API 577

Recommended Practice 2201, Procedures for Welding or Hot Tapping on Equipment in Service.
During Welding: Welding inspection during welding operations should include audit parameters to verify the welding
is performed to the procedures.
Nonconformance Corrective action for a nonconformance depends upon the nature of the nonconformance and its
impact on the properties of the weldment. Corrective action may include reworking the weld.
Safety Precautions Inspectors should be aware of the hazards associated with welding and take appropriate steps to
prevent injury while performing inspection tasks. As a minimum, the lations should be
reviewed as applicable to welding operations;

CH 4 Welding Processes
SMAW
SMAW creates an arc between a covered electrode and the weld pool
SMAW A constant-current (CC) power supply is preferred
Shielding is provided by the decomposition of the electrode coating, without application of pressure

GTAW
GTAW can be used with or without the addition of filler metal (Autogenous Welds).
DCEN Direct current electrode negative welding advantages of deeper penetration and faster welding speeds.

GMAW
GMAW-S produces a fast freezing weld pool that is generally suited for joining thin Sections, high potential for
lack of sidewall and interpass fusion
GMAW Globular Transfer low cost when use carbon dioxide CO2 as a shielding gas, produce high heat, excessive
weld spatter limited to the flat and horizontal positions.
GMAW Spray Transfer results in a highly directed stream of discrete drops that are accelerated by arc forces. high
weld metal deposition rates. negligible spatter.

Stud Arc Welding (SW)

Limitations this process is primarily suitable for only carbon steel and low-alloy steels

CH 5 Welding Materials
Welding materials refers to the many materials involved in welding, including the base metal, filler metal, fluxes, and
gases, if any, as each of these has an impact on WPS and the weldment mechanical properties.

5.3 F-Number Assignment to Filler Metals

Welders who qualify with one filler metal are qualified to weld with all filler metals having the same F-number, and
in the case of carbon steel SMAW electrodes, may additionally qualify to weld with electrodes having lower F-
numbers.

CH 6 Welding Procedure
The PQR is a record of the welding data and variables used to weld a test coupon and the test results used to
qualify the WPS.
The propose PQR to establish the properties of the weld.

CH 8 Nondestructive Examination
8.1 Discontinuities/imperfections
NDE is defined as those inspection methods that allow materials to be examined without changing or destroying
their future usefulness.

Slug and tungsten inclusion can be found in weld interface in weld metal zone.
 Incomplete joint penetration location base metal zone (BMZ) Weld root in a groove weld.
Lamination BMZ Base metal, generally near mid-thickness of section.
Delamination BMZ Base metal, generally near mid-thickness of section.
Crater Crack WMZ Weld metal at point where arc is terminated.

8.3 Visual Examination (VT)

General VT is the most extensively used NDE method for welds.
direct VT requires access to permit the eye
within 6 in. through 24 in. (150 mm through 600 mm) of surface
to be examined and at an angle not less than 30° to the surface

personnel are required to document annual completion of a J-1 Jaeger-type eye vision test (with or without
correction)
Mirrors may be used to improve the angle of vision
Standards such as ASME Section V, Article 9, specify minimum lighting levels of 100 foot-candles (1000 lux) at the
examination surface.
Digital or infrared pyrometer or temperature sensitive crayons: Measures preheat and interpass temperatures.

8.5 Alternating Current Field Measurement ACFM

ACFM electromagnetic, non-contacting technique able to detect and size surface breaking imperfections in a range
of different materials and through coatings of varying thicknesses.
used for inspecting complex geometries such as nozzles, ring-grooves
minimal surface preparation and can be used at elevated temperatures up to 900 °F (480 °C)
ACFM is used for the evaluation and monitoring of existing cracks.

8.6 Liquid Penetrant Examination (PT)

A limitation of PT is restricted to a maximum temperature of 125 °F (52 °C)

8.8 Radiographic Examination (RT)

Image Quality Indicators (IQIs)

Wire-type IQIs are

- constructed of an array of (generally) six parallel wires of specified diameters
- made of material that is radiographically similar to the component being radiographed.
- Wire-type IQIs are placed on and perpendicular to the weld
- visible as a lighter white image on the radiograph
- specific wire that is to be clearly visible on an acceptable radiograph is known as the essential wire
Hole-type IQIs:
- holes of a specified diameter drilled or punched
- holes in the IQI are projected on a radiograph as darker (black or gray) spots
- The thicknesses of hole-type IQIs are specified to represent approximately 2 % or 4 % of the thickness
- Hole diameters are one, two, and four times the thickness (1T, 2T, and 4T) of the IQI
- Hole-type IQIs are placed adjacent to the weld.

Radiographic Identification

Identification information on all radiographs should be plainly and permanently produced, traceable to contract,
manufacturer, date, and to component, weld or weld seam, and part numbers

Radiographic Density

The transmitted film density range for radiographic image through hole-type IQI, or wire IQI, in the area of interest
should be within the range
- 1.8 to 4.0 for X-rays - 2.0 to 4.0 for gamma rays.
 density of the radiograph is measured by step wedge comparison or densitometer.

8.9 Ultrasonic Examination (UT)

UT System Calibration

The temperature of the calibration standard should be same temperature as part tested within (+/-) 25 °F (14 °C).
If, during a system calibration check, it is determined that the ultrasonic equipment is not functioning properly, all
areas tested since the last successful calibration should be re-examined.
DAC Distance Amplitude correction
Q As a minimum an, ultrasonic instrument should be checked with a calibration standard at all of the following
- performed prior to and at the completion of an examination
- when the ambient temperature changes
- When examination personal is changed.

8.11 Pressure and Leak Testing/Examination (LT)

The test should be held long enough for a thorough visual inspection to be completed to identify any potential leaks.
Typically, a pressure test should be held for at least 30 min, or as specified by the referencing code or specification.
Pneumatic pressure tests often require special approvals and additional safety considerations due to the amount of
stored energy in the system.
One of the most common methods used during pneumatic LT is the direct pressure bubble test.

9 Welding Inspection
9.2 Tasks Prior to Welding
Inspector potential task prior to welding include all of the following identifying and clarifying inconsistencies with
standards codes and specification requirements

9.5 Nonconformances and Defects

Q Corrective action for a nonconformance depends upon the nature of the nonconformance and its impact on the
properties of the weldment. Corrective action may include reworking the weld.

CH 10 Metallurgy
Welding Metallurgy

Welding metallurgy is concerned with melting, solidification, gas metal reactions, slag metal reactions, surface
phenomena, and base metal reactions.
There are three parts of a weld: the weld metal, heat-affected metal (zone), and base metal.
Most typical weld metals are rapidly solidified and have a fine-grain dendritic microstructure.
HAZ Temperature 1350 °F / 700 °C.
Size of HAZ determined by heat input used.
Main factors affecting the weldability of the base metal is chemical composition.

10.4 Mechanical Properties

Hardness

The hardness of a material is defined as the resistance to plastic deformation by indentation hardness tests, such as
Brinell, Rockwell, Knoop, and Vickers.

Toughness

Q Toughness is the ability of a metal to absorb energy and deform plastically before fracturing.

is usually measured by the energy absorbed in a notch impact test.

toughness tests.
- One of the most common is a notched bar impact test called the Charpy impact test
 - specimen size (10 mm x 10 mm) x 25 length.
- tested at various temperatures to determine the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature
Q What does a low energy value for a notch toughness test indicate? The material is brittle

10.5 Preheating
Heating of the weld and surrounding base metal to a predetermined temperature prior to the start of welding.
The primary purpose for preheating carbon and low-alloy steels is to reduce the tendency for hydrogen-induced
delayed cracking. By;
- driving moisture from the surface to be welded
- slowing the cooling rate, which helps prevent the formation of martensite in the weld and base metal HAZ
temperature is maintained by using several methods, including
- thermocouples
- contact pyrometer
- infrared temperature measuring instruments
- temperature-indicating crayons
most common techniques used in pipe and tank fabrication are
- electrical resistance coils
- oxyacetylene
- natural-gas torch.
Good practice Preheating area on either side of the weld joint for a distance three times the width of the weld.
Preheat should applied and extend to at least 2" (50 mm) on either side of the weld to encompass the weld &HAZ.

10.6 Heat Treatment

Heat treatments are achieved by bringing the material to transformation temp. (material based, 1700 oF to 1800 oF
for steels), holding for a period of time, and cooling down at various rates.

Hardening

Hardening or hardenability is defined as that property of a ferrous alloy that determines the depth and distribution
of hardness induced by quenching.
Significant amounts of martensite formation in the HAZ can lead to hydrogen-assisted cracking or a loss in ductility
and toughness.

Post weld Heat Treatment

The primary reason for PWHT is to relieve residual stresses in a welded fabrication. In ferritic welds, PWHT is also
conducted to reduce the hardness of the HAZ. Stresses occur during welding due to the localized heating and severe
temperature changes that occur

10.7 Material Test Reports

There are typically two types of test reports on a material test report (MTR).
- A heat analysis, or mill certificate is chemical analysis and weight percent of the chemical elements.
- A product analysis is a chemical analysis of the end product and is supplied by the manufacturer of the material.

10.8 Weldability of Metals

A primary factor affecting weldability of metals and alloys is their chemical composition.
Carbon content has the greatest effect on mechanical properties, such as tensile strength, ductility, and toughness
in the base metal HAZ and weldment.
alloying elements, such as manganese, chromium, nickel, and molybdenum are added to provide beneficial effects
on strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance.
Steels with a Carbon Equivalent CE less than 0.35 require no preheat. Steels with a CE of 0.35 to 0.55 usually require
preheating, and steels with a CE greater than 0.55 require both preheating and a PWHT.
The simplest weldability tests are those that evaluate the strength and ductility of the weld.
10.9 Weldability of High Alloys
Most important considerations to welding austenitic stainless steels, solidification cracking, hot cracking, distortion,
and maintaining corrosion resistance. Solidification cracking & hot cracking (sometimes called hot shortness)

CH 11 Refinery and Petrochemical Plant Welding Issues

Hot Tapping and In-Service Welding
API 2201 provides review of the safety aspects to considered when hot tapping or welding on in-service.
Two primary concerns when welding on in-service piping and equipment are burn-through and cracking.
Hot tap and in-service welding operations should be carried out only with low-hydrogen consumables and
electrodes (e.g. E7016, E7018, and E7048)
Cellulosic-type electrodes (e.g. E6010, E6011, and E7010) may be used for root and hot passes
Root pass with low-hydrogen electrodes reduces risk of HAC. It also reduces risk of burn-through because the
amount of heat directed to the base metal is less than when using cellulosic-type electrodes.
Weld cracking result during hot taping and in-service weld when fast cooling rate (caused by flowing contents)
produce hard weld microstructure.
To minimize burn-through, the first weld pass to equipment or piping less than 1/4in. (6 mm) thick should be made
with a 3/32in. (2.4 mm) or smaller diameter electrode to limit heat input.

lified to perform the

welding given its position, process, and other limitations.
Waving should avoid when welding on hot tapping because heat input is increased.

Annex A
A.4 Electrode Identification

EXAM QUESTIONS

Q 49- An inspector potential task prior to welding include all of the following? identifying and clarifying
inconsistencies with standards codes and specification requirements.