Fidel Castro

Emergence of Authoritarian States

Conditions in which authoritarian states emerged:

Impact of war

-​ A Spanish colony until 1898, and a republic strongly linked to the United States after its
independence in 1902 > unfavorable conditions for a successful communist revolution
-​ Spanish-American war (1898): Cuba is no longer a Spanish colony
-​ Treaty of Paris (1989): Spain loses sovereignty over Cuba, which is placed under military
occupation by the United States for five years. In 1902, the Republic of Cuba was
declared > Still not fully sovereign
-​ Platt Amendment (until 1934): US keeps right to intervene in Cuba’s finances and foreign
relations. Not only aimed at preventing the influence of third-party countries in Cuba, but also at
guaranteed US control of Cuban affairs.
-​ > used on several occasions by the United States to intervene in Cuban internal affairs
and protect US economic interests on the island.

Economic and social conditions

-​ Monoculture economy, known as ‘the sugar bowl of the world’ > production of sugar
provided the most important income for the republic
-​ not an industrialized nation and depended on the revenues from exported sugar
-​ US exploitation of Cuban national resources > The development of Cuban service and
utility industries, such as gas, electricity, communications, railways, and the banking
system, relied upon large amounts of US investment. So although partially advantageous
it meant that Cuban economy was reliant on Us investment and the amount of sugar that
the US bought from Cuba (bought a significant percentage of Cuban sugar production at
prices higher than those set by the international market)
 -​ > If Washington decided to reduce the quantity of sugar bought from Cuba, the economy
of the island would be seriously affected.

-​ Cuban workers enjoyed a better standard of living than workers in other regions of the
continent, but there were many social and economic problems that affected them. The
living conditions for workers were precarious. Wages were low; housing was limited;
access to health and education was not _ available to all. Few rural areas possessed
running water or electricity. Illiteracy was widespread, reaching 50 per cent in certain
parts of the countryside. Sugar workers were seasonal – this meant there were months
when they did not have steady employment. The ownership of land and of the sugar mills
was largely concentrated in the hands of the upper class and foreign companies
Weakness of political system
-​ High levels of corruption and limited success in addressing economic problems and
social inequality characterized the governments post-independence
-​ By 1934, the armed forces under the command of General Fulgencio Batista controlled
the nation by the appointment of puppet presidents
-​ Batista became president in 1940, ruling until 1944
-​ Return to democracy during 1944-1952 but corruption continued to dominate every
branch of the government, while Cuba faced inflation and unemployment
-​ March 10, 1952: Batista returns to the political stage and overthrows President Carlos
Prío Socarrás > Suspends the constitution, establishing dictatorial rule

Weakness of The rule of Fulgencio Batista, 1952–59

-​ the inability to withstand foreign domination by the United States

Economic conditions
-​ the ‘deterioration of the terms of trade’: decline in sugar prices on the international
sugar market causing Cuban economy to worsen as they relied on the income of sugar
export to purchase the goods it did not produce at home
-​ Inability to develop industries to substitute imports due to international obligations with
the United States
-​ Rise in Import Costs: Contributed to shortages, inflation, affecting transportation and
sugar mills
 -​ Unemployment and Underemployment during the late 1950s: Soared to alarming levels,
reaching 17% unemployment and 13% underemployment.
-​ Low Wages: Those employed faced low wages amid economic difficulties

Social division
During Batista’s rule
-​ Rural Workers: Poorly housed and under-educated, lacked support for the regime
-​ Urban Workers: Affected by inflation and unemployment, contributing to opposition
-​ Student Unions: Demanded freedom and democracy, expressing discontent
-​ Higher Social Classes: Lost purchasing power, businesses affected, becoming a source of
opposition

Contributing factors to Castro’s rise to power

-​ the fact that the Cuban political parties did not seem to offer a genuine alternative to the
existing order
-​ “The Auténtico and Ortodoxo parties proved incapable of responding effectively to Batista’s
seizure of power. The Orthodox were leaderless and the Auténticos could not lead. After 1952
Cuba’s two principal parties became irrelevant to a solution of the political crises. Both parties,
to be sure, condemned the violation of the 1940 Constitution, but neither party responded to the
army usurpation with either a comprehensive program or compelling plan of action.”

Methods used to establish authoritarian states:

The Role of Leaders

Alejandro Castro Ruz:
- Born in 1926 in Oriente, his father owned sugar plantations
- Enrolled in law school in Havana in 1945, joined the Orthodox Party
- Outstanding orator, exceptional memory, and fine athlete
- Planned to run for Congress in 1952, opposed Batista's rule
- Attempted to depose Batista in 1953, displaying early opposition

Castro's Role in the Cuban Revolution (Three Stages):

 1.​ Attack against Moncada Barracks (1953): Opportunity to be known, launching the 26th of
July Movement
2.​ Landing of Granma expedition (1956): Initiation of armed struggle at a national level
3.​ Campaign in Sierra Maestra (1956–59): Culminated in the Rebel Army's victorious entry
into Havana in January 1959

Batista and his contribution to the success of the revolution and the emergence of Castro:
-​ Batista's excessive repression, involving imprisonment and torture of suspected rebels,
played a role in the guerrilla war's success
-​ Forced evacuations and destructive tactics, such as setting entire plantations on fire,
alienated citizens, pushing them away from the government
-​ Attempting to frighten citizens backfired, drawing people to the rebels out of hatred for
the government
-​ The summer offensive in 1958 involving over 12,000 soldiers failed, leading to massive
desertions and surrender to the rebels
-​ Weapons and equipment left behind by deserting soldiers were used by the resistance
-​ Rigged elections in 1958 disappointed those hoping for a democratic resolution, fueling
further discontent
-​ The US arms embargo in March 1958, due to disagreement with Batista's violent actions,
complicated government access to weapons and had a demoralizing effect on the army
-​ Batista's refusal to negotiate and rejection of a US proposal strained international
relations, exemplified by the US fearing Fidel Castro might turn to communism

Ideology
The rebels of the 26th of July movement became known as the ‘Generation of the Centenary’, as
1953 marked the hundredth anniversary of the birth of Cuban hero José Martí
> José Martí (1853–95):
Known as ‘The Apostle’, Martí is a hero of the War of Independence. His political writings had a
large influence on Cuban politicians, including Fidel Castro. He died in combat in 1895,
becoming a martyr of the independence struggle

The Use of Force

1.​ Moncada Barracks attack and armed struggle
 2.​ The landing of the Granma expedition (1956), which marked the beginning of the armed
struggle at a national level
3.​ The campaign in the Sierra Maestra (1956–59), which ended with his Rebel Army’s
victorious entry into Havana city in January 1959

1.​ The Moncada assault (1953) and the emergence of the 26th of July Movement:
-​ On 26 July 1953, 140 men, mostly from the Orthodox Party, attacked Moncada Barracks
-​ Led by Fidel Castro, Raúl Castro, and Abel Santamaría
-​ Moncada chosen strategically due to its military significance and social unrest in
Oriente province
-​ Aimed to seize weapons for a general insurrection against Batista

Operation Challenges:
-​ Planned attack faced last-minute problems
-​ Surprise factor intended to favor rebels, but the army successfully defended the building
-​ Many rebels killed or captured, including Abel Santamaría
-​ Fidel and Raúl Castro escaped but were later captured by Batista's forces

Aftermath and Trial:

-​ Batista turned the trial into a show of strength
-​ Demonstrated determination to crush opposition and act as a deterrent
-​ Fidel Castro, defending himself, delivered the famous speech 'History will absolve me' >
Castro's speech outlined a program for political and social reform, addressing housing,
industrialization, and education

Consequences of the Moncada assault

-​ Fidel Castro distinguished himself as the sole political leader actively opposing Batista's
dictatorship, ready to take decisive action
-​ Despite the rebels being aggressors, Batista's excessive repression allowed Castro and
his men to be perceived as martyrs
-​ In 1954, Batista, seeking legitimacy, held elections and ran as a presidential candidate
amid Castro's imprisonment and PSP ban
-​ In the following year, some concessions were made to appear democratic, allowing
political parties to regroup and releasing political prisoners
-​ Fidel Castro was now a free man and went into exile in Mexico to prepare the revolution
-​ Despite Batista's democratic facade, Cuba experienced growing demonstrations leading
to armed clashes in towns and cities
-​ Revolutionary organizations spread across the countryside, promoting rural insurgency,
sabotaging property, and forming guerrilla groups
-​ Disruptions in communications and food delivery occurred, and acts of sabotage led to a
drop in sugar production
-​ Political parties, except the 26th of July Movement, demanded elections, a call Batista
adamantly refused

2.​ The Granma expedition (1956):

-​ Fidel and Raúl Castro, with 80 rebels, returned to Cuba aboard the poorly equipped yacht
Granma in 1956
-​ Challenges during the voyage included overcrowding, rough seas, and technical issues,
delaying their arrival
-​ Coordination issues affected the urban arm of the 26th of July Movement and contact
with land support
-​ Government forces spotted Granma, forcing a swampy landing, resulting in an ambush
at Alegría del Pío
-​ Only 12 of the original 82-man crew survived, dispersing and hiding in the Sierra
Maestra
-​ Anti-government rebellions in cities attempted to seize the presidential palace in
1957-1958
-​ Despite a failed attempt, it showcased Batista's struggle to maintain power, leading to a
violent response that embittered the people

3.​ In the Sierra Maestra mountains, 1956–59

-​ Support for Castro and the rebels in the Sierra Maestra increased over time
-​ Reasons for attraction: peasants got to know a totally different type of army to the
national army Batista had often used to suppress unrest, Castro’s forces did not steal
from the peasants and always paid for the food they were given, They respected women,
 put their medical doctors at the service of the peasants, taught them to read and write,
and even helped in the household chores
-​ Effective communication through Radio Rebelde built trust among the population
(explained what they were fighting for and what kind of new society they were hoping to
achieve) > e.g. agrarian reform
-​ Urban workers supported the revolution through various activities, including leaflet
distribution, bombings, and assassinations. (They printed leaflets in support of the rebels
and condemning Batista. They planted homemade bombs to blow up government
installations, railways, and public buildings, and sabotaged telephone lines, electricity
stations, and gas services. They assassinated those they believed to be enemies of the
revolution)
-​ The Rebel Army had advantages such as fighting on home ground, motivated fighters,
and excellent leadership (To offset this overwhelming superiority in men and weapons,
the revolutionary army had three advantages: (1) the battle was to be on its home
grounds, a terrain of rugged mountains and treacherous jungle made to order for
guerrilla warfare and defensive fighting; (2) unlike the government soldiers, the rebel
soldiers weren’t paid for fighting – they fought for something they believed in; (3) their
leaders were men of outstanding ability – inspiring, humane, and master strategists in
guerrilla warfare)
-​ Rebel leaders adopted a humane approach, treating captured soldiers with kindness and
providing medical attention
-​ Castro recognized the need for political alliances and, by 1958, the Pact of Caracas
brought together various opposition groups, including the communist PSP, recognizing
Fidel Castro's leadership
-​ The Pact of Caracas exposed Batista's political isolation and weakened his regime
Revolution:
See more in role of leaders > Batista
-​ Following success against Batista’s forces in the Sierra, Castro trusted Camilo
Cienfuegos, Raúl Castro, and Che Guevara to lead campaigns, joined by more volunteers
marching covertly to hide from Batista’s planes
-​ By Christmas 1958, the city of Santa Clara was taken, and rebel leaders intensified
sabotage in Havana
 -​ Politically isolated, unable to control the situation, Batista fled Cuba on January 1, 1959,
with the army refusing to continue fighting, leading to an immediate ceasefire
-​ Fidel Castro and his supporters, known as "barbudos" (‘bearded men’), entered Havana,
establishing a provisional government
-​ Fidel Castro's rise to power can be attributed to his charisma, inspiring loyalty among
followers, as demonstrated in the Sierra Maestra years

Consolation and Maintenance of Power (1959–1962):

-​ To consolidate the revolution (1959–1962), Castro employed various methods:
-​ 1. Removal of individuals linked to Batista's regime, leading to imprisonments, property
confiscation, executions, or long prison sentences.
-​ 2. Consolidation of the 26th of July Movement within the provisional government.
-​ 3. Implementation of reforms to showcase revolutionary commitment and gain support.
-​ 4. Exploitation of the perceived threat from the United States, appealing to nationalism.
-​ Citizens associated with Batista's government and armed forces faced imprisonment,
property confiscation, and trials lacking fairness, criticized in both Cuba and the United
States.
-​ The provisional government formed in 1959 included liberals aiming to moderate
left-wing elements, led by moderates Manuel Urrutia and José Miró Cardona.
-​ In spite of the provisional government representing many political sectors, real authority
was in the hands of Fidel Castro from the very start, engaging directly with people
through speeches and visits.
-​ Government changes saw Fidel Castro stepping in as prime minister after Cardona's
resignation, and Urrutia's replacement by Osvaldo Dorticós in 1959 (Urrutia resigned
because he was opposed to the increasing influence of communists in the government, as
well as to Castro’s refusal to hold elections)
-​ Castro's rising authority and charisma, demonstrated in almost-daily speeches and direct
interactions, contributed to the revolution's consolidation.
-​ Castro’s appointment as prime minister enabled the revolution to move quickly,
implementing reforms that led to the transformation of the country into a communist
 state by the end of 1961. He was supported in this move to the left by the members of the
PSP
-​ In 1961, Castro and his supporters instigated significant changes in the political party
landscape of Cuba
-​ Various revolutionary organizations opposing Batista were consolidated under the
Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (ORI)
-​ The ORI, formed by the 26th of July Movement (led by Castro), the PSP, and the
Revolutionary Directorate, aimed to establish a political party for the government
-​ In the subsequent year, the ORI evolved into the United Party of the Socialist Revolution
of Cuba under Castro's leadership
-​ In 1965, the party underwent another name change, becoming the Cuban Communist
Party (PCC) under Castro's continued leadership
-​ Since 1965, the PCC has been the sole officially authorized political party in Cuba,
holding ruling power
-​ Other existing political parties in Cuba are barred from participating in elections
-​ The PCC established its newspaper, Granma, and developed its youth branch (Young
Communist League) and children’s organization (the José Martí Pioneers)
-​ The growing influence of the Cuban Communist Party (PCC) and communist ideas
within the government raised suspicion, even among some in Castro's inner circle
-​ While figures like Raúl Castro and Che Guevara embraced the leftward turn of the
revolution, not everyone supported this shift
-​ Huber Matos, a leader in the 26th of July Movement, opposed the increasing influence of
communism and Castro's refusal to set a date for elections
-​ Matos, resigning as Military Chief of Camagüey where he was highly popular, posed a
potential embarrassment for Castro and a risk of encouraging dissidence
-​ Failing to dissuade Matos, Castro ordered Camilo Cienfuegos to inform Matos of his
arrest for conspiracy and treason against the revolution
-​ Shortly after, Cienfuegos' plane disappeared in an accident, with theories suggesting
possible elimination by Castro due to concerns about communism or Cienfuegos'
popularity
-​ The Cuban government maintains that these events were accidental
-​ Matos was accused of treason, sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment, and released in 1979
after serving his sentence, subsequently leaving Cuba
Use of legal methods
the reforms of 1959–62:
-​ The Agrarian Reform Act, a significant measure, aimed to make land distribution more
equitable, enhance agricultural efficiency, and reduce Cuba's dependence on sugar
-​ The act restricted land ownership, with excess land expropriated and compensated
through bonds; foreign-owned land was nationalized ( (targets of the second (1963) and
third (1968) Agrarian Reform laws)
-​ The act faced opposition from affected property owners, criticism in the Cuban press,
and concern in the United States, leading to threats of cutting the sugar quotaAdditional
reforms included increased wages, reduced rents, and import taxes on luxury goods to
curb imports and fund industrialization and economic diversification
-​ These measures led to waves of strikes in foreign-owned companies as workers sought
better conditions, often receiving support from the government
-​ Some foreign companies faced threats of expropriation, accused of supporting Batista
-​ Import taxes on luxury goods also contributed to a decrease in U.S. sales to Cuba
-​ The government worked on education and health reforms to further improve living
conditions, with a detailed analysis of the literacy campaign of 1961 to follow

impact of the reforms

-​ The reforms implemented from 1959 to 1962 increased Castro and the PSP's popularity
and strengthened their position in the government
-​ Many Cubans became less concerned about elections and the restoration of the
constitution, accepting the need to dismantle the old political, social, and economic
systems
-​ While resistance to changes existed, local opposition was controlled by the government
and did not lead to major crises
-​ Castro allowed those against the revolution to leave the country, resulting in
approximately 250,000 people leaving Cuba between January 1959 and October 1962
-​ Departing individuals included former batistianos, middle-class citizens fearing
radicalization, and members of religious congregations opposed to the communist
nature of reforms
 -​ However, dealing with opposition from the United States proved challenging, leading to
deteriorating relations
-​ Two major international incidents occurred during this period: the Bay of Pigs Invasion
in 1961 and the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962

Impact of foreign policy

-​ Fidel Castro, even before 1959, emphasized the need for Cuba to develop its economy
independently from the United States
-​ When US interests were impacted by Cuban policies, Washington pressured other
nations to withhold economic aid to Cuba
-​ In response, Castro ordered the expropriation of US property in Cuba, leading to the
cancellation of the sugar quota by President Dwight D. Eisenhower
-​ The economic embargo was intensified in October 1960 after the confiscation of all US
banks in Cuba
-​ Tensions between the United States and Cuba increased, prompting improved relations
between Cuba and the Soviet Union
-​ In May 1960, the Soviets established formal diplomatic relations with Cuba, signing
trade agreements and becoming a new market for Cuban sugar
-​ The Soviet Union granted loans to Cuba for industrial equipment and weapons, also
pledging to help prevent armed US intervention against Cuba

The Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1961:

-​ The Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961 originated from a plan devised during President
Eisenhower's administration to overthrow Fidel Castro using Cuban exiles
-​ President J.F. Kennedy approved the plan, involving Cuban exiles trained in Guatemala
and Nicaragua to invade Cuba and incite a popular uprising against Castro
-​ The invasion failed as Cuban forces, led by Castro himself, defeated the invaders at the
Bay of Pigs, resulting in over 1,000 participants being imprisoned
-​ The hope that the invasion would lead to spontaneous uprisings against Castro revealed
a lack of understanding of the significance of his reforms by Washington
-​ Castro emerged more powerful, as the victory reinforced Cuban nationalism and the
credibility of the revolution
 -​ The Bay of Pigs incident provided Castro with a visible enemy, strengthening his
leadership and unity among Cubans in preparation for potential future attacks
-​ It also tempted the Soviet Union to establish stronger military ties with Cuba, leading to
a military presence within the country

The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962:

-​ The Cuban Missile Crisis in October 1962 escalated tensions between the United States
and the Soviet Union over the placement of nuclear missiles on the island of Cuba
-​ The crisis brought the world to the brink of nuclear war, with 13 days of tense
negotiations resulting in the Soviet removal of missiles and dismantling of the missile
sites in Cuba
-​ In exchange, the United States removed its own nuclear missiles from Turkey and
committed not to invade the island
-​ While this pledge was beneficial for Cuba, Castro faced disappointment as the Soviets
indicated they would no longer defend the island
-​ By 1962, Fidel Castro had eliminated challenges from batistianos and liberals in
government, suppressed revolts in the provinces, and implemented radical domestic
policies
-​ Castro openly declared himself a Marxist-Leninist in December 1961, solidifying his
commitment to those ideologies until the end of his life

Ideology
-​ had Castro always intended to align the revolution with Marxism, or was this the
product of US policies that pushed Cuba into the arms of the Soviet Union?
-​ In 1959, it was not evident that Cuba would soon adopt a communist ideology, as the
provisional government included liberals, suggesting a focus on changing tyranny to
democracy
-​ Initially, Castro did not show a clear inclination towards a specific ideology or detailed
program, and he publicly denied any connection between the 26th of July Movement and
communism
-​ Castro refrained from specifying his global political ideology and avoided commitment
to fixed principles like communism, potentially to maintain flexibility in his methods
Aims and results of policies
economic
-​ Fidel Castro aimed to transform Cuba into an economically independent and
industrialized nation
-​ The Cuban economy, however, became influenced by external factors such as the US
embargo, economic dependence on the Soviets, and the consequences of the Soviet
Union's collapse
-​ Cuba implemented various economic policies in response to internal and international
challenges, claiming the goal to align with the revolutionary aims

The influence of Che Guevara

-​ Che Guevara, a key figure in Cuba's revolution, significantly influenced the design of
economic policies
-​ Guevara advocated for transitioning from capitalism to communism, promoting a
centrally planned economy with an emphasis on moral incentives and self-sacrifice
-​ Moral incentives included party membership and state recognition, with equal pay for all
workers, and voluntary coverage of overtime as a personal contribution to the revolution
-​ Guevara aimed at fostering a new consciousness and creating a 'new man' dedicated to
sacrificing for the greater good of a society governed by revolutionary principles
-​ The push towards a communist economy continued post-1961, involving currency
change (1962), property ownership shifts(rents – which had been reduced by 50 per cent
in 1959 – were abolished and In 1963, a second Agrarian Law reduced again the amount
of land that could be owned by a single person or entity, to prevent the existence of ‘rich’
peasants). After 1963, the state owned 70 per cent of the land, the rest being small farms,
which were expropriated in 1968.
-​ However, economic challenges emerged, including a shortage of specialized personnel
and technicians, hindering effective problem assessment and solution implementation
-​ Moral incentives proved inefficient in boosting productivity, and collective farms faced
issues with low-quality work, absenteeism, and motivation
-​ The government's industrialization program led to increased debt, reliance on
subsidized trade with the Soviet Union and Eastern European nations, and a return to
intensive sugar production by 1964 to address debt reduction needs
The Revolutionary Offensive, 1968
-​ In March 1968, Castro initiated the 'Revolutionary Offensive' to propel Cuba further
towards communism and eliminate remaining capitalist elements
-​ The offensive aligned with Guevara's concept of the 'new man,' emphasizing work as a
social duty rather than a means for personal gain
-​ Castro mandated the expropriation of all privately owned enterprises, including family
stores, restaurants, handicraft stores, grocers, service shops, and street vendors, which
would now be state-owned and managed to serve a centrally planned economy
-​ The Revolutionary Offensive abolished farmers' markets and prohibited
self-employment, deeming it individualistic
-​ Despite the intentions, the offensive did not lead to increased productivity; instead, it
resulted in administrative chaos due to the rapid expansion of government agencies to
manage various aspects of production and sales
-​ The reintroduction of moral incentives faced challenges, with high levels of absenteeism
and vagrancy undermining its effectiveness

The ‘Year of the Ten Million’, 1970

-​ In 1969, facing challenges from the Revolutionary Offensive, Castro declared a campaign
to break Cuba's sugar production record and achieve a 10-million-ton output in 197
-​ Dubbed the 'Year of the Ten Million,' the campaign aimed to generate funds to pay off
Cuban debts to the Soviet Union, invest in economic diversification, and serve as a
demonstration of the revolution's capabilities
-​ The campaign mobilized the entire population and became a political test for Castro,
who appealed for the 'militarization' of labor to achieve the ambitious target
-​ Students, conscripts, lawbreakers, and emigrants awaiting departure worked side by side
as 'volunteers,' with the armed forces overseeing sugar-producing regions and mills
-​ Despite reaching a record harvest of 8.5 million tons, the campaign fell short of the
10-million-ton goal, inflicting deep harm on the economy and causing exhaustion and
skepticism among the populace
-​ The campaign's failure led Castro to admit shortcomings in the administrative apparatus
but helped him survive politically by offering his resignation, shifting away from
Guevara's ideas of solidarity and voluntarism
 -​ Following the campaign's failure, Castro reinstated farmers' markets, granted
state-owned companies more autonomy, and introduced material incentives like pay for
overtime work
-​ Despite these adjustments, Cuba continued to face economic challenges, and by the end
of the 1970s, new levels of recession emerged, exacerbated by the Soviet Union cutting
the price it paid for Cuban sugar
-​ The economic downturn led to increased discontent, contributing to the 1980 Mariel
exodus, during which 125,000 Cubans left for the United States

The Rectification Campaign, 1986

Failure
-​ In 1986, Castro attributed present economic problems to past liberal measures and
advocated a return to the values of solidarity and voluntarism through the 'Rectification
Campaign’
-​ The campaign aimed to rectify errors and negative tendencies linked to the relaxation of
communist principles after 1970
-​ Measures under the Rectification Campaign included banning farmers' markets,
abolishing bonuses and extra pay, discouraging self-employment, and emphasizing farm
cooperatives through a new Agrarian Reform Act
-​ As a result, the percentage of land managed by independent farmers dropped to 2%,
labor discipline was enforced, and workers lost many union rights
-​ However, the economic results of the campaign were poor, with productivity declining
and absenteeism increasing. Shortages of essential goods like milk, oil, textiles, and
sugar led to price increases, and parallel or black markets resurfaced
-​ Additionally, transport and electricity rates rose, further affecting the population's living
standards, marking a challenging period for Cuba

The Special Period, 1991

-​ The dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked the end of a 30-year period where
Cuba relied heavily on Soviet support for its economy and social development
-​ This abrupt change led Castro to announce the onset of a "special period in peacetime,"
characterized by new levels of rationing as basic goods disappeared from the market
 -​ To adapt to this new scenario and address growing unrest, Cuba implemented various
policies:
-​ Many state-owned farms transitioned into worker-managed cooperatives to boost
productivity
-​ Cuba opened up to international business to attract capital and diversify economic
activities, particularly in tourism, mining, and energy sectors, which saw positive
development
-​ Legalization of buying and selling US dollars was introduced in 1993 to attract dollars
from Cubans overseas, stimulating demand for goods and contributing to economic
reactivation
-​ Farmers' and handicraft markets reappeared, and limited self-employment and private
businesses were allowed, while the state reduced subsidies and increased taxes to save
money
-​ However, tension with Cuba led the United States to pass the Helms-Burton Act in 1996,
tightening the embargo and restricting entry into the US for international travelers
doing business with Cuba
-​ Despite the act's aim to promote a transition to democracy and a market economy in
Cuba, Cuban politics did not become more democratic, and the act contributed to
increased economic hardships for Cuban citizens, providing Castro with an excuse for
economic failures

aims and impact of social policies

-​ The revolution aimed to establish social justice and equal opportunities for all sectors of
society, leading to reforms in health, education, and the treatment of women and
minorities
-​ Reforms sometimes clashed with Cuban traditions, prompting the arts to play a crucial
role in shaping a new Cuban culture that promoted the role of women as workers, among
other changes

impact of policies on women and minorities

impact of policies on women

 -​ Pre-revolutionary Cuba granted women the right to vote in 1934 and equality before the
law in the 1940 constitution
-​ Despite legal rights, pre-revolutionary society remained traditional, with limited job
opportunities for women beyond teaching and nursing
-​ Discrimination against women at work was prevalent, with men often favored for
higher-responsibility positions
-​ Economic needs drove reforms to include women in the workforce, leading to legislation
reinforcing equal job access and training opportunities
-​ Example: Women entered traditionally male-dominated fields such as construction,
biotechnology, and IT
-​ Agrarian Reform acts opened rural job opportunities for women in previously
male-dominated roles like tractor driving and repair
-​ Day-care centers were established to support working mothers in urban areas
-​ Under Castro, women were expected to join "Agricultural Legions" and contribute to the
workforce while also fulfilling traditional roles as wives and mothers
-​ The 1970s saw the implementation of a new Family Code promoting gender equality at
home and work
-​ Despite reforms, women's presence in the workforce remained lower than government
expectations
-​ Example: Castro acknowledged this discrepancy, indicating ongoing challenges in
achieving gender equality in practice

Case study: The Cuban Women’s Federation (FMC)

-​ FMC (Federation of Cuban Women) founded in 1960 by Vilma Espín to aid women's
integration into the revolution
-​ FMC provided training for women in various fields such as farming, construction, and
teaching
-​ Involved in literacy campaigns and healthcare initiatives, including vaccination
campaigns in rural areas
-​ Collaborated with Ministry of Education to develop textbooks depicting women as
committed workers and soldiers
-​ Provided education and training for former domestic workers, teaching skills like sewing
and cooking, along with subjects like history and geography
 -​ Offered educational opportunities for housewives at FMC headquarters to complete
their schooling

Assessment
-​ Policies promoting women's equality in Cuba aimed at increasing the workforce rather
than achieving gender equality
-​ Over 600,000 Cubans, including many middle-class professionals, left the island in the
1960s, creating a need to fill vacancies
-​ Cuban women were trained for jobs previously denied to them, contributing to the
success of literacy and health campaigns
-​ Despite efforts by the FMC, government fell short of achieving desired levels of female
employment
-​ Few women held decision-making positions or occupied higher levels within the PCC,
raising questions about true intentions behind gender equality policies

Education
-​ Pre-revolutionary education in Cuba was geographically variable, with more restricted
access in rural areas
-​ Economic status also influenced access to education, with significant illiteracy rates,
reaching 24% among children under 10
-​ Public education was of poor quality, and university access was limited to those who
could afford it and lived near universities

> The literacy campaign

Success
-​ Castro initiated improvements in education, particularly targeting illiteracy, as part of
his promises to the Cuban people
-​ In 1961, declared 'The Year of Education', Castro aimed to eradicate illiteracy within the
year, addressing issues of school shortages and lack of teachers
-​ Military barracks were repurposed as educational facilities, and new schools were built
across the country, especially in rural areas
-​ A training program for 271,000 teachers was implemented to support the literacy
campaign, with educators sent across the country to teach in homes and rural areas
 -​ Literate citizens were mobilized as 'literacy volunteers' and sent to rural areas to teach
peasants, living with them during the campaign
-​ The literacy campaign was highly successful, reducing illiteracy to 4% by 1962, fostering
a joint patriotic effort and increasing hopes in the revolution
-​ The campaign aimed not only to combat illiteracy among the poor but also to familiarize
middle-class literate youth with the hardships of the poor and instill revolutionary values
of service and self-sacrifice
-​ Volunteers emerged from the campaign transformed, while illiterate peasants gained a
deeper understanding of the benefits of the revolution

Impact on schools, teachers, and students

-​ In 1961, the shift towards communism in Cuba impacted education, leading to the
nationalization of all private schools and the establishment of boarding schools
-​ A large scholarship program was introduced for gifted and committed students, with
government-selected participants often specializing in designated subject areas
-​ Free time was directed towards activities deemed "intellectually valuable," such as
volunteer work, as mandated by the government
-​ Teachers who did not support the revolution lost their jobs, while those who aligned
with the regime were rewarded with training in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe to
reinforce communist values
-​ New textbooks were adopted, focusing on the history of the revolution and the lives of
revolutionary heroes like Fidel Castro, Che Guevara, and Camilo Cienfuegos
-​ Teaching content centered on ideological formation, with libraries purged of materials
deemed inappropriate, reflecting Castro's emphasis on schools' role in shaping
revolutionary ideology

Treatment of religious groups and minorities

-​ Cuba is influenced by Catholicism, Afro-Cuban religions, and minorities of Protestants
and Jews
-​ The relationship between religious congregations and the revolutionary government has
been complex
-​ Some sectors of the Catholic Church initially welcomed the revolution for its promise of
social justice, but tensions arose as the revolution moved leftward
 -​ Castro accused bishops of representing foreign interests and criticized them for
involvement in politics
-​ Nationalization of schools and restrictions on religious education in schools increased
tension between the state and religious leaders
-​ Some religious leaders participated in revolution campaigns to attract people back to
their churches
-​ The 1976 constitution made it illegal to oppose one's faith to the revolution or other state
duties
-​ Hardships during the Special Period strengthened church attendance
-​ Pope John Paul II's 1998 visit led to improved relations, but the separation between state
and Church persisted
-​ Racial discrimination existed before the revolution, and while supporters claim it was
eradicated, critics argue inequality persists, with limited representation of non-whites in
positions of power
-​ During the Special Period, racial tensions resurfaced, with remittances and tourism
benefiting white Cubans more than black Cubans due to disparities in access

aims and impact of cultural policies

-​ Castro aimed to change Cuban culture by reducing foreign influence and promoting
nationalist and revolutionary values
-​ Many organizations were founded to develop a Cuban culture aligned with these values
-​ These organizations coordinated policies to ensure the arts reflected and encouraged
nationalist and revolutionary ideals

Popular culture and the arts

-​ Early measures included translating English terms into Spanish, using terms like
"struggle," "battle," "victory," and "enemy" to explain various events
-​ Visual images of the ideal man and woman were based on revolutionary heroes from
wars against Spain and Batista's regime
-​ The National Ballet and the Cuban Institute of Arts and Cinema Industry were
established in 1959, followed by the Union of Artists and Writers of Cuba in 1961
 -​ The Union emphasized literature as a means of combat and a weapon against
weaknesses hindering revolutionary progress

Case study: The PM affair and ‘Words to the intellectuals’

-​ PM (1961) was a short film depicting Afro-Cubans dancing, considered decadent and
eventually censored
-​ Its censorship led to concerns among Cuban writers and artists about government
control over culture
-​ In response, Castro organized the First Congress of Cuban Writers and Artists, leading
to the emergence of UNEAC
-​ Castro's speech at the congress, known as "Words to the intellectuals," emphasized
artists' responsibilities to the revolution
-​ Artists were expected to create work that promoted revolutionary values and served the
needs of the revolution
-​ The arts were used to encourage participation in revolutionary activities like the zafra
(sugar harvest)
-​ After the Revolutionary Offensive in 1968, there was even closer supervision of
intellectuals and artists to address economic challenges and promote revolutionary goals

The Padilla affair and the ‘grey period’, 1971

-​ Conflict arose in 1971 between the government and poet Heberto Padilla, whose work
became critical of the revolution
-​ Padilla's collection "Fuera del juego" (Out of the Game), containing poems critical of the
revolution, won the UNEAC poetry prize in 1968
-​ Padilla was arrested, tortured, and coerced into a staged public trial where he confessed
to being an enemy of the revolution
-​ His detention and trial drew international attention and led to a wave of disillusionment
among intellectuals who had previously supported the revolution
-​ The aftermath of the Padilla affair ushered in a period known as the "grey period,"
characterized by heightened government surveillance and fear among artists
-​ The 1976 constitution permitted freedom of artistic creation as long as it did not oppose
the revolution, echoing Castro's directives outlined in "Words to the intellectuals”
 -​ Despite occasional loosening of censorship, dissenting Cuban writers often resorted to
smuggling their work out of the country for publication
-​ In 1998, Castro accused filmmakers critical of Cuba's social and economic conditions of
being counter-revolutionaries, indicating ongoing restrictions on artistic expression

Propaganda
-​ Propaganda played a crucial role in Castro's rise, consolidation, and maintenance of
power in Cuba
-​ Various media outlets, including Radio Rebelde, Cuban radio, television, magazines like
Bohemia, and newspapers such as Granma, were utilized to promote the ideals and
actions of the government
-​ Written propaganda was particularly effective given the increased levels of education in
Cuba
-​ Castro leveraged his oratory skills to portray himself as a committed leader who fought
for the revolution in various settings, including the Sierras, the Bay of Pigs, and
international diplomatic conferences
-​ His speeches emphasized nationalism and the notion that Cuba's integrity was under
threat from imperialism, rallying Cubans to remain united and follow the government's
directives
-​ This propaganda strategy contributed to shaping the political system that has kept
Castro in power since 1959

Aims and impact of political policies and treatment of opposition

Impact of the 1976 constitution
-​ Fidel Castro initially promised elections after overthrowing Fulgencio Batista but did
not hold them until 1976 when a new communist constitution was introduced
-​ The 1976 constitution established the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) as the sole party
allowed to campaign, with all nominees selected by the party
-​ Castro assumed various leadership positions under the new constitution, consolidating
his power within the government and party
-​ Despite the creation of the National Assembly, little practical change occurred, with
Castro remaining heavily involved in decision-making
 -​ Economic challenges during the Special Period prompted a constitutional revision in
1992, removing references to socialism and allowing foreign investment
-​ Direct elections for deputies to the National Assembly were introduced, but candidates
were still chosen from a list approved by the government
-​ Freedom of religion became a constitutional right, encouraging a religious revival, but
Cuba remained an authoritarian single-party state
-​ The government's control over mass media has persisted since the 1960s
-​ Bureaucratization has been a longstanding issue, with a large public sector employing
much of the workforce, albeit inefficiently, contributing to the maintenance of
employment levels

The nature, extent, and treatment of opposition

-​ Show trials, such as the Padilla affair, and restrictions on freedom of expression were
used to control opposition to the Castro regime
-​ The Committees for the Defence of the Revolution (CDR), established in 1960, served to
report counter-revolutionary activities and had widespread membership, reaching
approximately one-third of the Cuban population by 1963
-​ CDR members were tasked with identifying and reporting "enemies of the revolution,"
contributing to a high level of peer surveillance and intimidation
-​ While some Cubans saw membership in the CDR as a way to support the goals of the
revolution, others felt intimidated by the pervasive surveillance
-​ The creation of the Military Units to Aid Production (UMAP) between 1965 and 1968 led
to the forced labor of approximately 25,000 young men, including political dissenters,
homosexuals, and those opposing military service, in labor camps
-​ The closure of the UMAP camps in 1968 was prompted by domestic and international
pressure on Castro, although he claimed credit for the decision
-​ Castro's treatment of opposition also included allowing the exodus of Cubans from the
island at various times, a policy that helped him consolidate power between 1959 and
1962 and was repeated on other occasions

Case study: The Peruvian embassy and the Mariel boatlift

-​ 1980: Economic problems in Cuba spark political challenges for Castro's leadership
-​ April: Bus crashes gates of Peruvian embassy in Havana, Cuban guard shot
 -​ Castro withdraws guards from embassy, allowing 10,000+ Cubans seeking asylum to
enter
-​ Castro supports asylum seekers, allows anyone to leave the island
-​ Mariel boatlift: Over 125,000 Cubans emigrate, including opponents, relatives, prisoners,
and mentally ill
-​ Boatlift highlights unprecedented discontent, questions revolution's legitimacy
-​ Relaxation of visitation laws exposes Cubans to success stories abroad, leading to
disillusionment
-​ Crisis unique: Emigration used as valve before, but 1980 wave primarily economic, not
political
-​ Economic hardships in Special Period lead to increased political discontent in 1990s
-​ Dissident groups demand political freedom, market reforms, government responds with
repression

The impact of foreign policy on Castro’s maintenance of power

-​ Castro's foreign policy aimed to counteract the impact of the US embargo by seeking
new commercial and political partners
-​ Strengthened ties with the Soviet Union in the 1960s and 1970s provided military
equipment, training, and essential economic support, including subsidies for sugar and
nickel, oil, and financial assistance
-​ Relations with the Soviet Union became crucial for Cuba's economy and Castro's
maintenance of power
-​ Castro supported national liberation movements globally to protect Cuba and counter
US influence
-​ He believed in assisting leftist revolutions against US attempts to curb them
-​ Despite occasional disagreements, Castro's interventions aligned with Soviet interests,
as seen in the case study of Angola