% " f $a% and lim! f $x% " f $b%.
x→a x→b

val DEFINITION
The functionOF f isCONTINUITY ON Athe
continuous from CLOSED INTERVAL
right at a and continuous from the
Aleft at b (see
function f isFigure 2.31). on the closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous on
continuous
the open interval $a, b% and

Similar $x% " f $a% can be

lim# fdefinitions and
made tolim f $xcontinuity
cover % " f $b%. on intervals of the form $a, b"
x→a x→b !

and !a, b% that are neither open nor closed, or on infinite intervals. For example, the
al The function f is continuous from the right at a and continuous from the
function
left at b (see Figure 2.31).
22
aEXAMPLE
corresponding 6 property
Applying Properties
pertaining of Continuity
to the continuity of a function. For instance,
Theorem 2.11 follows directly from Theorem 2.2. (A proof of Theorem 2.11 is given
ByAppendix
in TheoremA.) Properties of Continuity
2.11, it follows that each of the functions below is continuous at every
point in its domain.
x 2 " 1
THEOREM
f !x" ! x "2.11
e x, PROPERTIES
f !x" ! 3 tanOF
x, CONTINUITY
f !x" ! ■
cos x
If b is a real number and f and g are continuous at x ! c, then the following
functions are also continuous at c.
The next theorem, which is a consequence of Theorem 2.5, allows you to determine
the1.continuity
Scalar multiple: bf functions such
of composite 2. Sum
as or difference: f ± g
f1
3.f !Product: fg
x" ! sin 3x, f !x" ! #x2 f !x" ! tang , . if g!c" # 0
" 1,4. Quotient:
x

THEOREM 2.12 CONTINUITY OF A COMPOSITE FUNCTION

The following types of functions are continuous at every point in their domains.
If g is continuous at c and f is continuousn at g!c", then the composite function
1. Polynomial: p!x" ! anx " an$1xn$1 " . . . " a1x " a0
given by ! f % g"!x" ! f !g!x"" is continuous at c.
p!x"
2. Rational: r!x" ! , q!x" # 0
q!x"
3.PROOF
Radical: f !x" ! #
By the definition of continuity, n x
lim g!x" ! g!c" and lim f !x" ! f !g!c"".
x→ c x → g!c"
4. Trigonometric: sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x
Apply Theorem 2.5 with L ! g!c" to obtain
5. Exponential and logarithmic: f !x" ! a x, fx!→
!
x"c ! e x, f !x" !x→lnc x
"
lim f !g!x"" ! f lim g!x" ! f !g!c"". So,
! f % g" ! f !g!x"" is continuous at c. ■
23
The Intermediate Value Theorem
height. Suppose that a girl is 5 feet tall on her thirteenth birthday and 5 feet 7 inches
Theorem 2.13fourteenth
tall on her is an important
birthday.theorem
Then, forconcerning
any height hthe behavior
between of and
5 feet functions
5 feet 7that are
inches,
continuous
there must Intermediate Value Theorem
onhave
a closed
beeninterval.
a time t when her height was exactly h. This seems reasonable
because human growth is continuous and a person’s height does not abruptly change
from one value to another.
THEOREM 2.13 INTERMEDIATE
The Intermediate Value Theorem VALUE THEOREM
guarantees the existence of at least one number
c in
If f isthecontinuous
closed interval
on the!a,closed
b". There may, !of
interval a, course,
b", f #a$be
"more
f #b$, than
and kone number c such
is any
that f #c$ between
number ! k, as shown
f #a$ andin f Figure
#b), then2.35. A is
there function
at leastthat
one isnumber
not continuous
c in !a, b"does not
necessarily
such that possess the intermediate value property. For example, the graph of the
function shown in Figure 2.36 jumps over the horizontal line given by y ! k, and for
f #c$ ! k.there is no value of c in !a, b" such that f #c$ ! k.
this function

y y

NOTE The Intermediate Value Theorem tells you that at least one number c exists, but it does
not provide
f(a) are called existence theorems. By referring
a method for finding c. Such theoremsf(a)
to a text on advanced calculus, you will find that a proof of this theorem is based on a property of
real numbers
k called completeness. The Intermediate Value Theorem states that for a continuous
function f, if x takes on all values between a and b, f #x$ must take on all values between f #a$
f # b$ .
and f(b) k ■
f(b)
As a simple example of xthe application of this theorem, consider a person’s
height. Suppose c1 thatc2 a girlc3 is 5 feet tall on her thirteenth birthday and 5 feet x 7 inches
a b
tall on her fourteenth birthday. Then, for any height h abetween 5 feet and 5b feet 7 inches,
f is must
there continuous !a, b"a. time t when her height
haveonbeen f is not
wascontinuous
exactly on h.!This
a, b". seems reasonable
!Therehuman
because exist three c’s such is
growth f #c$ ! k." and a person’s
thatcontinuous !There are no c’s such
height f #c$ abruptly
that not
does ! k." change
Figure 2.35 Figure 2.36
from one value to another. 24
 $6 $30 $300 $3000
Figure 2.39
f !x" decreases without bound. f !x" increases without bound.

What are infinite limits?

A limit in which f !x" increases or decreases without bound as x approaches c is called
an infinite limit.

DEFINITION OF INFINITE LIMITS

Let f be a function that is defined at every real number in some open interval
containing c (except possibly at c itself). The statement
lim f !x" ! "
x→c

means that for each M > 0 there exists a % > 0 such that f !x" > M whenever
0 < %x $ c% < % (see Figure 2.40). Similarly, the statement A
lim f !x" ! $ " a
x→c

means that for each N < 0 there exists a % > 0 such that f !x" < N whenever
0 < %x $ c% < %.
To define the infinite limit from the left, replace 0 < %x $ c% < % by
c $ % < x < c. To define the infinite limit from the right, replace
0 < %x $ c% < % by c < x < c # %. y

Be sure you see that the equal sign in the statement lim f !x" ! " does not mean
that the limit exists. On the contrary, it tells you how the limit fails to exist by denoting lim f(x) = ∞
the unbounded behavior of f !x" as x approaches c. x→c

M
rning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
δ δ

x
c

Infinite limits 25
heir Properties
104 What are infinite limits?
Chapter 2 Limits and Their Properties

EXAMPLE 1 Determining Infinite Limits from a Graph

EXPLORATION
EXAMPLE 1 Determining Infinite Limits from a Graph
Use a graphing utility to graph Determine the limit of each function shown in Figure 2.41 as x approaches 1 from the
Determine the limit of each function shown ineach
Figure 2.41 For
function. as xeach
approaches left and from the right.
function, 1 from the
left and from the right. analytically find the single real
number c that is not in the y y

y domain.yThen graphically find the

3 2
limit (if it exists) of f !x" as x −1
f(x) =
3 approaches c from the− 1left and
2 2 x −1
f(x) =
2
from the right. x−1 x
1
−2 −1 2
1 3 x x −1
a. f !x" !
−2 −1 x # 42 −2 −1 2 3
x −1 −1 −2
−2 −1 2 3 1 1
b. f !−x2" ! f(x) =
−1
2#x −2 (x − 1) 2 −3
1
f(x) =
−2 (x − 1) 2 −3 2
c. f !x" ! (a) (b)
!x # 3" 2 Each graph has an asymptote at x ! 1.
(a) (b)
#3 Figure 2.41
Each graph has an asymptote at x ! 1. d. f !x" !
Figure 2.41 ! x " 2" 2 Solution
Solution a. When x approaches 1 from the left or the right, !x # 1"2 is a small positive number.
a. When x approaches 1 from the left or the right, !x # 1"2 is a small positive number.
Thus, the quotient 1#!x # 1"2 is a large positive number and f !x" approaches
infinity from each side of x ! 1. So, you can conclude that
Thus, the quotient 1#!x # 1"2 is a large positive number and f !x" approaches
infinity from each side of x ! 1. So, you can conclude that 1
lim ! $. Limit from each side is infinity.
x →1 !x # 1"2
1
lim ! .
!x # 1"2 $
Limit from each side is infinity.
x →1 Figure 2.41(a) confirms this analysis.
Figure 2.41(a) confirms this analysis. b. When x approaches 1 from the left, x # 1 is a small negative number. Thus, the
quotient #1#!x # 1" is a large positive number and f !x" approaches infinity from
b. When x approaches 1 from the left, x # 1 is a small negative number. Thus, the
the left of x ! 1. So, you can conclude that
quotient #1#!x # 1" is a large positive number and f !x" approaches infinity from
the left of x ! 1. So, you can conclude that #1
lim# ! $. Limit from the left side is infinity.
x →1 x # 1
#1
lim# ! $. Limit from the left side is infinity.
x →1 x # 1 When x approaches 1 from the right, x # 1 is a small positive number. Thus, the
quotient #1#!x # 1" is a large negative number and f !x" approaches negative
When x approaches 1 from the right, x # 1 is a small positive number. Thus, the infinity from the right of x ! 1. So, you can conclude that
quotient #1#!x # 1" is a large negative number and f !x" approaches negative
infinity from the right of x ! 1. So, you can conclude that #1
lim" ! # $. Limit from the right side is negative infinity.
x →1 x # 1
#1
lim" ! # $. Limit from the right side is negative infinity.
Figure 2.41(b) confirms this analysis.
x →1 x # 1 ■

Figure 2.41(b) confirms this analysis. ■

Vertical Asymptotes
26
 infinity, you would see that each graph becomes arbitrarily close to the vertical line
x ! 1. This line is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f. (You will study other types
2.5 Infinite Limits 105
Vertical Asymptotes
of asymptotes in Sections 4.5 and 4.6.)

l In ExampleOF 1, VERTICAL
note that each of the functions is a quotient and that the vertical
DEFINITION ASYMPTOTE
asymptote occurs at a number at which the denominator is 0 (and the numerator is not
f !xnext
0).IfThe " approaches
theorem infinity (or negative
generalizes infinity)(A
this observation. as proof
x approaches c from the
of this theorem is given in
the left, then the line x ! c is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f.
right or A.)
Appendix

THEOREM 2.14 VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES

Let f and g be continuous on an open interval containing c. If f "c# # 0,
"c#Rights
Learning, Inc. gAll ! 0, and there May
Reserved. existsnotanbeopen interval
copied, containing
scanned, c such
or duplicated, in that
wholeg"or
x# in#part.
0 for
all x # c in the interval, then the graph of the function given by
f "x#
h "x# !
g"x#
has a vertical asymptote at x ! c.

EXAMPLE 2 Finding Vertical Asymptotes

Determine all vertical asymptotes of the graph of each function.
1 x2 % 1
a. f "x# ! b. f "x# ! 2 c. f "x# ! cot x
2"x % 1# x $1 27
 f "x#
h "x# !
g"x# THEOREM 2.14 VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES

Vertical
has a vertical asymptote at x ! c." # Asymptotes
THEOREM 2.14 VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES
" #
Let f and g be continuous on an open interval containing c. If f c # 0,
" #
g c ! 0, and there exists an open interval containing c such that g x # 0 for
Let fthen
all x # c in the interval, andthe g be ofcontinuous
graphc onbyan open interval
the function given
f "x# g"c# ! 0, and there exists an open interval con
h "x# !
g"x#
EXAMPLE 2 Finding VerticalhasAsymptotes all x # c in the interval, then the graph of the
a vertical asymptote at x ! c.

Determine all vertical f "x#

asymptotes of the graph of eachhfunction.
y "x# !
EXAMPLE
g"x#
f(x) =
1
1 2 x 2 % 1 2 Finding Vertical Asymptotes
a. f "x# !
2(x + 1)
b. f "x# ! c. f "x# ! cot x
2"x % 1# x $ 1all verticalhas
2
Determine a vertical
asymptotes asymptote
of the graph at x
of each function. ! c.
1 x2 % 1
Solution x
a. f "x# ! b. f "x# ! 2 c. f "x# ! cot x
−1 1 2"x % 1# x $1
−1 y
a. When x ! $1, the denominator of
Solution
f(x) =
1 −2
2 1
EXAMPLE 2 Finding Vertical Asymptotes
a. When x ! $1, the denominator of
(a)
2(xf +
"x1)
#!
2"x % 1# f "x# !
1
y
2"Determine
x % 1# all vertical asymptotes of the graph of
is 0x 2 +and the numerator is not is0. 0So, by numerator
and the Theoremis 2.14, youby can
not 0. So, conclude
Theorem 2.14, youthat
can 2conclude that
f (x) = 2 1 4 x 1 x %1
x !x −$1 1 is a vertical asymptote, xas
! shown a. f "x# !
in Figure
$1 is a vertical 2.42(a).
asymptote, as shown in b. f "x# !
Figure 2.42(a). c.
−1 1
the denominator b.asBy factoring the denominator as
b. By factoring−1
2 2"x % 1# 2
x $1
x2 % 1 x2 % 1
f "x# ! 2Solution
x
!
x −4 −2
x 22 % 41 x2 % 1 x $ 1 "x $ 1#"x % 1#
f "x# ! −2 !
x 2 $ 1 "x $ 1#"xyou 1# see that
% can a.theWhen at x !the
x !is 0$1,
denominator $1 denominator ofbecause the
and x ! 1. Moreover,
numerator is not 0 at these two points, you can apply Theorem 2.14 to conclude
(a)(b)you can see that the denominatorthat
is the
0 atgraph
x !of$1f hasand x ! 1.asymptotes,
two vertical Moreover, because the 2.42(b).
1 as shown in Figure
numerator is not 0 at these two points,
c. By writing you can apply
the cotangent f "x#Theorem
function!in the form2.14 to conclude
that the ygraph f(x)
yof=fcothas
x two vertical asymptotes, cos
as shown "x % 12.42(b).
in 2Figure #
x
f "x# ! cot x !
c. Byxwriting
2+1 the cotangent function in the form issin0x and the numerator is not 0. So, by The
6

f (x) = 4
4 28
 f "x#
h "x# !
g"x# THEOREM 2.14 VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES

Vertical
has a vertical asymptote at x ! c." # Asymptotes
THEOREM 2.14 VERTICAL ASYMPTOTES
" #
Let f and g be continuous on an open interval containing c. If f c # 0,
" #
g c ! 0, and there exists an open interval containing c such that g x # 0 for
Let fthen
all x # c in the interval, andthe g be ofcontinuous
graphc onbyan open interval
the function given
f "x# g"c# ! 0, and there exists an open interval con
h "x# !
g"x#
EXAMPLE 2 Finding VerticalhasAsymptotes all x # c in the interval, then the graph of the
a vertical asymptote at x ! c.

Determine all vertical f "x#

asymptotes of the graph of eachhfunction.
y "x# !
EXAMPLE
g"x#
f(x) =
1
1 2 x 2 % 1 2 Finding Vertical Asymptotes
a. f "x# !
2(x + 1)
b. f "x# ! c. f "x# ! cot x
2"x % 1# x $ 1all verticalhas
2
Determine a vertical
asymptotes asymptote
of the graph at x
of each function. ! c.
1 x2 % 1
Solution x
a. f "x# ! b. f "x# ! 2 c. f "x# ! cot x
−1 1 2"x % 1# x $1
−1 y
a. When x ! $1, the denominator of
Solution
f(x) =
1 −2
2 1
EXAMPLE 2 Finding Vertical Asymptotes
a. When x ! $1, the denominator of
(a)
2(xf +
"x1)
#!
2"x % 1# f "x# !
1
y
2"Determine
x % 1# all vertical asymptotes of the graph of
is 0x 2 +and the numerator is not is0. 0So, by numerator
and the Theoremis 2.14, youby can
not 0. So, conclude
Theorem 2.14, youthat
can 2conclude that
f (x) = 2 1 4 x 1 x %1
x !x −$1 1 is a vertical asymptote, xas
! shown a. f "x# !
in Figure
$1 is a vertical 2.42(a).
asymptote, as shown in b. f "x# !
Figure 2.42(a). c.
−1 1
the denominator b.asBy factoring the denominator as
b. By factoring−1
2 2"x % 1# 2
x $1
x2 % 1 x2 % 1
f "x# ! 2Solution
x
!
x −4 −2
x 22 % 41 x2 % 1 x $ 1 "x $ 1#"x % 1#
f "x# ! −2 !
x 2 $ 1 "x $ 1#"xyou 1# see that
% can a.theWhen at x !the
x !is 0$1,
denominator $1 denominator ofbecause the
and x ! 1. Moreover,
numerator is not 0 at these two points, you can apply Theorem 2.14 to conclude
(a)(b)you can see that the denominatorthat
is the
0 atgraph
x !of$1f hasand x ! 1.asymptotes,
two vertical Moreover, because the 2.42(b).
1 as shown in Figure
numerator is not 0 at these two points,
c. By writing you can apply
the cotangent f "x#Theorem
function!in the form2.14 to conclude
that the ygraph f(x)
yof=fcothas
x two vertical asymptotes, cos
as shown "x % 12.42(b).
in 2Figure #
x
f "x# ! cot x !
c. Byxwriting
2+1 the cotangent function in the form issin0x and the numerator is not 0. So, by The
6

f (x) = 4
4 29
 f "x#
yh "x# ! has a vertical asymptote at x ! c.
g"x#
asymptote at x ! c. Asymptotes
Vertical
f(x) =
1
2 EXAMPLE 2 Finding Vertical Asymptotes
2(x + 1) has a vertical
y
Determine all vertical asymptotes of the graph of each function.
f(x) =
1
2 EXAMPLE 2 Finding Vertical Asymptotes
2(x + 1) x 1 2
x %1
a. f "x# ! b. f "x# ! 2 c. f "x# ! cot x
−1 1 2"x 1# x 1
Determine all vertical asymptotes of the graph of each function.
% $
EXAMPLE
−1
2 Finding Solution
Vertical Asymptotes 2
x 1 x %1
−2 a. f
a. When of "x# ! the b. f "x# ! c. f "x# ! cot x
−1
Determine all 1vertical asymptotes x !the 2"xdenominator
$1,graph of
%of1#each function. x2 $ 1
(a) −1
1
1 Solution
f "xx#2!% 1
a. f "x#y−2
! b. f "x# ! 2"x % 1# c. f "x# ! cot x
2"x % 1# 2
x $1
2 is 0a.andWhen x ! $1,isthe
the numerator notdenominator of 2.14, you can conclude that
0. So, by Theorem
f (x) = x 2 + 1 4
(a) x −Solution1 x ! $1 is a vertical asymptote, as shown in Figure 2.42(a).
1
2 f "x#denominator
b. By factoring the ! as
a. Wheny x ! $1,x the denominator of 2"x % 1#
x2 % 1 x2 % 1
f "xis
# !0 2and the
x $ 1 "xnumerator
$ 1#"x % 1is
# not 0. So, by Theorem 2.14, you can co
−4 2 −2 2 4 !
f (x) = x 2 + 1 4 1
x −1 f "x# ! x ! $1 is a vertical asymptote, as shown in Figure 2.42(a).
2"x % 1# you can see that the denominator is 0 at x ! $1 and x ! 1. Moreover, because the
2 b. Byisfactoring
numerator the denominator
not 0 at these two points, youascan apply Theorem 2.14 to conclude
is 0 and the numerator isthat
notthe0.graph
So,ofby
f hasTheorem
two 2.14,
2 vertical 2you can
asymptotes, conclude
as shown that
in Figure 2.42(b).
(b) x x %1 x %1
−4 x
−2! $1 is2 a vertical
4 asymptote, as f "
shownx# !in
c. By writing the cotangentFigure !2.42(a).
2 function in the form
y
x $ 1 "x $ 1#"x % 1#
b. By factoring
f(x) = cot the
x denominator as cos x
f "xyou
# ! cot
canx see
! that the denominator is 0 at x ! $1 and x ! 1. Moreover,
6 sin x
x x2 % 1 x 2 % numerator
1 is not 0 at these two points, you can apply Theorem 2.14
f "x# ! 2
4
! you can apply Theorem 2.14 to conclude that vertical asymptotes occur at all values
(b)
2 x $ 1 "x $ x #"
of 1 such % #sin graph
that1the
xthat of fcos
x ! 0 and has two
x# vertical
0, as asymptotes,
shown in as So,
Figure 2.42(c). shown in Figure
the graph of 2.4
−2π you can
π see
2π
x
that the denominator c. By is 0writing
at x ! the
$1 cotangent
and x ! function
1. in the because
Moreover, form
this function has infinitely many vertical asymptotes. These asymptotes occur when
the
y x ! n" , where n is an integer. ■
−4
numeratorf(x)
is =not
cot x0 at these two points, you can apply cos Theorem
x 2.14 to conclude
f "x# ! cot x !
−6 that
6 the graph of f has two vertical asymptotes, as shown
Theorem 2.14 requires that thesin x inofFigure
value
2.42(b).
the numerator at x ! c be nonzero. If
(c) c. By
4 writing the cotangentboth
function incan
you theand
the numerator form
the Theorem
apply denominator are to
2.14 0 at x ! c, you
conclude obtain
that the indeterminate
vertical asymptotes occur 30
form 0!0, and you cannot determine the limit behavior at x ! c without further
 f "x# Determine
a. all
Whenvertical
x !asymptotes of the graph ofofeach function.
$1, the denominator
h "x# !
(a) x g"x# 1 x2 % 1
a. f "x# ! b. f "x1# ! 2 c. f "x# ! cot x
−1
has
−1
1
a yvertical asymptote at x ! c. Vertical Asymptotes
2"x % f1"#x# !
2"x % 1#
x $1
Solution
x 2 + 1−2 is 0 and the numerator is not 0. So, by Theorem 2.14, you can co
f (x) = 2 4 a. When x ! $1, the denominator of
x −1 x ! $1 is a vertical asymptote, as shown in Figure 2.42(a).
(a)
1
EXAMPLE
2 2 Finding Vertical
fb. !Asymptotes
"x#By factoring
2"x % 1#
the denominator as
y
2 2
x x % 1 x 1
%Theorem
2 Determine
f (x) = x 2 +−14 −
42
all
2 vertical
4 is 0 and
asymptotes ofthe
thef " #
numerator
graph
x ! of is not
each !0. So, by
function. 2.14, you can conclude that
x −1 x $ 1 as"xshown
2
x ! $1 is a vertical asymptote, $ 1#"inx Figure
% 1# 2.42(a).
2
1 b. By x %can
factoring the1 denominator
a. f "x# !
2
b. f "x# ! 2 you see that "x#asdenominator
c. fthe ! cot x is 0 at x ! $1 and x ! 1. Moreover, b
2"x %x 1# $ 1
xnumerator
x 2 % 1 is notx0 2 at these two points, you can apply Theorem 2.14 t
%1
−4 −2 2 4 f "x# ! !
(b) Solution thatxthe
2
$ graph
1 "xof $ f1has
#"x %two
1# vertical asymptotes, as shown in Figure 2.42
c. see
you can By that
writing the cotangent
the denominator is 0 function
at x ! $1inand
thex form
! 1. Moreover, because the
a. When
y x ! $1, the denominator of
numerator is not 0 at these two points, you can apply Theorem 2.14 to conclude
f(x) = cot x cos x
(b) 1 "x#f has
that the graphfof twoxvertical
! cot ! asymptotes, as shown in Figure 2.42(b).
6
f "x# ! sin x
4 2"x % 1# c. By writing the cotangent function in the form
y
f(x) = cot x you can applycos Theorem
x 2.14 to conclude that vertical asymptotes occur a
2
is 0 and the numerator is not f "x#of cot
0.!xSo, x by Theorem
x x ! 02.14, youx #
can0, conclude
as shown inthat
such !that sin and cos Figure 2.42(c). So, t
6 sin
x
−2π 4 x ! $1π
is a
2π
vertical asymptote, this
as shown
functioninhas
Figure 2.42(a).
infinitely many vertical asymptotes. These asymptotes
you can apply Theorem 2.14 to conclude that vertical asymptotes occur at all values
2b. By factoring the denominator asx ! n", where n is an integer.
of x such that sin x ! 0 and cos x # 0, as shown in Figure 2.42(c). So, the graph of
−4 x
this 2function has infinitely many vertical asymptotes. These asymptotes occur when
x −2π π 2π
x %1 2
x n% 1
−6
f "x# ! 2 ! x! ", where n is an2.14
Theorem integer.
requires that the value of the numerator at x !■c be
−4 x $ 1 "x $ 1both
#"x %the1#numerator and the denominator are 0 at x ! c, you obtain the ind
(c)
−6 0!0,
you
Functions with can asymptotes
vertical see that the
denominatorformis2.14
Theorem xand
! you
0 atrequires$1 cannot
thatand !determine
thexvalue the limit
1.ofMoreover,
the numerator at xbehavior
because at x ! If
c be nonzero.
! the c with
both theinvestigation,
(c) Figure 2.42numerator is not 0 at these numerator and astheillustrated
denominator in are 0 at x !3.c, you obtain the indeterminate
Example
two points, you can apply Theorem 2.14 to conclude
form 0!0, and you cannot determine the limit behavior at x ! c without further
Functions with vertical asymptotes
Figure 2.42 that the graph of f has investigation,
two verticalasasymptotes, as shown
illustrated in Example 3. in Figure 2.42(b).
c. By writing the cotangent function in the form
31
 see that −2 asymptote 2 2
at x = − 2 x 2x 8
At2 all x-values other than x # 2, the graph of f coincides with the graph of !
! " x
xf !2x"!increases
2x "and8 decreases without bound # !2x
gx!x" !
lim
x !"4"8#!#
# " $ to gand
x ! 2"". So, you2 can apply Theorem 2.14
lim there 2
to conclude that !
lim " # " $ and lim $at. x # x"2," 4 x
2
" 4 "2.
x→"2 as xxapproaches
Figure 2.43
Vertical Asymptotes
x→"2 !is a vertical
see that
x→"2
x 2 " 4asymptote
x→"2
as shown in Figure 2.43. From the graph, you can

Note that x # 2 is not a vertical asymptote. Rather, x #Note that x # discontinuity.

2 is2 a removable 2 is not a vertical
2
asymptote. Rather, x #
x ! 2x " 8 x ! 2x " 8
lim # " $ and lim # $.
x→"2 x2 " 4 " x→"2 x2 " 4 !

EXAMPLE 4 Determining Infinite LimitsNote that x # 2 is not a vertical asymptote. Rather, x # 2 is a removable discontinuity.
EXAMPLE 4 Determining Infinite Limits
Find each limit.
EXAMPLE 4 Determining Infinite Limits
2
x " 3x 2
x " 3x Find each limit.
lim" and lim! Find each limit.
x→1 x"1 x→1 x"1
2 2
x 2 " 3x x " 3x
x 2 " 3x x " 3x
1lim and lim!
lim
Solution Because the denominator is 0 when x # x→1
1 (and the and
numeratorlim is not zero),
x" x→1! x " 1
x"1 x"1
"
2
x − 3x x→1 " x→1
you know that the graph off(x)x 2= −x −3x
1
6 =
f(x) Solution Because the denominator is 0 when x # 1 (and the numerator is not zero),
x 2 " 3x x−1 Solution Because the denominator is 0 when x # 1
you know that the graph of
f !x" # 6
x"1 x 2 " 3x
f !x" # know that the graph of
you
−4 6 x"1
has a vertical asymptote at x # 1. This means that each of the given limits is either $
or " $. You can determine the result by analyzing has a vertical asymptote
f at values xx2#"
of x atclose 1. 3x
toThis
1, or means
by that each of the given limits is either $
using a graphing utility. From the graph of
or " $. You can
shown in f !xdetermine
Figure " # youthecan
2.44,
result by analyzing f at values of x close to 1, or by
−4 −6 6 f
using a graphing utility. From x" 1see that
the graph of f shown in Figure 2.44, you can see that
the graph approaches
f has a vertical$ from atthe
asymptote x #left
1. of x # 1 and approaches
the graph approaches"$ fromthe
$ from theleftright
of x of
# 1 and approaches " $ from the right of
x # 1. So, you
Figurecan2.44conclude that hasyouacan
x # 1. So, vertical
conclude asymptote
that at x # 1. This means that
eac
lim
x 2 " 3x
#$ lim
The limit from the left
or x 2
" 3x . You can determine the result by analyzing f
" $
is infinity. #$ The limit from the left is infinity.
x "− 61 x→1 x " 1 "
x→1
using a graphing utility. From the graph of f shown i
"

and
and a vertical asymptote at x # 1.
f has the graph approaches $ from the left of x # 1 and ap
x2 " 3x
lim #" .
Figurelim2.44 x→1x # x "1.1 So,$ you can conclude that
The limit from the right is negative infinity. ■
x2 " 3x !
#" . $
The limit from the right is negative infinity. ■
x→1 ! x"1
x 2 " 3x
This is When using a graphing calculator or graphing software,
TECHNOLOGY PITFALL
lim
be careful to interpret correctly the# $
graph of a function with The limitasymptote—
a vertical from the left
TECHNOLOGY This is When using a graphing
PITFALL calculator
x→1or
graphing utilities oftenxhave
" graphing 1software,
" difficulty drawing this type of graph correctly.
be careful to interpret correctly the graph of a function with a vertical asymptote—
graphing utilities often have difficulty drawing this and
type of graph correctly. 32
 lim % f !x"g!x"& " # $, L < 0
x→c

g!x"
3. Quotient: lim "0
Vertical Asymptotes 2.5 Infinite Limits 107
x→c f !x"

Similar properties hold for one-sided limits and for functions for which th
limit of f !x" as x approaches c is # $.

THEOREM 2.15 PROPERTIES OF INFINITE LIMITS

NOTE With a graphing utility, you
can confirm that the natural logarithmic PROOF To show that the limit of f !x" ! g!x" is infinite, choose M > 0. Y
Let c and L be real numbers and let f and g behasfunctions
function such that
a vertical asymptote at need to find & > 0 such that
x " 0. (See Figure 2.45.) This implies
lim f !x" " and lim g!x" "thatL. % f !x" ! g!x"& > M
x→c
$ x→c
lim ln x " # $. ' '
whenever 0 < x # c < &. For simplicity’s sake, you can assume L is posi
1. Sum or difference: lim % f !x" ± g!x"& " x→0!
$ let M1 " M ! 1. Because the limit of f !x" is infinite, there exists &1 su
x→c
' '
f !x" > M1 whenever 0 < x # c < &1. Also, because the limit of g!x" is
2. Product: lim % f !x"g!x"& " $, 1 L > 0 ' '
exists & 2 such that g!x" # L < 1 whenever 0 < x # c < &2. By letting ' '
x→c '
smaller of &1 and & 2, you can conclude that 0 < x # c < & implies f !x" > '
lim % f !x"g!x"& "−1 # $,
x→c
L < 0 5 ' '
and g!x" # L < 1. The second of these two inequalities implies that g!x" >
and, adding this to the first inequality, you can write
g!x" f !x" ! g!x" > !M ! 1" ! !L # 1" " M ! L > M.
3. Quotient: lim "0
x→c f !x" So, you can conclude that

Similar properties hold for one-sided limits −3 lim % f !x" ! g!x"& " $.
and for functions for which thex→c
limit of f !x" as x approaches c is # $. Figure 2.45 The proofs of the remaining properties are left as an exercise (see Exercise 8

EXAMPLE 5 Determining Limits

c PROOF To show that the limit of f !x" ! g!x" is infinite, choose M > 0. You then
need to find & > 0 such that a. Because lim 1 " 1 and lim
1
" $, you can write
x→0 x→0 x 2
% f !x" ! g!x"& > M
# $
1
lim 1 ! " $.
' '
Property 1, Theorem 2.15
whenever 0 < x # c < &. For simplicity’s sake, you can assume L is positive x→0 and x2
let M1 " M ! 1. Because the limit of f !x" is infinite, there exists &1 b.such thatlim !x 2 ! 1" " 2 and lim !cot % x" " # $, you can write
Because
' '
x→1 x→1
f !x" > M1 whenever 0 < x # c < &1. Also, because the limit of g!x" is L, there 2
# #

' ' ' '

x !1
exists & 2 such that g!x" # L < 1 whenever 0 < x # c < &2. By letting & bex→1 the
lim " 0. Property 3, Theorem 2.15
cot % x
' '
#

smaller of &1 and & 2, you can conclude that 0 < x # c < & implies f !x" > M ! 1
' '
and g!x" # L < 1. The second of these two inequalities implies that g!x"c.>Because
L # 1,x→0lim 3 " 3 and lim ln x " # $, you can write
x→0 ! !

and, adding this to the first inequality, you can write lim 3 ln x " # $. Property 2, Theorem 2.15
x→0 !

f !x" ! g!x" > !M ! 1" ! !L # 1" " M ! L > M.

33