Communications

Chapter 1: Introduction to Analog  Communications = Information Conveying

and Digital Communications
 Telecommunications = Communications in
January 2024 most current aspects
Lectured by
Prof. Dr. Thuong Le-Tien  The course is about communications based
Cell: 0903 787 989
Email: thuongle@hcmut.edu.vn on signal concepts in electrical engineering
 Limited to information in electrical forms
 Primarily cover information transfer at signals and
Slides with references from HUT Finland, La Hore uni., systems levels
Mc. Graw Hill Co., and A.B. Carlson’s Communication Systems,
 little deal with circuits, chips, signal processing,
microprocessors, protocols, and networks
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What exactly is information. Classify signals

 Information is a word that is too  Messages or in term of signals can be classified in various ways:
Periodic/non-periodic; Deterministic/random; Energy/power;
generic for different purposes the most common one in Communication Systems can deal with
analog/digital groups
 use the word “message”  Analog
 A physical manifestation of information  A physical quantity that varies with “time”, usually in a
smooth or continuous fashion
 What do communication systems have  Fidelity describes how close is the received signal to the
original signal. Fidelity defines acceptability
to do with messages or informations  Digital
 Communication systems are responsible for  An ordered sequence of symbols selected from a finite set
of discrete elements
producing an “acceptable” replica of  When digital signals are sent through a communication
system, degree of accuracy within a given time defines the
message/information at the destination acceptability

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 Elements of Communication Systems
n(t) 
(Modulator) m (t )
Examples for basic definitions
m(t) s(t)
Analog h(t) Demodulator
or Digital

 Analog Signals
 Values are taken from an
infinite set
t

 Digital Signals
 Values are taken from a
discrete set
t
 Binary Signals 1 1 1 Transmitter Channel Receiver
 Digital signals with just *Modulati *Attenuation *Detection (Demod+Decod)
two discrete values 0 0 0 0 on *Noise *Filtering (Equalization)
*Coding *Distortion
t *Interference
*Fading
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MODULATIONS
Transmitter
 What does modulation do:
 Modulate messages (analog) or Encode bits Analog Digital
(digital) into amplitude, frequency, or phase Modulation Modulation
of a carrier signal.
 Also makes transmitted signal robust against
channel impairments (Noise, Interferences,
Analog Carrier- Analog Signal-
Fading, Distortions, etc.) FM AM PM
Digital Carrier
Digital Signal
 Coding in digital communication systems
 Source coding – remove redundancy P
AS PS QA PC D PP
Channel coding – add redundancy, lower BER
FS W
 AM-C DSB SSB VSB M M M M
K K K M
 Encryption Coding – hide information
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 Example about Modulations

Channels
 Channel introduces impairments
 Noise

 Thermal noise is the most significant

 Additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)

 Distortion

 Inter-symbol interference (ISI)

 Attenuation and fading

 Constant attenuation

 Variable attenuation
(c)
 Interference
(a) Modulating Signal; (b) Sinusoidal carrier with amplitude modulation
(c) Pulse-train carrier with amplitude modulation  Crosstalk
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Receiver
 What does Demodulation/Detection do: Fundamental Limitations
 Extracts messages (analog systems) or bits (digital  If practical implementation is not a concern and we
systems) from the received signal don’t worry about feasibility, is there something else
that limits acceptable communications?
 Mitigates channel impairments by making use of

equalizers for both Analog and Digital Communications  Bandwidth

 Channel must be able to allow signals to pass
 Decodes the signal, especially if channel coding was
through
performed at the transmitter
 Channels usually have limited bandwidths

 Can we reduce signal bandwidths: By pre-processing

at source (reduce redundancy, compression, etc.)
(a) Transmitted signal
(b) Effects of distortion  Noise
(c) Effects of interference
 Can be reduce it by - Filters
(d) Effects of noise
 Can be reduce its effects? - Equalizers

 Signal processing at the transmitter and receiver

 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR): Match Filters

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 Performance Criterion Limits on data rates
 How a “good” communication system can be
differentiated from a “sloppy” one?  Shannon obtained formulas that provide
 For analog communications fundamental limits on data rates (1948)

 How close is m (t ) to m(t): Fidelity!  Without channel impairments, an infinite data
 SNR is typically used as a performance metric
rate is achievable with probability of error
 For digital communications approaching zero
 Data rate and probability of error (BER)

 SNR as well
 For bandlimited AWGN channels, the
 No channel impairments  no errors
“capacity” of a channel is:
 With noise, error probability/SNR depend upon
data rate, signal and noise powers, modulation C = B log2(1+SNR) = 3.32B log10(1+SNR) Bits/second
scheme, etc.
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MODULATION FOR MULTIPLEXING

Electromagnetic wave propagation over
Multiplexing is the process of combining several wireless channels
signals for simultaneous transmission on a channel. Line of Sight and Sky
Three major groups of Multiplexing techniques. wave propagations

•Frequency–Division Multiplexing, FDM, uses CW

modulation to put each signal on a different carrier E and F layers of Ionosphere

frequency.
•Time-Division Multiplexing, TDM, uses pulse
modulation to put Samples of different signals in
nonoverlapping time slots
•Code-Division Multiple Access, CDMA, assigns a
unique code to each Digital (cellular) user
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Multipath interference caused by a signal being reflected
off the terrain and a building
Example: PSTN, ADSL
 Public Switched Telephone Network, (PSTN)
 Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)
 Components
 Phone set (analog signal is generated), MODEM
 Local exchange (A/D conversion)
 Long-haul exchange
 Characteristics
 Circuit-switched network
 Designed for voice communications and Internet
 Faxes and modems use PSTN for transmission of
digital data in analog form
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ADSL Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line

Example: PSTN
Long distance line International
Local exchange International line
exchange

Long distance
Local line exchange
Long distance
Long distance line users

Local
exchange

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Example: Cellular phones Example: Cellular
 Cellular Communication System
 A cell is assigned some number of channels
Typically one channel is allocated to a user
PSTN


 Users communicate with a base station

MTSO  Base station is connected to MTSO/PSTN
 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System, 1st
MTSO generation) is an analog system, uses FM and
frequency-division multiple access
 Digital systems use digital modulations, D-AMPS
MTSO: Mobile Telephone (2nd generation); GSM (2nd genration up); CDMA
Switching Office (3rd generation up)

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Standard phones: using Circuit Switching

Example: Radio broadcasts

Internet phones: Voice over IP using packet switching
 Two popular modes are used in analog
broadcasting communication systems
 AM
 Amplitude modulation
 600-1600kHz (MW), 1600kHz-22MHz (SW)
 10kHz channels
 FM
 Frequency modulation
 88-108MHz (FCC)
 Channels centered at 200kHz intervals starting at
88.1MHz

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 Software radio receiver

Example: Wireless LANs

 Various standards
 IEEE 802.11a/b/g popular
Software radio receiver implemented FPGA
 IEEE 802.11b
 11Mb/s data rate
 2.4-2.4835GHz band
 Modulation: Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS),
Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
 IEEE 802.11a
 55Mb/s data rate
 5.725-5.825GHz band (in U.S.)
 Uses orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM)

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Example: LANs and WANs Example: Ad Hoc Networks

 Local Area Networks (LANs)  Various devices connected to each other
 Connect “closely” located computers without using an infrastructure
 Data bits are transmitted in chunks (packets) for  Sensor Networks
efficiency/feasibility reasons  Similar to ad hoc Networks (may be considered a special
 Various LAN protocols are used in practice case of ad hoc networks)
 Wide Area Networks (WANs)  Have power constraints (Use non-rechargeable battery)
 A wide area backbone network connects different  Mesh Networks
LANs  Another example of ad hoc networks
 A standard protocol is needed for such  Used for provide communications to remote areas
communication (TCP/IP)

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Media and Signal Spectra

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 Signals and Spectra
Chapter 2: Signals and Spectra
in Communication Systems  A generic sinusoidal
signal
v(t )  A cos(0t   ); 0  2f 0
 Phasor representation

January 2024
Lectured by Prof. Dr. Thuong Le-Tien  Frequency domain
representation

Amplitude
 Rotating phasors A
 Frequency plots f0
Slides with references from HUT Finland, La Hore uni.,  Amplitude A f0 f
Mc. Graw Hill Co., A.B. Carlson’s “Communication  Phase 0t   

Phase
Systems”, and Leon W.Couch “Digital and Analog
Communication Systems” books f0 f
1 2

 Two sided spectra can be seen from

Periodic Signals
 This represents two rotating phasors
 Amplitude and phase spectrum (two sided)  A signal x p(t ) is periodic if there exists T
such that x p(t) = x p(t + T)
 Smallest such T is called fundamental
period T0
 Any integer multiple of T0 is also a period

T0

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 Normalized Power
Average signal and Power  In the concept of normalized power, R is
assumed to be 1Ω, although it may be another
 Average signal value in the actual circuit.
 Another way of expressing this concept is to say
that the power is given on a per-ohm basis.
 It can also be realized that the square root of the
normalized power is the rms value.
 For periodic signals
Definition. The average normalized power is given by:
Where s(t) is the voltage or current waveform
 Average power T /2
1
P  s (t )  lim 
2
s 2 (t )dt
T  T
T / 2
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Decibel Decibel Gain

 A base 10 logarithmic measure of power ratios.
 The ratio of the power level at the output of a circuit
compared with that at the input is often specified by
 If resistive loads are involved,
the decibel gain instead of the actual ratio.
 Decibel measure can be defined in 3 ways
 Decibel Gain
 Decibel signal-to-noise ratio (SNR in dB) Definition of dB may be reduced to,
 Mili-watt Decibel or dBm
 Definition: Decibel Gain
The decibel gain of a circuit is:
or

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Decibel signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) Decibel with mili watt reference (dBm)
 Definition. The decibel power level with respect to 1 mW
 Definition. The decibel signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) is:

= 30 + 10 log (Actual Power Level (watts)

Where, Signal Power (S) =  Here the “m” in the dBm denotes a milliwatt reference.
 When a 1-W reference level is used, the decibel level is
denoted dBW;
And, Noise Power (N) =  when a 1-kW reference level is used, the decibel level
is denoted dBk.
E.g.: If an antenna receives a signal power of 0.3W, what is the
received power level in dBm?
dBm = 30 + 10xlog(0.3) = 30 + 10x(-0.523)3 = 24.77 dBm

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Fourier Series
Fourier Series Representation
 Projection of periodic signals onto basis
functions
 Periodic signal is a weighted sum of these basis
functions
 Exponentials are used as basis functions for DC component:
writing Fourier series
Any periodic signal can be expressed as a
1
 f0= T0 (fundamental frequency)
sum of infinite number of exponentials (or Line spectra at frequencies that are integer
sinusoids for real signals) multiple of fundamental frequency

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Fourier series example: Fourier Series: Example

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Three major properties of V(f)

Fourier Transform
 Back to the Fourier series:

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Rectangular pulse spectrum
V(ƒ) = A sinc ƒ

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Convolution
 The convolution of a waveform w1(t) with a waveform
w2(t) to produce a third waveform w3(t) which is

Evaluation of the integral involves 3 steps.

• Time reversal of w2 to obtain w2(-λ),
• Time shifting of w2 by t seconds to obtain w2(-(λ-t)),
and
• Multiplying this result by w1 to form the integrand
w1(λ)w2(-(λ-t)).

Note: we denote a signal s(t) as a waveform w(t)

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Example for Convolution Power Spectral Density (PSD)
 T 
t 2   We define the truncated version of the waveform by:
w1 (t )    
 T 
 
t
-
w 2 (t)=e T u (t )

For 0< t < T • The average normalized power:

For t > T
• Using Parseval’s theorem to calculate power from the
frequency domain

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Autocorrelation Function
 Definition: The Power Spectral Density (PSD) for a  Definition: The autocorrelation of a real (physical)
deterministic power waveform is waveform is

• Wiener-Khintchine Theorem: PSD and the autocorrelation function are Fourier

• where wT(t) ↔ WT(f) and Pw(f) has units of watts per hertz. transform pairs;

• The PSD is always a real nonnegative function of frequency.

The PSD can be evaluated by either of the following two methods:
• PSD is not sensitive to the phase spectrum of w(t) 1. Direct method: by using the definition,
• The normalized average power is 2. Indirect method: by first evaluating the autocorrelation function and
then taking the Fourier transform:

Pw(f)= ℑ [Rw(τ) ]
• This means the area under the PSD function is the normalized
• The average power can be obtained by any of the four techniques.
average power.

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 Normalized Power Power Spectral Density for Periodic Waveforms
Theorem: For a periodic waveform, the power spectral
Theorem: For a periodic waveform w(t), the
density (PSD) is given by
normalized power is given by:

where T0 = 1/f0 is the period of the waveform and

where the {cn} are the complex Fourier coefficients for the waveform. {cn} are the corresponding Fourier coefficients for the waveform.

Proof: For periodic w(t), the Fourier series representation is valid over all time
and one may evaluate the normalized power:

PSD is the FT of the

Autocorrelation
function

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Power Spectral Density for a Square Wave Noise in communication systems

• The PSD for the periodic square wave will be found.  Thermal noise is described by a zero-mean Gaussian random
• Because the waveform is periodic, FS coefficients can be used to process, n(t).
evaluate the PSD. Consequently this problem becomes one of  Its PSD is flat, hence, it is called white noise.
evaluating the FS coefficients.
[w/Hz]

Power spectral
density

Autocorrelation
function

Probability density function

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Signal transmission through linear systems  Ideal filters:

Input Output
Non-causal!
Linear system Low-pass

 Deterministic signals:
 Random signals:
Band-pass High-pass

 Ideal distortion less transmission:

All the frequency components of the signal not

 Realizable filters:
only arrive with an identical time delay, but also
RC filters Butterworth filter
are amplified or attenuated equally.


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Bandwidth of signal Bandwidth of signal …

 Different definition of bandwidth:
 Baseband versus bandpass: a) Half-power bandwidth a) Fractional power containment bandwidth
b) Noise equivalent bandwidth b) Bounded power spectral density
Baseband Bandpass c) Null-to-null bandwidth c) Absolute bandwidth
signal signal
Local oscillator

(a)
 Bandwidth dilemma: (b)
 Bandlimited signals are not realizable! (c)
(d)
 Realizable signals have infinite bandwidth!
(e)50dB
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 Power Transfer Function
 Derive the relationship between the power spectral density
(PSD) at the input, Px(f), and that at the output, Py(f) , of a linear
time-invariant network.
Using the definition of PSD

PSD of the output is

Using transfer function

in a formal sense, we obtain

Thus, the power transfer

function of the network is

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