Compilation

Notes
Political Science & International
Relations

POLITICAL THEORIES
AND IDEOLOGIES
 INDEX

1. Theories of State
2. Liberal Theory of the State || Neo-liberal Theory of State
3. Theories of State (Part - 2)
4. Theories of State (Part - 03)
5. Theories of State and Theory of Justice
6. Theories of Justice
7. Theories of Justice (Part - 2)
8. Theories of Justice || Theories of Equality
9. Theories of Equality
10. Theories of Equality (Part-2)
11. Theories of Equality (Part - 3)
12. Theories of Rights
13. Theories of Rights (Part - 2)
14. Theories of Rights (Part - 3)
15. Theories of Rights (Part - 4)
16. Democracy (Part 2)
17. Democracy Part - 03
18. Democracy (Part – 4)
19. Democracy and Power
20. Power and Hegemony
21. Power, Hegemony and Legitimacy
22. Ideology and Legitimacy
23. Legitimacy and Liberalism
24. Liberalism and Socialism
25. Liberalism and Socialism (Part - 2)
26. Socialism and Fascism
27. Fascism and Neo-Marxism
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Theories of State

Introduction

 The state is the central theme of political science. The shadow of the state falls upon

almost every human activity. From education to economic management, from social

welfare to sanitation, and from domestic order to external defense, the state shapes

and controls; and where it does not shape or control, it regulates, supervises,

authorizes, or prescribes.

 Even those aspects of life that are usually considered personal or private such as

marriage, divorce, abortion, and religious worship are ultimately subject to the

authority of the state. So we can say that a state is a political association with effective

sovereignty over a geographic area representing a population.

 According to Garner, “The state as a concept of political science is a community of

persons more or less numerous, permanently occupying a definite portion of territory

independent of external control and having an organized government to which the

great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience”.

Difference between the State and Nation

 The state is neither a ‘country’ nor a ‘nation’ nor even a ‘society’.

 The territorial state is a country in the same sense as the independent country, a state.

When we speak of the country we enter into the domains of soil, seasons, climate,

boundaries, in short geography. So we find the word ‘country’ in a typically

geographical sense. The word ‘state’ and the country is essentially a political concept.

 Every state is a country, but unless a country is not independent, it is not a state.

Unity in the state is sought on grounds of emotional feelings and their oneness while

in the state unity is sought through laws.

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 Sabine says that nation refers to a unity of culture; a feeling of loyalty for a common

land, common language and literature, identity of history and common heroes, and

common religion. While State refers to a unity of legal and political authority. The state

is not a society, not even the form of society as MacIver says: it is, according to him,

an association that regulates the outstanding external relationship of men in society.

 The state is found in its elaborate system. It is found in those institutions that create

laws and enforce them, legislative, executive, and judicial institutions: the government.

It is found in the bureaucratic institutions which are attached to every executive

ministry. It is found in the institutions which are called into operation when their will

is threatened, in the military and police. The state is what the sum-total institutions

are.

Origin of the State

 There are various theories regarding the origin of the state such as divine origin theory,

force theory, materialistic theory, etc. But the prominent among the theories of the

origin of the state are:-

 Social contract theory,

 Historical/Evolutionary theory and

 Marxist theory.

1. Social Contract Theory of Origin of State:

 Proponents – Thomas Hobbes and John Locke.

 The theory of social contract expresses that the state originates from intentional

human actions expressed during a pre-civil and pre-political phase known as the

state of nature.

 This theory assumes a time when no established political order existed, and people

lived without laws, authority, or government.

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 Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau categorize human society into two periods:

 The state of nature and

 The political era.

 They assert that the social contract, formed during the state of nature,

marks the transition from a lawless, authority-free existence to the

establishment of a political society.

 According to these philosophers, the social contract signifies the crucial moment

when people recognize the necessity of the state, leading to its formation after the

agreement.

 About the outcome of the contract, Hobbes propounded an omnipotent state with

absolute sovereignty; Locke advocated a limited state with political sovereignty and

Rousseau talked about a democratic state based on his theory of general will with

popular sovereignty.

 Critics have condemned the social contract theory on grounds of bad history, bad

law, and bad philosophy.

 It was a bad history in so far as there is no proof of the conclusion of the

Contract ever being made.

 It was a bad law in so far as the contract once was irrevocable - permitted

entrance and prohibited exit. A one-way traffic sort of contract and therefore,

legally invalid.

 It was a bad philosophy in so far as political consciousness can never be the

result of any one moment as contractualism makes us believe.

2. Historical/Evolutionary Theory of Origin of State:

 According to this theory, the state is a historical growth or the result of gradual

evolution.
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 It is a continuous development always in the process of evolution. Garner argued:

‘The state is neither the handiwork of God, nor the result of superior physical force,

nor a mere expansion of the families. It is the of a gradual process of social

development out of grossly imperfect beginnings.’

3. Marxian Theory of Origin of State:-

 Proponents – Fredrick Engels, Karl Marx.

 The emergence of the state is closely linked to the appearance of antagonistic

classes, which, in turn, arises due to the establishment of private ownership of

means of production.

 The state is a product of class societies and manifests at a specific stage of social

development.

 Functioning as a class institution, the state historically represents the economically

dominant class — be it slave-owners, feudal lords, or, currently, capitalists.

 The state embodies public power, representing the legal authority to employ force.

 State power is exerted through its apparatus, encompassing bureaucracy, police,

courts, jails, and similar institutions.

 To operate effectively, public power allows the state the authority to tax citizens,

raise loans, and possess property.

Liberal Theory of the State

 The liberal perspective of the state can be seen in the writings of John Locke, Bentham,

Adam Smith, John Stuart Mill, etc.

 These political philosophers have pointed out certain characteristics of the liberal

approach to the state which are as follows:-

 The individual is the focal point of all activities. Everything exists for the individual.

It believes in the absolute value of human personality.

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 A belief in the autonomy of the individual will.

 Individual has certain inalienable rights, particularly, the rights of life, liberty, and

property.

 State comes into existence by mutual consent for protection of rights. It means

that the state represents the willing consent of the governed.

 A government that governs the least is the best.

 Looking at the features listed above, we can say that the early or classical liberals

overestimate the individual and conversely underestimate the potential of the state.

 In its zeal to protect and promote individual rights, liberties, and autonomy, it seeks

to build a capitalistic system where the state is reduced to the position of an instrument

serving exploitative tendencies.

 There exist two schools of thought in liberalism, i.e., Minimal State or negative

liberalism and Welfare State or positive liberalism.

Positive Liberalism (Welfare State)

 J.S. Mill, Thomas Hobbes, and Green are the proponents of positive liberalism.

 This school argues for the presence of the conditions which help in realising the true

self of the individual. It is necessary that there should be equal opportunities to become

unequal in life.

 The state is an instrument for the development of human personality through welfare

measures.

 Now the functioning of state is to manage health care facilities, education, providing

employment and abolition of property.

 Beveridge Report (1942) identified five giants namely want, diseases, ignorance,

squalor, idleness.
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 Green says that the function of state is to hindering the hindrances to help realise the

true potential of man.

 We can say that in positive liberalism state became a nanny state and from cradle to

grave state. But positive liberals defend this claim by saying that the welfare state

enhances individual liberty.

Negative Liberalism (Night watchman State)

 Proponents – John Locke, Bentham.

 Idea of limited state.

 Negative liberals advocate for doing away with all impediments in man’s and which

comes his way in realising his true self.

 Negative liberals consider law and liberty anti-thetical.

 It argues for laissez faire liberalism and promote free market.

Bentham wrote that ‘the nature has placed mankind under the governance of two

sovereign masters: pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to

do as well as to determine what we shall do. Bentham applied this principle to the spheres

of law, politics, and the state.

Hereby, we can conclude that classical liberalism has faith in the absolute value worth and

spiritual equality of the individual. It believes in the masterless individual, in the autonomy

of the individual will, and in the rationality and goodness of the individual.
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Liberal Theory of the State || Neo-liberal Theory of State

Neo-liberal Theory of the State:

❖ During the 1990s, the welfare state experienced a significant setback primarily due to

financial challenges.

❖ The argument centered on the perceived high costs associated with welfare services,

including medical care, pensions, and education. As the population aged, the overall

expense of these services increased, while the working population responsible for

shouldering the financial burden decreased.

❖ Another concern revolved around the impact of welfare on work motivation, positing

that guaranteed pay and benefits might discourage people from actively working. This

situation also affected those who faced substantial tax deductions to fund welfare

benefits.

❖ Consequently, the ongoing debate in the welfare state crisis revolves around whether

the state should primarily act as a redistributor of wealth and services from the affluent

to the less fortunate or if its role should be limited to providing a 'safety net,' ensuring

a minimum level of welfare to prevent individuals from falling below. This backdrop

gave rise to the emergence of neoliberalism as a theoretical response. Neo-liberalism

emerged in the works of Hayek, Robert Nozick, and Milton Friedman.

❖ Neo-liberals argue for the rolling back of the state. It believes that the state should not

aim to increase power in the name of welfare. The neo-liberal agenda also influenced

Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher.

❖ In his book State, Anarchy and Utopia Nozick said that a powerful state goes against

the basic concept of liberty.

❖ Hayek also wrote in the Constitution of Liberty that the welfare state curtails the

autonomy, self-reliance, independence, and risk-taking capability of individuals.

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❖ In the book The Road to Serfdom, Hayek said that socialism and totalitarianism are

the two sides of the same coin. Both disregard the liberty and autonomy of individuals.

He said that the monopoly of the state over economic activities is harmful to the liberty

of individuals.

Criticism of the neo-liberal theory of state:

❖ Neo-liberalism was criticized by social liberals like Amartya Sen and Joseph Stiglitz.

They have argued for the positive role of the state in capacity building of people.

❖ Another criticism was forwarded by the Marxist scholar Immanuel Wallerstein who

equates neo-liberal globalisation with barbarianism. According to him, neo-liberal

policies and capitalist-led globalization have led to the birth of a world system in which

all states have got interlinked and core states are controlling the states at the periphery

of the system.

Marxist Theory of the State

❖ The Marxist theory of the state emerged as a critique of liberalism or liberal capitalist

theory of the state. As opposed to liberal scholars, Marxist scholars believe the state

emerges not from a contractual agreement but rather from the dominance of the

strong over the weak.

❖ Marxists believe that the state is an instrument of coercion and it is not neutral which

works in the interest of the capitalist class.

❖ The theory of the welfare state (neoliberalism) is an intellectual justification of the

liberal state as nothing much has been changed to the situations of the working classes.

❖ The most prominent theoreticians of Marxism are Karl Marx, Lenin, and Mao Tse-

Tung.

The Marxist theory of state has the following features:-

❖ Societies and states represent separate entities, with the nature of a society

determining the potential characteristics of its associated state. The structure of society

provides the foundation upon which the superstructure, including the state, is

constructed.
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❖ The state functions as a tool to achieve the objectives of those in control of society. In

a system of slavery, the state serves the masters; in feudalism, it serves the feudal lords;

in capitalism, it serves the capitalists. In a dictatorship of the proletariat, the

proletarian state serves the interests of the workers.

Nature of State in Marxism

❖ To the nature of the state, we see two approaches –

➢ The Instrumentalist approach and

➢ The Structuralist or Relative Autonomy approach.

Instrumentalist Approach

❖ The state is portrayed as a tool of the capitalist class. It aligns with Marx's base and

superstructure model, where the state does not exist as a standalone structure but as

a reflection of the economic base.

❖ In The Communist Manifesto (1848) ‘the executive of the modern state is but a

committee for managing the common affairs to the whole bourgeoisie’. From this

perspective, the state is dependent upon society and entirely dependent upon its

economically dominant class, which in capitalism is the bourgeoisie.

❖ Ralph Miliband in his book, ‘State in Capitalist Societies’ gives an analysis of the

Instrumentalist state where he explodes the myth of welfare state. His analysis can be

summarised as:-

1. Still today a large number of activities are in private hands.

2. A small proportion of people continue to possess a disproportionate share of wealth.

3. So so-called managerial revolution has not shifted the power from the hands of the

capitalist class to the working class.

4. Recruitment to managerial jobs is still hereditary.

5. Class which holds the economic power also controls the political structure.
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Miliband is not focusing on the economic factors. Managerial class is a new instrument of

exploitation. Miliband focuses on the superstructure and says that civil services and political

parties play a primary role in protecting capitalism.

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Theories of State (Part - 2)

Relative Autonomy or Structuralist Approach

 The state possesses its structure, signifying that it is more than just an instrument and

can exhibit relative autonomy from the economic base. This autonomy, however, is not

absolute but rather relative, implying that while the state is not entirely independent,

there are situations where it may not strictly adhere to the instructions of the capitalist

classes.

 Marx has given the relative autonomy theory in his book ‘THE 18TH BRUMAIRE OF

LOUIS BONAPARTE’. In this book, Marx has given the concept of Bonapartism: It is a

situation when the state gains dictatorial power and has relative autonomy from the

capitalist class.

 In scenarios where no single class holds dominance and multiple classes coexist,

Bonapartism emerges. In such situations, no individual class can fully control the

economic structure, granting the state increased influence. The state, gaining

bargaining power, transcends being a mere instrument of a specific class. Instead, it

engages in strategic interactions with various classes at different times, forming

alliances based on its elevated position.

 Relative autonomy theory of the state is also based on the works of Gramsci.

 Relative autonomy also shows that the state does not rule through coercion but by the

creation of hegemony. The state manufactures consent by projecting its autonomy.

Criticism of Marxist Theory of State

The Frankfurt School criticizes the Marxist theory of the state on several fronts:

1. Overemphasis on Economic Determinism: The Frankfurt School contends that the

Marxist theory places excessive emphasis on economic factors as the sole determinant

of societal structures, overlooking the complexities of cultural and ideological influences

on the state.
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2. Totalizing Nature: Critics from the Frankfurt School argue that Marxist theory tends

to present a totalizing view of the state, neglecting the nuances and autonomy that

certain institutions, such as the state, may possess beyond their economic base.

3. Limited Role of Culture: Unlike the Frankfurt School's emphasis on culture and ideology,

traditional Marxist theory downplays the role of cultural factors in shaping the state.

The Frankfurt School argues that culture plays a crucial role in maintaining and

perpetuating societal norms and institutions.

4. Instrumental Rationality: Marxist theory often portrays the state as a mere instrument

of the ruling class. The Frankfurt School challenges this instrumental rationality by

highlighting instances where the state may act independently or form alliances that

are not solely class-driven.

Pluralist Theory of State

 Proponents – Alex De Tocqueville, J.S. Mill, Arthur Bentley, Trumann.

 Pluralist theory of state emerged after World War II. However, there were traces

of pluralist thoughts much earlier. With the development of the federal form of

government, it was recognized that there is no single centre of power that exist in

society.

 After industrialisation and urbanisation different pressure groups were formed in

the western societies. Like trade Union, Student Union, peasant associations, etc.

The Pluralist theory of state developed in two directions:-

1) Laski and MacIver focused on the pluralistic concept of sovereignty.

2) Robert Dahl showed in his works that power in liberal democracies is widely distributed

among the groups.

Laski held the view that society is federal. Therefore, the state is federal and associations

of society like families, trade unions, and churches came into existence before the state.
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Laski said that every association in society is equally important for the development of

human personality. In this sense, the state is also one of the associations.

Pluralistic Theory of SovereigntyEmerged in response to the monistic theory of sovereignty

(Hobbes, Bentham, Austin) where states have unlimited and unquestionable powers which

led to the rise of fascism, Nazism which became a threat to international peace and

humanity.

In response to this, Laski propounded a pluralistic theory of sovereignty where he says that

the state is a keystone of social architecture whose authority is federal due to the presence

of a multiplicity of associations. It means the state performs an important role in society

which is regulating the behaviour of other associations.

Analysis of Dahl

 Elitists held the view that in liberal societies, power is held by elites. C. Wright Mills

talked about the concept of power elite in the USA. Pareto talked about the circulation

of elites.

 In response to these views and notions, Robert Dahl in his book, ‘Who Governs’ said

that every group competes with others to get more and more power but also he

admitted that business houses are more important or powerful in comparison to the

other groups. Regarding liberal states of the West, he gave the concept of Polyarchy,

i.e., 95% democracy.

 Neo-pluralists like Charles Lindblom and Galbraith held the view that all groups do not

have equal power, corporate groups possess more power. The business interests have a

crucial role in policy-making thus reducing the importance of group behaviour.

 (NOTE:- Do not get confused between pluralistic theory of sovereignty given by Laski

and pluralist theory of state given by Robert Dahl. They both are different as

sovereignty is a part of state but in theories of state we are talking about the state

itself.)
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Post-colonial Theory of State

1. Post-colonial theory explores the impact of colonialism on societies and states after

gaining independence. It examines power structures, cultural influences, and the legacy

of colonial rule in shaping post-colonial states. Scholars in this field analyse issues like

identity, nationalism, and the challenges of building stable governance in the aftermath

of colonialism.

2. The states which once have been under colonialism explain a situation of dependency,

which denotes unequal exchange leading to uneven development. Prosperity at the core

and poverty or the development of under-development at peripheries.

3. Post-colonial state refers to the state of Asia, Africa and Latin America which got

independence after the end of world war II.

Nature of post-colonial states

F.W. Riggs has used the term ‘prismatic societies’ for postcolonial states. It denotes societies

in transition. i.e. traditional societies moving towards modernization. He has given eight

features of prismatic society.

1. Formalism: There is a big difference in theory and practice. Rules are modern, practice

is traditiona Poly-communalism: Not yet a nation but different communities are co-

existing. They are co-existing but don’t trust each other.

2. Poly-normativism: Different norms are followed while formulating laws.

3. Functional overlapping: It means a lack functional specialization e.g. In most of the

countries army and civilian administration is fused.

4. Attainment norms: Either by birth or by achievement. (How one will get position.)

5. Economic system: Bazaar Canteen model.

6. Administrative system: Sala model – for some people system is based on rules and for

some, on connections.

7. Heterogeneity: Co-existence of modernity and tradition.

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Gunnar Myrdal in his book Asian Drama has analysed the nature of the Indian state. He

called ‘India, a Soft State’. A soft state is characterized by its inability to effectively enforce

laws and its leniency toward law-breakers. The outcome of the soft state is lawlessness and

corruption, failure to implement the developmental programs.

Myrdal argues that India's soft-state status is attributed to factors such as corruption

within the bureaucracy and political class, the influence of Gandhian methods during the

independence movement fostering a disobedience culture, and a societal preference for

those who defy the law over those who adhere to it.

Dependency Theory was expounded by scholars like AG Frank, Sameer Amin, and

Immanuel Wallerstein. They categorized the states into two groups –

Core states represent advanced nations, showcasing a concentration of economic, political,

technological, cultural, and military power. The states within these core countries serve as

instruments for their bourgeois or capitalist class.

Peripheral states which exist in a state of 'dependency,' characterized by an unequal

exchange and uneven development.

As a result of dependency, there is a development of underdevelopment. These states are

not autonomous, they are instruments of the states in core countries.

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Theories of State (Part - 03)

Feminist Theory of State

 Feminism is a broad ideology encompassing various traditions, all united by a shared
concern for women. Regardless of the specific tradition, feminists share the common
goal of eliminating social discrimination against women and striving for the
establishment of an egalitarian system.

 Catherine MacKinnon asserts that there is no distinct feminist theory of the state.
Feminist analyses focus on power dynamics, particularly the study of patriarchy and
its role in women's subordination and exploitation.

 The feminist perspective "personal is political" indicates that the state serves as an
instrument of patriarchy. MacKinnon expresses her viewpoint by stating, "When I
examine the state, it appears masculine to me."

Three major traditions in feminism:-

1. Liberal Feminist Approach –

 The State is a neutral arbitrator.

 State structure is dominated by men.

 Liberal feminists aim to get more access and influence in the state.

 They want the rights which their male counterparts are entitled to.

2. Marxist-Socialist Feminism –

 Engels argues that the emergence of institutions family and private property has
led to the historic defeat of females which has taken away the sexual freedom of
women.

 Capitalists should pay females because they provide free labor (raising children) to
them.

 Females are the last ones to be hired and the first ones to be fired. Hence they act
as a reserve workforce.

 For Marxist-Socialist Feminists the issue of feminism and the end of capitalism is

interlinked. They believe that after the end of capitalism, women will be liberated.
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3. Radical Feminist Approach –

 Carol Pateman says that the welfare state is an agency of patriarchy.

 Radical feminists treat the state as a system of institutions created by men to

sustain and recreate male domination.

 State is a purposive actor that reproduces Patriarchy.

 In Walby’s Theorising Patriarchy, she underlays six interrelated structures through

which gender relations are constructed and reproduced. These are paid
employment, household, production, culture, violence, and the state.

 The legal system should be feminized so that social evils practiced against women
can be mitigated.

 They advocate for radical reorganization of society.

We can come to the conclusion that feminists hold a complex view of the state. While
considering it as an institution of patriarchy, they also acknowledge its potential to enhance
the status of women. Iris Mariam Young introduces the concept of differentiated citizenship,
supporting affirmative action by the state to benefit women.

Impact of Globalization on the Sovereignty of State

 Globalization has significantly impacted the sovereignty of states, presenting a complex

interplay between interconnectedness and autonomy. Scholars argue that while
globalization fosters economic interdependence, it concurrently challenges traditional
notions of state sovereignty.

 David Held identified gaps in sovereignty due to globalization. Michael Mann said that
the role of state and state is different. He said that now states are having less concern
with sovereignty and security and they are more interested in protecting their
economic interest in the global market. Economically, globalization has led to the rise
of multinational corporations and international financial institutions, exerting influence
beyond national borders.

 This economic interdependence, coupled with the prominence of global supply chains,

limits a state's ability to fully control its economic destiny. Moreover, the integration

of financial markets has exposed states to external economic shocks, undermining their

fiscal sovereignty.
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 From a political perspective, international organizations and agreements, such as the

World Trade Organization and regional trade pacts, require states to cede certain

regulatory powers. This has led to a shift in authority from national governments to

supranational bodies, impacting the ability of states to independently formulate and

enforce policies. Susan strange says that now role of state is changing, it is no longer

Hobbesian or Hegelian state.

 It is more like a medieval state based on shared sovereignty. However, scholars also

contend that states still possess considerable sovereignty, especially in matters of

security and internal governance. While globalization may constrain some aspects of

sovereignty, states continue to retain control over their borders, military forces, and

domestic policies. In conclusion, it can be argued that it is the age of multi-level

governance where the sub-state is emerging in the form of autonomy for various

groups and regional organisations, and international organizations also influencing the

functions of state.

 Globalization's impact on state sovereignty is a nuanced interplay of economic

interdependence and retained political autonomy. While economic globalization

challenges traditional sovereignty in economic matters, political and security domains

still largely remain within the purview of individual states.

Concluding Remarks

 The theories of the state provide diverse lenses through which scholars and political

thinkers analyze the nature, origins, and functions of political entities.

 From the classical perspectives of Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau to the modern ideologies

of liberalism, Marxism, and pluralism, these theories offer invaluable insights into the

evolving role of the state in society.

 Ultimately, the theories of the state reflect the dynamic nature of political thought,

adapting to historical contexts and responding to societal changes. As we navigate the

complexities of contemporary governance, these theories continue to shape discussions

on the purpose and responsibilities of the state.

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Questions asked

1. Examine the liberal theory of state in contemporary politics. (2022)

2. Discuss Feminist Theory of State. (2021 & 2016)

3. Comment: Post-colonial Theory of State. (2020)

4. What is the contemporary relevance of the Marxist theory of the state? (2019)

5. Comment: Pluralist theory of state. (2019)

6. Critically examine the neo-liberal theory of state. (2018 &2017)

7. Examine the challenges to the sovereignty of the state in the contemporary world.

(2015)

8. Do you think the modern nation-state has been declining due to globalization? Justify

your answer. (2010)

9. Comment: Robert Dahl’s concept of deformed polyarchy. (2010)

10. Comment: Impact of globalization on state sovereignty. (2006)

11. Comment: “The reason why men enter into a state is the preservation of their

property”. (Locke) (2003) 12. Comment: The end of law is not to abolish or restrain

but to preserve and enlarge freedom. (Locke) (1994)

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Theories of State and Theory of Justice

Q1. Examine the liberal theory of state in contemporary politics.

(2022) (15 Marks)

Approach:
❖ Introduction: Briefly explain the concept of the liberal theory of the state.
❖ Body: Elaborate on the concept of the liberal theory of the state and also mention
the criticisms of this concept.
❖ Conclusion: Conclude by stressing the relevance of the liberal theory of the state in
contemporary politics.

Answer:
❖ The liberal theory of the state in contemporary politics emphasizes the role of
government as a guarantor of individual rights, protector of the rule of law, and
facilitator of a market economy. According to liberal theorists, such as John Locke
and John Rawls, the state exists to secure the natural rights of its citizens, including
rights to life, liberty, and property. In this view, the state's primary function is to
create and enforce laws that ensure the freedom and equality of all individuals, while
also providing essential public goods and services.
❖ However, Marxist scholars, like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, contend that
liberalism fails to address the fundamental economic disparities that arise from the
private ownership of the means of production. They argue that the state, far from
being neutral, serves the interests of the ruling class by perpetuating systems of
exploitation and oppression.
❖ Moreover, feminist scholars, such as Carol Pateman and Nancy Fraser, challenge the
liberal conception of the state for its failure to address gender-based oppression
adequately. They argue that traditional liberal theories prioritize the rights and
freedoms of privileged groups, typically men while neglecting the experiences and
needs of marginalized populations, particularly women. Feminist critiques highlight
how the liberal state often perpetuates patriarchal structures through laws and
policies that reinforce gender inequalities, such as unequal pay, limited reproductive
rights, and inadequate protection against gender-based violence.
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❖ In conclusion, the liberal theory of state, while not without its limitations, can offer a
valuable framework for navigating complex political issues in the 21st century.
However, its continued relevance hinges on its ability to evolve and adapt to meet the
challenges of our increasingly diverse and interconnected world through open dialogue
and critical self-reflection.

Q2. Discuss Feminist Theory of State. (2021 & 2016) (15 Marks)

Approach:
❖ Introduction: Briefly explain the feminist theory of the state.
❖ Body: Elaborate on the concept of the Feminist theory of the state and also mention
the criticisms of this concept.
❖ Conclusion: Conclude by stressing the relevance of the feminist theory of the state.

Answer:
❖ Feminist theory of the state is a branch of feminist political theory that examines how
state institutions perpetuate gender inequalities and oppressions. It critiques the
traditional understanding of the state as a neutral entity and argues that it reflects
and reinforces patriarchal power structures. Feminist theorists highlight how laws,
policies, and institutions often prioritize men's interests and reinforce gender norms,
leading to the marginalization of women and other gender minorities.
❖ Feminist scholars like Catharine MacKinnon and Carole Pateman argue that the state
plays a central role in maintaining male dominance by regulating sexuality,
reproduction, and family life in ways that disadvantage women. For example, laws
regarding marriage, divorce, and reproductive rights often reflect patriarchal values
and limit women's autonomy and agency. Additionally, feminist theorists critique the
lack of representation of women in positions of political power and decision-making,
which perpetuates gender inequalities within the state.
❖ However, some scholars, such as Wendy Brown and Joan Scott, argue that while
feminist critiques of the state are valuable, they sometimes overlook the complexities
of power dynamics within state institutions. They suggest that the state is not
monolithic and that different branches and levels of government may have conflicting
interests and agendas. Additionally, they argue that focusing solely on gender may
 4

obscure other forms of inequality, such as race, class, and sexuality, which intersect
and interact with gender to shape individuals' experiences within the state.
❖ Furthermore, critics of the feminist theory of the state point out that not all state
policies and institutions are inherently oppressive to women. Some laws and policies,
such as those promoting gender equality and protecting women's rights, are the result
of feminist activism and advocacy within the state. Therefore, it is essential to
acknowledge the potential for change within state institutions and to recognize the
importance of feminist engagement with the state to challenge and transform existing
power structures.
❖ In conclusion, while the feminist theory of the state provides valuable insights into
how state institutions perpetuate gender inequalities, it is essential to consider the
complexities of power dynamics within the state and to recognize the potential for
change through feminist activism and advocacy.

Q3. Comment: Post-colonial Theory of State. (2020) (15 Marks)

Approach:
❖ Introduction: Briefly explain the Post-colonial theory of the state
❖ Body: Elaborate on the Post-colonial theory of the state and also mention the
criticisms of this concept.
❖ Conclusion: Conclude by stressing on the relevance of the Post-colonial theory of the
state

Answer:
❖ Post-colonial theory of the state examines how colonial legacies continue to shape
post-independence states, including their institutions, identities, and power dynamics.
It argues that the structures and ideologies imposed by colonial powers persist in
various forms, influencing governance, social relations, and economic development in
former colonies.
❖ Proponents of this theory, such as Frantz Fanon and Edward Said, argue that
colonialism not only exploited resources but also created lasting psychological, cultural,
and political impacts. Fanon, in his seminal work "The Wretched of the Earth,"
discusses the psychological effects of colonization on the colonized, highlighting the
internalization of inferiority and the struggle for decolonization of the mind. Said, in
 5

"Orientalism," demonstrates how Western representations of the "Orient" perpetuated

colonial domination and continue to shape perceptions and policies.
❖ However, critics of the post-colonial theory of the state, including scholars like
Mahmood Mamdani and Partha Chatterjee, offer counterarguments. Mamdani, in
"Citizen and Subject," emphasizes the need to distinguish between direct and indirect
rule and argues that colonial legacies vary significantly depending on the type of
colonial administration. He contends that post-colonial states may adopt or adapt
colonial structures for their purposes, but they also innovate and transform them to
suit local contexts.
❖ In "The Nation and Its Fragments," Chatterjee challenges the assumption that post-
colonial states are merely extensions of colonial rule. He argues that nationalist
movements often appropriated colonial structures and ideologies to build new forms
of sovereignty, creating hybrid systems that defy simplistic categorization as either
colonial or post-colonial. Chatterjee's notion of "political society" highlights the
emergence of alternative modes of political organization outside the formal state
apparatus.
❖ In conclusion, the post-colonial theory of the state illuminates the enduring impact of
colonialism on contemporary political structures and identities. Recognizing these
legacies encourages efforts to address persistent inequalities and promote inclusive
governance in post-colonial societies, fostering a more comprehensive understanding
of their challenges and opportunities.
   
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Theories of Justice

Introduction

❖ Justice is of central importance in political practice and theory. It is central to the

existence and justification of the state. Justice means according to Professor Barker

“a joining or fitting, a bond or a tie”, gliding into the sense of binding or obliging.

Justice as a concept implies fairness.

❖ The idea of justice is a dynamic affair. As its implications change with time. Thus,

what was justice in the past may be injustice in the present and vice-versa; it is also

possible that the justice of today becomes the injustice of tomorrow and vice-versa.

❖ The modern theory of justice came to the discipline with the effect of the

Reformation, Renaissance, and Industrial Revolution.

The idea of Justice

❖ The fundamental purpose of law is said to be the quest for justice which is to be

administered without passion, as ‘when passion comes at the door, justice flies out of

window’.

❖ Justice implies the fulfilment of the legitimate expectations of an individual under the

existing laws ensuring him the benefits promised and to afford him protection

against any violation of his rights.

Procedural and Substantive Justice

Procedural Justice:-

❖ The notion of procedural justice is closely related to the tradition of liberalism.

❖ John Rawls has sought to accommodate the requirements of substantive justice/social

justice in his scheme of procedural justice.

❖ It refers to justice fairness or impartiality of the processes and procedures through

which a law policy or decision is arrived at and applied.

 3

❖ Principles of procedural justice have been based on the idea of formal equality of

persons, i.e., their equality as human beings or as subjects of the rule of law,

irrespective of their differences in gender, religion, race, caste, wealth, etc.

❖ Rights-based justice is seen as procedural justice.

❖ It is concerned more about the letter of law.

❖ Its modern notion is ‘procedure established by law’.

❖ Exponents – Herbert Spencer, Hayek, Milton Friedman, Robert Nozick.

Substantive Justice:-

❖ The idea of substantive justice corresponds to the philosophy of socialism.

❖ It refers to justice or fairness of the content or outcome of laws, policies, decisions,

etc.

❖ It holds that test of justice in society consist in ascertaining whether the poor and the

underprivileged have adequate opportunity to improve their lot.

❖ Needs-based justice is seen as substantive justice.

❖ It is concerned more about the spirit of law.

❖ Its modern notion is ‘due process of law’.

A brief introduction to John Rawls

❖ John Rawls is the greatest political philosopher of the

20th century.

❖ He is associated with the revival of political theory.

❖ His book ‘A Theory of Justice’ became the starting point

for the philosophers of his and contemporary times. All

contemporary philosophers start their work by referring

to John Rawls.

❖ He is a positive/social liberal who has given his theory from the point of view of social

liberalism.
 4

❖ He has justified the concept of welfare state.

❖ Major works – A Theory of Justice, Political Liberalism, Laws of People.

Rawls’ Theory of Justice

Rawls has followed the methodology of social contract and calls his theory as a pure

procedural theory of justice.

Criticism of Utilitarian notion of Justice

❖ Rawls has criticised the utilitarian notion of justice of the greatest happiness of the

greatest number.

❖ The major drawback of utilitarianism is its disregard for human dignity and giving

priority to utility over liberty.

❖ In Rawls’s view utilitarianism is a morally flawed theory of justice. Its moral flaw is

that it justifies or condones the sacrificing of the good of some individuals for the sake

of the happiness of the greatest number.

❖ For the utilitarians, the criterion of justice in society is the aggregate sum of utility or

happiness or welfare it produces, and not the well-being or welfare of each member

of the society.

❖ In his critique of utilitarianism and finding an alternative to it, he (Rawls) derives

inspiration from Immanuel Kant and his idea of the freedom and equality of every

human being.

❖ Rawls keeping the above points in mind has established the superiority of liberty over

utility and the concept of dignity in his theory of justice.


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Theories of Justice (Part - 2)

Concern of Rawls while formulating his theory of justice

 Rawls wanted to construct a grand theory of justice based on such principles which

should be accepted by all people irrespective of their societies.

 His concern was to have such universal principles of justice to which no one objects.

These principles of justice will be common for all walks of life.

Rawls’ Principles of Justice

1. Original Position:-

 It is the state of nature where man is behind a veil of ignorance.

 It is a situation where man is unaware of the system of rewards and distribution

of goods.

 The objective of removing the veil of ignorance is to place individuals in the original

position, achieved through a thought experiment. In this experiment, individuals

are assumed to lack specific knowledge about themselves. Instead, they possess only

general knowledge about society, economics, and psychology. They are unaware of

their future position within society, whether they will be affluent or impoverished,

privileged or disadvantaged, and their gender identity, whether male, female, or

transgender.

2. Liberty Principle:-

 Individuals desire to utilize their talents for maximum benefit.

 Agreement for maximum equal liberty exists: "Each person has an equal right to

the most extensive liberty compatible with similar liberty for all."

3. Equality of Opportunity Principle:

 The universal desire for equal opportunities to explore individual talents.

 Emphasis on providing everyone an equal chance to develop their capabilities.

 3

4. Difference Principle:

 Advocacy for policies benefiting the least advantaged in society.

 The policy framework should prioritize the well-being of the least privileged

segment of the population.

 These principles are listed in the order of their lexical priority. By “lexical priority”

Rawls means that the first principle must be fully satisfied before the next principle

is applied. It means that a hierarchy exists among the principles: liberty takes

precedence over equality of opportunity, which, in turn, takes precedence over the

difference principle.

Explanation of Rawls’s Theory of Justice

 Rawls' theory of justice provides insights into the notion of justice within the framework

of positive liberalism. Striking a balance between socialism and extreme individualism,

Rawls emphasizes the interconnectedness of society, likening it to a chain where even

the weakest link plays a crucial role.

 According to Rawls, individuals bear a responsibility toward the less privileged in

society, justifying the concept of a welfare state that accommodates the needs of both

individuals and social groups.

Communitarian Critique of Rawls’ Theory of Justice

 Michael Sandel in his book ‘Liberalism and Limits of Justice’ argues that for Rawls man

is atomistic. However, man is an embedded self, meaning, he is always a member of

society.

 Regarding his notion of a grand theory of justice, Sandel argues that different

communities have different senses of justice. So we cannot have one universal theory

of justice. For example, driving cars by women is a fair value in most societies but the

Arab world doesn’t consider it as a just value. Liberalism is not a universal principle.
 4

 Michael Walzer in his book ‘Sphere of Justice’ gave the concept of complex equality. He

objects to the principle of a universal standard of justice. Society and economics are

different from politics it is not desirable to apply the same principle in all disciplines.

 Walzer argues for rough equalization and not absolute equalization. We shall respect

complex equality around us.

 Rawls responded to these criticisms and said that his principles of justice are applicable

only in well-off and Western liberal societies and these principles are meant only for

the political sphere.




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Theories of Justice || Theories of Equality

Libertarian Critique of Rawls’ Theory of Justice

 Robert Nozick in his book ‘Anarchy, State and Utopia’ gives the libertarian theory of
justice where he criticized the socialist conception of justice.

 According to Nozick, socialists consider property as coming from heaven. Property is

the product of one’s labor hence, a person should have absolute rights over his property.

 Nozick has criticized Rawls for his Difference Principle and argues that anything like
progressive taxation is not justified as he was not a believer in the state as a
redistribution agency of property.

 Nozick allows state intervention in a person’s right to absolute property only when a
person exercises his absolute right in a manner that threatens the existence of a large
number of people in the society.

Many Liberal scholars argue that Rawls still believes in the superiority of liberal societies.
According to him, these principles of justice are still the best principles of justice. Still, they
cannot be applied universally, especially in societies where modernity and rationality do
not exist.

Entitlement Theory of Justice

 The Entitlement Theory of Justice was proposed by Robert Nozick in his influential
work "Anarchy, State, and Utopia." It offers a libertarian perspective on justice and
the distribution of resources.

 The theory is centered around the idea that individuals are entitled to their
holdings/property as long as they have acquired them through just means.

Key elements of Nozick's Entitlement Theory include:

 Acquisition: Nozick argues that individuals initially acquire property justly through a

process of voluntary exchange, appropriation of unowned resources, or a transfer of

legitimately acquired holdings. The emphasis is on the just acquisition of property rights.
 3

 Transfer: Just transfer of holdings occurs when individuals exchange property

voluntarily and without coercion. According to Nozick, as long as the transfer is
consensual, the resulting distribution of resources is just.

 Rectification: If there are unjust acquisitions or transfers, Nozick introduces the concept
of rectification. This involves correcting past injustices through compensatory actions,
returning property to its rightful owners.

 Minimal State: Nozick advocates for a minimal state that only intervenes to enforce
property rights, ensuring that acquisitions and transfers are conducted justly. The
state, in this view, should not engage in redistributive policies.

Critics argue that the Entitlement Theory neglects historical injustices, potentially leading
to vast inequalities. It also assumes an initial state of nature where property rights are
clearly defined, which some find unrealistic. Despite criticisms, Nozick's theory has played
a significant role in shaping discussions on justice, property rights, and the role of the state
in political philosophy.

Concluding Remarks

 Rawls's work, 'A Theory of Justice,' marked the beginning of a significant era in the
exploration of justice theories, often referred to as a "golden age" in this field.

 Tom Campbell underscores that justice has become the focal point in contemporary
normative political philosophy.

 B.N. Ray, in the edited volume 'John Rawls and the Agenda of Social Justice' notes that
Rawls's book not only revitalized academic curiosity but also sparked widespread
interest among people in the concept of justice.

Questions asked

1. Rawls’ idea of the liberal self is too individualistic. Explain, in this context, the
communitarian critique of Rawls’ Theory of Justice. (2023)

2. Examine the entitlement theory of justice. (2022)

3. Make a comparative assessment of the Greek perspective of justice with the Rawlsian

concept of justice. (2021)

 4

4. How has Rawls enriched the idea of justice in liberalism? (2021)

5. Examine the communitarian perspective on justice. (2019)

6. Analyse John Rawl's justification of discrimination to achieve the goals of justice.

(2018)

7. Comment in 150 words: Difference Principle in Rawl's Theory of Justice. (2015)

8. Comment in 150 words: Original Position. (2013)

9. Comment: Veil of Ignorance. (2010)


 2

Theories of Equality

Introduction
 From the mid-17th century, mankind advanced towards the idea of equality in a

notable sense. It was the 17th-century exponents of natural law who postulated

equality as a natural state for all men which finally created the theoretical basis for

the political realization of the equalitarian concept. Henceforth, the affirmation that

all men are born equal was started figuring in the political manifestos all over the

world.

 According to Aristotle, the feeling of inequality whether real or apparent has been the

universal cause for political revolutions. Hence state’s policies shall aim to establish the

feeling of equality in society. Hereby we can say that the concept of equality is linked

to the issue of legitimacy of the state.

 Though the debate about equality has been going on for centuries but, the special

feature of modern societies is that we no longer take inequality for granted or

something natural. Modern politics and modern political institutions are constantly

subjected to social pressures to expand opportunities equally irrespective of ethnicity,

sex, or age.

 Modern societies today are committed to the principle of equality and they no longer

require inequality as automatically justifiable.

Need for Equality

 According to Laski, all must have access to social benefits and no one should be

restricted on any ground. The inequalities by birth or because of birth or hereditary

are unreasonable. Therefore, Laski argued that opportunity should be given to everyone

to realize the implications of his personality.

 David Miller has given four reasons as to why we need equality. According to him,

equality is needed for:

 3

 To be fair concerning the distribution of benefits and burdens.

 Equality is needed in some measure for a person’s self-respect.

 The concept of equality establishes human dignity and the obligation of individuals
to respect others.

 Equality is needed to foster fraternity.

Defining Equality

 Likewise Liberty, Equality can also be understood in its negative and positive aspects.

 Negatively, equality is associated with the end of special privileges.

 Positively, equality means the availability of equal opportunity to all so that

everybody can have an equal chance to develop his personality.

 Bryan Turner in his book ‘Equality’ has given a comprehensive meaning of equality
relevant to the contemporary world. According to him, the concept of equality should
include:

 Fundamental equality of persons.

 Equality of opportunity.

 Equality of conditions where there is an attempt to make the conditions of life

equal.

 Equality of outcome or result.

Dimensions of Equality

1. Legal Equality:-

 Rousseau in his book ‘Social Contract’ held that the extension of legal equality to
all citizens is the primary characteristic of civil society.

 J.R. Lucas in his ‘Principles of Politics’ has observed that equality before law does
not guarantee equal treatment by the law but equal access to the law, and
consideration of only those factors laid down by the law as relevant.

 Equality before law implies equality of rights and duties in law. The law creates
classes on reasonable grounds with special rights and duties.

 Equal protection of law means equal laws for equals and unequal laws for unequal.
This idea owes its origin to the American Constitution.
 4

2. Political Equality:-

 Political equality postulates that nobody will be barred from holding political office
on grounds of birth, religion, sex, etc.

 Laski held that political equality means that the authority that exerts power must
be subjected to the rules of democratic governance.

 Lipson writes that normally and customarily, many had always been governed by
few for the benefit of few.

 The demand for political equality is summarised in ‘one-man-one-vote’. This is the

basic principle of political equality.

3. Social Equality:-

 It is concerned with equality of opportunity for every individual for the

development of his personality.

 Abolition of all kinds of discrimination based upon caste, creed, religion, language,
race, sex, etc.

 Emancipation of women so far as equality in property and equal pay for equal
work.



 2

Theories of Equality (Part - 2)

4. Economic Equality:-

➢ Laski said that economic equality is most largely a problem of proportion. All men

must eat and drink or obtain shelter.

➢ Rousseau held that by equality we should understand that not the degree of power

and riches be identical for everybody, but that no citizen be wealthy enough to buy
another and none poor enough to be forced to sell himself.

Marxist Concept of Equality:

❖ The Marxist concept of equality revolves around the idea of achieving a classless society

where everyone has equal access to resources and opportunities.

❖ Rooted in the belief that capitalism inherently breeds inequality through the

exploitation of the working class by the bourgeoisie, Marxism advocates for the abolition

of private property and the establishment of collective ownership of the means of

production.

❖ In this vision, equality is not merely about equal distribution of wealth but also entails

the eradication of social hierarchies and power imbalances.

❖ Marxists seek to create a society where individuals are liberated from economic

oppression and have the freedom to develop their full potential.

❖ Central to this concept is the principle of "from each according to his ability, to each

according to his need," emphasizing the importance of meeting the basic needs of all

individuals within a framework of collective solidarity.

Approaches to deal with Equality:

1. Utilitarian Approach (Equality of Welfare):-

➢ According to utilitarian scholars, the state should equalize pleasure. For them,

everyone should have equal opportunities to increase pleasure.

➢ The minimum intervention of the state will result in the achievement of equality of

welfare or the greatest happiness of the greatest numbers.

 3

2. Positive Liberal Approach (Equality of Resources):-

➢ This concept is given by Dworkin. His theory is known as resource egalitarianism.

➢ He talked about the criteria of equality based on a scheme of distribution. We should

aim to create an optimum level of equality so that no further demand for

redistribution emerges.

➢ The state should adopt such policies that will nullify the impact of natural

advantages such as reservation policy.

3. Equality of Capabilities:-

➢ According to Amartya Sen, equality of welfare and resources needs to be

complemented with capability meaning, people should have the capability to enjoy

to have access to the above two.

➢ Adoption of policies like the promotion of literature, employment generation, and

gender equality to achieve the objective of establishing an egalitarian and just
society.

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Theories of Equality (Part - 3)

Relationship of Equality with Liberty

 The relationship between equality and liberty has been one of the interesting
controversies of liberalism. The root of the controversy is:
 Are they (liberty and equality) opposed to each other or
 Are they complementary to each other?
 The English liberal tradition seemed to place more emphasis on liberty while the French
tradition sought to secure recognition of the principle of equality.
Liberty and Equality – as opposed to each other
 They were the viewpoint of early liberalism.
 Proponents – Hayek, Friedman, Tocqueville, Begehot.
 The thinkers who opposed the ‘liberty with equality theory’, believe that “If equality is
emphasized, then Liberty will be compromised”.
 John Locke did not include equality in the list of three natural rights.
 Classical liberals gave so much importance to liberty that equality became a slave of it.
 As liberty is associated with an individual, equality is associated with social intervention.
Liberty and Equality – as complementary to each other
 Positive liberals in the 19th century made equality the prime requirement of liberty.
 Proponents – Rousseau, Tawney, Barker.
 Positive liberals maintained that the state was assigned the task of correcting the social
and economic imbalances through legislation and regulation. It interpreted liberty as
equality of opportunity.
 An individual is a social being whose personal desires can be satisfied in the context of
a social relationship within a social environment.
 Tawney wrote that ‘the liberty of the weak depends upon the restraint of the strong
and that of poor upon the restraint of the rich’.
 Liberty without equality can degenerate into a license of the few.
 Positive liberals claim that without liberty, there can be no equality, and without
equality, there can be no liberty. Both have to be reconciled.
 3

Affirmative Action

 It is a type of redistribution strategy.

 The objective of affirmative action: To remove structural inequalities that exist among
the groups.

 Rajeev Bhargava makes a distinction between affirmative action and preferential

treatment policies.

 Preferential treatment policies may exist in favour of those who are already
dominant in society whereas affirmative action policy is positive the aim of is
disadvantaged section at par with other sections.

 Affirmative action should be focused on socioeconomic class rather than individual

circumstances. Its purpose is to address systemic disadvantages experienced by
entire communities. For instance, in India, affirmative action policies, such as job
quotas and educational opportunities, are aimed at supporting marginalized groups
like the Dalit community.

 Affirmative action policies are always full of controversies as many scholars consider
such policies as reverse discrimination by the state. Scholars argue that merit is
sacrificed in these policies and there is always a possibility of political misuse.

 Instead of ending social discrimination it may perpetuate differences in the society as

it compromises the notion of equality of opportunity.

 Andre Beteille held that affirmative action policy should be temporary. If they are made
permanent, it is the defeat of the policy in itself.

Concluding Remarks

 The concept of equality remains a cornerstone in political science, reflecting both its
theoretical significance and practical implications.

 Whether viewed through the lens of classical liberalism, Marxism, or contemporary

debates on affirmative action, equality continues to inspire discourse and action aimed
at addressing social injustices and promoting fairness in society.
 4

 From striving for equal rights and opportunities to challenging structural inequalities
and systemic discrimination, the pursuit of equality remains a central concern in
political theory and practice.

 As societies evolve and confront new challenges, the quest for equality persists,
reminding us of the ongoing need to critically examine power dynamics, promote
inclusivity, and ensure that all individuals have the opportunity to thrive and contribute
to the collective welfare.

Questions asked

1. Affirmative Action policies draw as much strong criticism as strong support. Analyze
this statement in the context of equality. (2023)

2. Comment: Affirmative Action (2021 & 2016)

3. Equality of outcome as a political idea. (2021)

4. Comment: Equality of Opportunity. (2020)

5. Equality means fair treatment rather than equal treatment. Comment. (2018) \

6. How is liberty a precondition for equality? Explicate the relationship between equality
and liberty. (2014)

7. Comment on the difference between equality of opportunity and equality of outcome.

(2012)



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Theories of Rights

Introduction
 Rights as a concept establish relationships between individuals, society, and the state.
It is originally based on the philosophy of individualism and rational man.

 Rights are necessary conditions for the development of human personality and society
at large. Laski observed that “Without rights, there cannot be liberty” and “every state
is known by the rights it maintains”.

Rights: Meaning and Nature

 As per Bernard Bosanquet, ‘A right is a claim recognized by society and enforced by

the state.’

 As per Ernest Barker, Rights are the external conditions necessary for the greatest
possible development of the capacities of the personality.

 For Laski, Rights are those conditions of social life without which no man can seek, in
general, to be at his best.

 The nature of rights is hidden in the very meaning of rights. Rights are those claims
which are recognized as such by society. Without such recognition, rights are empty
claims. States never give rights, they only recognize them; governments never grant
rights, they only protect them. Rights emanate in democratic societies whereas
privileges are features of undemocratic systems.
 3

Types of Rights

 Negative Rights:- These are the rights where the state is not permitted to enter.
Negative Rights indicate that to acts of the individuals shall not be restricted by the
state.

 A negative right to life would require others to refrain from killing a person.

 Negative Rights may justify political rights such as freedom of speech, property,
and the right to bear arms.

 Positive Rights:- These are the rights that prescribe the responsibility of the state to
secure the rights of individuals. Positive Rights require the state to take positive
measures for the protection of the rights of the weaker and vulnerable sections.

 A positive right to life would require others to act to save the life of someone who
would otherwise die.

 Positive Rights may be used to justify state-provided education, healthcare, and

social security.


 2

Theories of Rights (Part - 2)

Types of Rights
 Political Rights: Political rights relate to people’s participation in the affairs of the state.
This includes the right to vote, contest in elections, associate for a political cause, etc.

 Civil Rights: They are called ‘civil’ rights as they relate to the essential conditions of
civilized life. This includes some rights like those relating to life, personal liberty, thought
and expression, property, and religion.

 Economic Rights: This right includes man’s freedom of vocation of his choice. Every
person should have a right and opportunity to work so that he may earn a livelihood.
These rights also include the right against the concentration of wealth and monopoly
in welfare states.

 Moral Rights: Moral rights are the claims recognized by the conscience of the
community. Moral rights have the support of the good sense of society.
 3

Types of rights based on source are as follows:-

Theories of Rights

1. Theory of Natural Rights :

 Proponents – Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau.

 Natural rights according to John Locke are right to life, liberty and property.

 The theory of natural rights treats the rights of man as a self-evident truth. It is
based on the liberal theory of the origin of the state from the social contract. This
theory states that certain rights were enjoyed by man in the state of nature, i.e.,
before the formation of state.

 It assumes that the natural rights of man must be respected and protected by the
state.

 If state failed to maintain these rights, man had the right to overthrow government
and set up a new government in its place.

 Edmund Burke criticised the natural rights theory and he gave importance to
customs and traditions and acclaimed that rights are the product of customs and
traditions. He further argued that there is not anything like universal rights as
rights are specific to history, geography and the culture.
 4

2. Theory of Legal Rights :-

 Proponents – Bentham, Hegel, Austin.

 Bentham is the greatest champion of the legal rights theory. He rejects the doctrine
of natural rights as unreal and ill-founded.

 Bentham condemns natural rights as an invention of fanatics which are dogmatic,

devoid of reasoning.

 The theory of legal rights seeks to place rights as the product of the state. It
maintains that rights are created and maintained by the state. The state
formulates and executes them and can also restrict their scope.

 The theory of legal rights supports the system of codified rights.

 Laski criticized the legal rights theory and said that it takes into account only the
factual position. It takes note of what rights are legally recognized and guaranteed
in a particular state.

 Scholars criticized legal rights theory and argued that though natural rights are a
vague concept and suffer from limitations, it has contributed to the liberation of
man and is being recognized as the basis of Human Rights.
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
 2

Theories of Rights (Part - 3)

3. Historical Theory of Rights:-

 A prime proponent of the historical theory of rights is Edmund Burke. He
supported the glorious revolution by claiming the customary rights of the English
men.

 It is also known as prescriptive theory as it regards rights as a product of the

historical growth of society.

 It holds the view that rights grow from traditions and customs.

 The historical theory of rights needs to be revised. It cannot be admitted that all
our customs result in rights.

 For example, the Sati system doesn’t constitute a right nor does infanticide. All our
rights do not have origin in customs.

 The difficulty with this theory is that it lacks a sense of justice. Many customs
evolved through a long historical process, involving injustice and oppression of some
vulnerable sections of the society.

4. Social Welfare Theory of Rights:-

 The social welfare theory of rights presumes that rights are the conditions of social
welfare.

 This theory argues that the state should set aside all other considerations and
recognize only such rights which are designed to promote social welfare.

 Bentham is the prime proponent of this theory and among the contemporary
advocates of the social welfare theory are Roscoe Pound and Chafee.

 Chafee held that law, customs, and natural rights should yield to what is socially
useful.

 The Benthamite formula ‘greatest good/happiness of the greatest number’ turns

out to be the legal theory of rights if, in the end, the state is to decide what
constitutes ‘social welfare’.
 3

Criticism of the Concept of Rights

 Some argue that rights discourse can be culturally imperialistic, imposing Western

values on non-Western societies. Others contend that rights can be used as a tool by

the powerful to maintain their dominance, rather than as a means of empowerment

for the marginalized. Additionally, critics point out that rights-based approaches often

prioritize individual freedoms over collective welfare, leading to social fragmentation

and neglect of broader social and economic inequalities.

 Michael Sandel criticized the concept of rights and argued that rights create a threat

to the existence of the community as it puts individuals against the community.

 Gandhi also acclaimed that it is a duty which is more important than the rights. Rights

come automatically when you perform your duty.

 Like Gandhi, Sir Ernest Barker has also held that “rights without duties are like men

without shadow.”

Perspectives of Rights

1. Social Democratic Perspective of Rights

 The social democratic perspective of rights seeks to achieve individual liberty and

social justice objectives.

 It is best represented by Laski’s theory of rights.

 Laski has thoroughly investigated the moral foundation of rights which postulates

a synthesis of liberal and socialist values within a democratic structure.

2. Moral Perspective of Rights

 T.H. Green founded his theory on moral foundations. He is seriously concerned with

the satisfaction of the material needs of the people.

 The moral basis of rights advocates equal treatment of all citizens in the realm of

securing their rights.

 4

3. Libertarian Perspective of Rights

 This perspective of rights was expounded by Robert Nozick.

 It gives more prominence to the individual.

 It maintains its faith in the natural rights of the individual and treats the state as
a private firm, it held that individuals hire the state for the protection of their
property holdings.
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 2

Theories of Rights (Part - 4)

4. Communitarian Perspective of Rights

 This perspective was advanced by Alasdair MacIntyre.

 It focuses on an individual’s commitment to the community which represents the

common interest.

 This theory refuses to recognize the independent rights of the individual.

5. Multicultural Perspective on Rights

 Multiculturalism recognizes that people from different cultural backgrounds may

have varying interpretations of rights and how they should be applied.

 In many cultures, communal rights and responsibilities are valued as highly as

individual rights.

 For example, in some Indigenous cultures, collective rights to land and self-
governance are paramount. Similarly, in certain Asian cultures, such as Confucian-
influenced societies, there is an emphasis on familial and societal harmony over
individual autonomy.

 Bhiku Parekh asserts that in multicultural societies, cultural communities generally

demand various kinds of rights they think they need to maintain their collective
identity.

 Multiculturalism requires engaging with local communities, respecting their

traditions, and collaborating to find solutions that reconcile universal principles
with cultural norms.

 Embracing a multicultural perspective of rights fosters respect for diversity and

promotes dialogue and understanding across cultures.

Concept of Human Rights

 This topic has already been covered exhaustively and at length in Section – A of the
2nd paper under the topic Contemporary Global Concerns under the subhead Human
Rights. Refer from there.
 3

Concluding Remarks

 Rights are social claims necessary for the development of human personality. These
belong to the individuals.

 Rights are socially given by society and secured by the state. Rights are of numerous
types. Rights that are available to human beings include the right to life, equality,
security of person and property, freedom, education, work, etc.

 Liberal democratic societies lay more emphasis on personal and political rights rather
than social and economic rights whereas socialist societies advocate the opposite
arrangement of rights. Laski as a liberal thinker leaned towards the Left and considered
rights essential for individual development but granted economic rights followed by
social and political rights.

Questions asked

1. Comment: Multicultural Perspective of Rights. (2023)

2. Write on the cultural relativism. (2022)

3. Assess the significance of the right to property in political theory. (2020)

4. Compare the negative and positive concepts of rights. (2019)

5. Comment in 150 words: Idea of Natural Rights. (2015)

6. Analyse the relationship between natural rights and human rights. (2013)

7. Explain why Jeremy Bentham dismisses the theory of natural rights as ‘nonsense upon
stilts’. (2009 )
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 2

Democracy

 Democracy is a type of government where leaders are chosen through elections by the
citizens of a country.

 The fundamental principle of democracy is encapsulated in the famous phrase "of the
people, for the people, and by the people," indicating that the power and authority of
the government ultimately reside with the populace.

 However, not every system of elections can be considered a true democracy.

Key components necessary to ensure the functioning of a democratic system:

 Free and Fair Elections: Elections must be

conducted without interference or
manipulation, allowing citizens to freely
choose their representatives. The process
should be fair, transparent, and accessible
to all eligible voters.

 Impartial and Independent Judiciary: An

impartial and independent judiciary is
essential to uphold the rule of law and
ensure that government actions, including those related to elections, adhere to legal
principles and protect the rights of citizens.

 Individual Rights: Democracy requires the protection of individual rights and freedoms,
including freedom of speech, assembly, and expression. Citizens must have the right to
voice their opinions, criticize the government, and participate in political activities
without fear of repression.

 Universal Adult Suffrage: Every adult citizen, regardless of race, gender, religion, or
socioeconomic status, should have the right to vote and participate in the democratic
process. Universal adult suffrage ensures that the government represents the entire
population and not just a privileged few.
 3

 One Person, One Vote, One Value: In a democratic system, each vote should carry equal
weight, regardless of where a person lives or their characteristics. This principle ensures
that every citizen's voice is equally significant in shaping the direction of the
government.

These principles collectively form the foundation of democracy, providing a framework for
governance that prioritizes the participation, representation, and rights of the people.
When these components are upheld and respected, democracy can thrive, fostering political
stability, social justice, and the overall well-being of society.

Note: Values - Standard of desirability in society means what is worthwhile and what is
not worthwhile, eg Honesty is value

Democracy- As a value system:

 When we consider democracy as a fundamental value in society, it signifies a

recognition of its desirability and importance in our lives. This notion is rooted in the
belief that democracy serves to empower individuals. Influential thinkers like Locke,
Rousseau, and Gandhi have
contributed significant
ideas to the concept of
democracy.

 According to John Locke,

democracy revolves around
safeguarding the inherent
rights of individuals, such as
the right to life, liberty, and
property. For Locke, the essence of democracy lies in its ability to protect these essential
rights, ensuring that every person has the freedom to pursue their interests and
aspirations.

 Jean-Jacques Rousseau's perspective on democracy emphasizes the idea that true

liberty can only be achieved when individuals act in accordance with their genuine will.
In Rousseau's view, democracy ensures liberty by enabling people to participate in
decision-making processes based on their authentic desires and interests.
 4

 Mahatma Gandhi introduced the "swaraj" concept, which embodies self-rule and self-
governance. For Gandhi, democracy means empowering every individual, especially the
most marginalized. His idea of "empowering the last man" underscores the importance
of ensuring that democracy uplifts and empowers every citizen, leaving no one behind.

Democracy - As an Institutional System:

The concept of democracy as an institutional system, particularly through the minimalist

approach, entails viewing democracy primarily as a set of institutional arrangements and
procedures rather than as a comprehensive ideology or philosophy. Here's a detailed
explanation:

 Minimalist Approach: The minimalist approach to democracy focuses on the basic

institutional framework necessary for a political system to be considered democratic.
It emphasizes minimal requirements such as free and fair elections, protection of
individual rights, rule of law, and mechanisms for peaceful transfer of power. This
approach tends to prioritize procedural aspects over substantive outcomes or values.

 Institutional Arrangements: Within the minimalist approach, democracy is understood

primarily through its institutional arrangements. This includes the structures and
mechanisms through which political power is organized, exercised, and held
accountable. Key institutions typically include elected representatives, political parties,
independent judiciary, free media, and civil society organizations.

 Set of Procedures: Democracy, according to this perspective, is also viewed as a set of

procedures rather than a specific outcome or ideology. These procedures encompass
the rules and processes governing political participation, decision-making, and
governance. Examples of democratic procedures include regular elections, constitutional
protections of rights, mechanisms for citizen participation (such as referendums or
public consultations), and checks and balances on government power.

 Realist Picture: The minimalist approach provides a realist picture of democracy by

focusing on concrete institutional features and procedural mechanisms rather than
idealized or aspirational notions of democracy. It acknowledges the practical
constraints and challenges involved in establishing and maintaining democratic
systems, emphasizing the importance of pragmatic solutions and incremental reforms.
 5

Origin of democracy:
 The origin of democracy can be traced back to Ancient Greece, particularly the city-
state of Athens. In this early form of democracy, known as direct democracy, citizens
directly participated in the decision-making process. This meant that citizens
themselves would gather in assemblies to discuss and vote on laws and policies.
 However, notable philosophers of ancient Greece had varying perspectives on
democracy. Plato, for instance, critiqued democracy, characterizing it as the rule of
the ignorant. He believed that allowing the uninformed masses to make decisions could
lead to chaos and poor governance. Similarly, Aristotle viewed democracy as the rule
of the poor, suggesting that it could potentially lead to the oppression of the wealthy
minority by the majority.
 In contrast, John Locke, an influential philosopher of the Enlightenment era, introduced
the concept of limited government, which laid the groundwork for modern democratic
principles. Locke argued for a system in which governmental powers are restricted to
protect individual rights and prevent tyranny.
 In modern times, democracy has evolved, with a predominant focus on representative
democracy. In this system, citizens elect representatives, such as Members of Parliament
(MPs) and Members of Legislative Assembly (MLAs), to make decisions on their behalf.
These representatives are entrusted with the responsibility of representing the interests
and viewpoints of their constituents when shaping laws and policies.
C.B Macpherson View on democracy:
 Macpherson approaches democracy from a critical liberal standpoint. This means he
examines democracy through the lens of liberal principles but also critiques the
limitations and inequalities inherent in liberal democratic systems.
 One of Macpherson's central concerns is equality. He highlights the importance of
ensuring equality within democratic societies, particularly in terms of political, social,
and economic rights and opportunities.
 He has adopted a number of methodology of post behaviouralism. Macpherson
incorporates methodologies from post-behavioralism into his analysis of democracy,
focusing not only on empirical data but also on normative considerations and
ideological frameworks. Note: post behaviouralism will be discussed in details later on
 6

While analysing different models of democracy he has reached to following conclusion:

 Relationship between Democracy and Capitalism: Macpherson argues that democracy

and capitalism did not emerge simultaneously. Instead, capitalism predates democracy,

and the two systems have complex and interrelated historical developments.

a. Hobbesian Perspective: According to Macpherson, thinkers like Thomas Hobbes

advocated for a powerful state to protect capitalist interests. In the early stages of

capitalism, a strong state apparatus was necessary to ensure the protection of property

rights and the functioning of markets.

b. Lockean Perspective: John Locke, another influential political philosopher, believed

in limited government. Macpherson suggests that by Locke's time, capitalism had

already developed to a point where a limited government, focused on protecting

individual rights rather than extensive state intervention, was seen as conducive to

capitalist interests.

 Liberalism's Monopoly over Democracy: Macpherson challenges the idea that liberalism

has a monopoly over democracy. While liberal democratic principles have been

influential, Macpherson argues that there are alternative models of democracy that do

not necessarily adhere strictly to liberal tenets.

 Critique of Western Liberal Democracies: Macpherson acknowledges the strengths of

Western liberal democracies but also highlights their limitations and flaws. He points

out that these democracies may fail to fully address issues of inequality, oppression,

and exclusion, suggesting a need for critical examination and potential reform.

Existing models of democracy:

Classical model of democracy: includes two models:

1. Protective Model: This model, associated with thinkers like John Locke and Jeremy

Bentham, views democracy primarily as a system of government designed to protect

the rights and liberties of individuals. In essence, it emphasizes limiting the power of

the state to ensure that it does not infringe upon the inherent rights of its citizens.
 7

The core idea here is that the state should not overstep its boundaries and should

respect the rights of individuals. This includes protecting fundamental rights such as

freedom of speech, freedom of religion, and the right to private property. The

government's role, according to this model, is largely to safeguard these rights rather

than actively intervene in the lives of citizens beyond what is necessary for their

protection.

2. Development Model: This model, associated with the ideas of John Stuart Mill, presents
democracy as a framework that fosters the development and realization of individual
potential. Unlike the Protective Model, which focuses on limiting state power, the
Development Model emphasizes creating conditions conducive to personal growth and
self-fulfillment. According to this perspective, democracy serves as a platform that
enables individuals to explore and express their true selves. It provides opportunities for
people to pursue their interests, engage in meaningful activities, and contribute to
society in ways that align with their talents and aspirations. In essence, democracy is
seen as a means to empower individuals and facilitate their personal and collective
development.


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 2

Democracy Part - 03

The modern theory of democracy

1. Elite theory

 Elite theory, as articulated by scholars such as Schumpeter and Sartori, posits that
democratic societies are not truly governed by the will of the majority, but rather
by a small elite group. This theory suggests that this elite group, which may consist
of politicians, bureaucrats, business leaders, and other influential individuals, holds
real power in society, while the general populace has limited influence.

 Anthony Downs, in his work "Economic Theory of Democracy," further explores

this perspective by likening politicians to entrepreneurs and voters to consumers
in a market setting. According to this analogy, politicians act as sellers of political
ideologies and policies, while voters act as consumers who choose among the
available options.

 In this framework, politicians who can effectively appealingly present their

programs are more likely to attract voters and win elections. This reflects the idea
that electoral success often depends on the ability to market one's ideas and policies
effectively, rather than solely on their intrinsic merit.

 Elite theory posits that elite groups can coexist with democracy, and leadership is
not inherently incompatible with democratic principles.

 According to this theory, power within a democratic system is not monopolized by

a single elite group; rather, it circulates among different elites over time. This
circulation ensures that no one group maintains a permanent monopoly on power.
In democratic systems, the presence of a multi-party system, free and fair
elections, and regular electoral intervals are considered sufficient conditions to
maintain democratic governance. These conditions allow for political competition,
ensure the peaceful transfer of power, and provide citizens with the opportunity
to participate in the democratic process.
 3

Pluralist theory:

Pluralist theory, as articulated by Robert Dahl, posits that power within a society is
dispersed across multiple institutions rather than being monopolized by a single entity. In
his book "Polyarchy," Dahl emphasizes the significance of participation and opposition in
the functioning of a liberal society.

Key points of Pluralist theory include:

 Distributed Power: Dahl argues that power is

not concentrated within a single institution but
is rather spread out among various institutions
within a society. This distribution prevents any
one institution or group from wielding excessive
influence over decision-making processes.

 Liberal Governance: Pluralist theory suggests

that a liberal society is not governed by all
individuals, nor is it dominated by a select few or a majority. Instead, power is diffused
across different groups and institutions, ensuring a balance of interests and
perspectives.

 Wide Distribution of Power: According to Dahl, power is widely distributed among

different societal groups, including but not limited to governmental bodies, interest
groups, corporations, and social organizations. This distribution allows for diverse voices
to be heard and considered in the political process.

 Preference for Rule by Many: Pluralist theory advocates for governance by many rather
than by a select few. It argues that a system in which power is dispersed among various
groups and institutions is more conducive to democracy and provides greater
opportunities for representation and participation.

 Influence of Pluralistic Institutions: Pluralist theory recognizes that each institution

within a society possesses the capacity to exert influence over decision-making
processes. This capacity ensures that power is not monopolized by any single entity and
that multiple perspectives are taken into account in policy formulation and
implementation.
 4

Features of Polyarchy:

 High Level of Democracy: Polyarchy exhibits a high degree of democracy, typically

around 95%, but it doesn't reach the ideal or perfect form, which is considered to be
100%. This means that while it upholds democratic principles and institutions, there
may be certain limitations or imperfections in its implementation.

 Examples: Countries such as India, the United States, Australia, and Japan are
often cited as examples of polyarchies. These nations have democratic systems in
place with regular elections and representative governance, but they may face
challenges or shortcomings in certain aspects of their democratic processes.

 Rule by Elected Representatives: In a polyarchy, political power is vested in elected

representatives who are chosen by the citizens through democratic elections. These
representatives are responsible for making decisions and governing on behalf of the
people.

 Free and Fair Elections: Polyarchies uphold the

principle of free and fair elections, where
citizens have the right to vote without coercion
or intimidation. Electoral processes are designed
to ensure transparency, accountability, and
equal participation for all eligible voters.

 Regular Elections: Elections are held at regular

intervals in polyarchies, allowing citizens to
periodically choose their representatives and hold them accountable for their actions
and policies. This ensures a continuous and democratic transfer of power within the
political system.

 Universal Adult Suffrage: In polyarchies, all adult citizens typically have the right to
vote regardless of their gender, race, religion, or socioeconomic status. Universal adult
suffrage ensures that the democratic process is inclusive and representative of the
entire population.
 5

 Strong Civil Society: Polyarchies often have a vibrant civil society comprising non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), advocacy groups, and grassroots movements that
play an active role in promoting democracy, human rights, and civic engagement. A
strong civil society acts as a check on government power and helps to safeguard
democratic values.

 Citizen Participation: In polyarchies, citizens have the opportunity to actively

participate in the political process beyond just voting. They can engage in political
activism, join political parties, run for public office, and contribute to shaping public
policy and decision-making.

Q. Equality means fair treatment rather than equal treatment. 150 words.

Answer:

The concept of equality, often misunderstood as synonymous with equal treatment, actually
embodies a deeper principle: fair treatment rather than strictly equal treatment. While
equality strives for fairness, it does not necessitate uniformity or sameness in outcomes for
every individual. Rather, it emphasizes equitable opportunities and just treatment tailored
to individual circumstances.

Complete equality, defined as equality of outcome where everyone receives the same reward
irrespective of their efforts or contributions, is impractical and counterproductive. Such an
approach would stifle innovation, erode motivation, and discourage risk-taking in society.
If everyone were to receive identical rewards regardless of their input or performance,
there would be little incentive for individuals to strive for excellence or pursue innovative
endeavors. This uniformity in outcomes would dampen creativity and diminish the sense
of enterprise essential for societal progress.

Moreover, the notion of equal rewards for all fails to acknowledge the inherent diversity
among individuals in terms of abilities, efforts, and contributions. Treating everyone exactly
the same regardless of their unique circumstances would not only be unjust but also
regressive for society as it would undermine the meritocracy essential for fostering talent
and rewarding diligence.
 6

In contrast, fair treatment, or justice in its truest sense, entails giving people what they
deserve based on their merits, efforts, and needs. It acknowledges the inherent differences
among individuals and seeks to provide equitable opportunities and treatment tailored to
their circumstances. Fairness recognizes that while outcomes may vary, the process should
be just and impartial, ensuring that individuals are not disadvantaged due to factors
beyond their control.

By prioritizing fair treatment over strict equality, societies can cultivate an environment
where individuals are motivated to excel, innovate, and contribute to the collective welfare.
Embracing fairness allows for the recognition of individual merit while also addressing
systemic inequalities and barriers that hinder equal opportunities. In essence, true equality
is achieved not through uniformity of outcomes but through equitable treatment and
opportunities that enable each individual to reach their full potential.

Macpherson’s assessment of democracy:

 Macpherson's assessment of democracy emphasizes the importance of individual

freedom and opportunity for self-development, which he finds in the classical model
of democracy. He appreciates how this model grants individuals the freedom to pursue
their own paths and grow personally. However, he acknowledges that the classical
model doesn't always align with empirical realities.

 He criticizes elitist and pluralist theories of democracy for reducing democracy to a

mere institutional mechanism. He argues that these models, at best, only represent a
procedural approach to democracy, neglecting the broader principles of individual
freedom and development that he values.


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 2

Democracy (Part – 4)

Mcpherosn’s model of Democracy:

McPherson's model of democracy critiques existing models and proposes a framework that
prioritizes values over procedural aspects. Here's an explanation of the main points:

❖ One Party System: This model, associated with Julius Nyerere, suggests that a single
political party governs the state. It's deemed more suitable for third-world countries
because it emphasizes common national objectives like nation-building and
development. However, it's criticized for its lack of pluralism and potential for
authoritarianism.

❖ Communist Model: While often seen as undemocratic due to the concentration of power
within the Communist Party, McPherson suggests that it can still be democratic if
there's internal party democracy, meaning democratic processes within the party itself.

❖ Competitive Party System: This model is characterized by multi-party systems with

free and fair elections held at regular intervals. However, McPherson argues that simply
having these features doesn't guarantee true democracy; it might only qualify as
"procedural democracy." Many Western liberal democracies are said to fall into this
category, prioritizing procedural aspects over deeper democratic values.

McPherson emphasizes that true democracy requires more than just procedural
mechanisms. He suggests that the essence of democracy lies in its values, rather than just
its procedures. Specifically, he argues for minimizing "extractive powers," meaning reducing
the concentration of power in the hands of capital or any other specific group. In Western
democracies, he suggests, too much power is concentrated in the hands of capital, leading
to a loss of creative freedom.

According to McPherson, a system only becomes truly democratic when it minimizes or

eliminates these extractive powers, ensuring that decision-making and power are
distributed more evenly among the populace, rather than being centralized in the hands
of a few. This view suggests a deeper understanding of democracy beyond just formal
procedures, focusing on the equitable distribution of power and the protection of individual
freedoms.
 3

Democracy and Development:

❖ Lee Kuan Yew's Views: Lee Kuan Yew, the former Prime Minister of Singapore, argued
that democracy might not be suitable for third-world countries. He pointed to
examples like India, where he believed democracy contributed to economic failures. He
advocated for a model of "guided democracy," particularly exemplified by the success
of East Asian countries like Singapore. In this model, while some democratic principles
might exist, there's also a strong centralized authority guiding development.

❖ Amartya Sen's Views: Amartya Sen, a renowned economist and philosopher, criticized
Lee's perspective. He argued that there's no inherent relationship between development
and authoritarianism. In fact, Sen suggested that authoritarian regimes often lead to
misery and challenges for people. He believed that democracy plays a constructive role
in fostering development because it empowers individuals. Sen argued that democracy
leads to the empowerment of people, enabling them to participate in decision-making
processes that affect their lives.

Sen's viewpoint emphasizes that democracy and development are interlinked. He suggests
that without democracy, true empowerment of individuals is not possible. In Sen's
framework, democracy is not just a political system but also a crucial factor in promoting
human development and well-being. He highlights the importance of political freedoms
and participatory governance in creating conditions for sustainable development and
human flourishing.
Overall, these perspectives offer different insights into the complex relationship between
democracy and development, with Sen's emphasizing the positive role of democracy in
empowering individuals and fostering development, while Lee's focusing on the need for
strong governance models to drive economic progress, sometimes at the expense of certain
democratic principles.

Q: Democracy and Development. Comment (150 words)

Answer:

The relationship between democracy and development has long been a topic of debate
within political theory. While some argue that they are contradictory, others, like
Amartya Sen, assert that they are fundamentally intertwined. Sen posits that
 4

democracy serves as an institutional mechanism for a country's development,

providing avenues for participation, accountability, and the protection of rights.

However, figures such as former Singaporean Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew hold
contrasting views, suggesting that democracy may not be suitable for third-world
countries. Lee points to examples like India's economic struggles as evidence against
the compatibility of democracy and development. Sen, on the other hand, refutes
Lee's stance, arguing that authoritarianism does not inherently lead to development
and can bring about misery and challenges for citizens. He emphasizes the constructive
role of democracy in fostering development, asserting that it leads to the
empowerment of people.

The success of East Asian countries, often cited as examples of "guided democracy,"
further complicates the debate.

However, it is erroneous to conclude that democracy and development are mutually

exclusive. The case of India serves as a compelling example of how democracy and
development can coexist and even complement each other. India's robust growth rate
over the past few decades, averaging more than 6.5 percent, underscores this point.
This economic progress has positioned India as one of the best-performing markets in
recent years. Thus, it is justifiable to assert that democracy and development can
indeed go hand in hand, with each reinforcing the other's positive outcomes.

 2

Democracy and power

Models of Democracy
1. Representative Democracy
2. Participatory Democracy
3. Deliberative Democracy Direct Democracy: Also known as

Representative Democracy pure democracy, is a democracy

in which the decisions are not
❖ Representative democracy is a limited and
taken by representatives. All
indirect form of democracy:
people directly participate in
➢ It is limited in the sense that participation
decision-making, typically by
in government is infrequent and brief,
voting on laws and policies.
being restricted to the act of voting every
few years.

➢ It is indirect in the sense that the public does not exercise power by itself, but selects
those who will rule on its behalf.

❖ Historical Background of Representative Democracy: Direct Democracy is very difficult

to practice in present times. Ideally, democracy is a form of government that is based
on the direct participation of people in the economy. Rousseau is an advocate of direct
democracy. According to him, we are truly free only when we are governed by the
rules made by ourselves. However, with the increase in the size of the population and
the size of the state, it became difficult to implement direct democracy. Hence, the
concept of representative democracy emerged.

❖ Influential Exponents: J.S. Mill and Alex de Tocqueville are identified as significant
proponents of direct democracy. Their contributions likely entail advocating for its
virtues and discussing its potential implementations.

❖ J.S. Mill's Views on Representative Democracy: The passage shifts to discuss J.S. Mill's
views on representative democracy, where citizens elect representatives to make
decisions on their behalf. Mill proposed various institutional reforms to enhance
representative democracy's effectiveness:
 3

❖ Introduction of proportional representation: This ensures political parties are

represented in proportion to the votes they receive.

❖ Increased representation of women: Mill argued for greater inclusion of women in the
political process.

❖ Plural voting system based on property and education: Mill suggested a voting system
where individuals with more property or education would have more voting power.

❖ Colonial Governance: Interestingly, Mill did not support applying representative

democracy to colonies, believing they were not ready for self-rule.

Participatory Democracy:
❖ Participatory democracy is a form of governance where citizens actively participate in
the decision-making processes that affect their lives and communities. The concept
aligns with the idea that true freedom comes from being governed by rules created by
oneself, a notion espoused by philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
❖ Rousseau believed that individuals are truly free when they participate in crafting the
laws and regulations that govern them, rather than being subjected to rules imposed
by others. In a participatory democracy, citizens have direct involvement in shaping
policies and making decisions, which promotes inclusivity and empowerment.

❖ This concept has been advocated by various thinkers and leaders throughout history.
Mahatma Gandhi, for instance, emphasized the importance of participatory democracy
through his support for the establishment of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) in India.
PRIs are local self-governing bodies that enable grassroots participation in decision-
making processes.
❖ Furthermore, the World Bank has recognized the significance of participatory
democracy in promoting sustainable development. This was evident in discussions
during the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, where the idea of sustainable development was
conceptualized. The World Bank emphasized the importance of community
participation in ensuring sustainable development outcomes.

❖ Hannah Arendt, a political theorist, also highlighted the importance of participatory

democracy in her writings. She emphasized the role of active citizenship and public
engagement in fostering a healthy democratic society.
 4

Suggestion to strengthen Participatory Democracy:

1. Legislative reforms to introduce local self-government: This implies enacting laws or
making changes to existing legislation to empower local communities with more
autonomy and decision-making authority. By establishing local self-government
structures, such as city councils or village assemblies, citizens can have a direct say in
issues that affect their immediate surroundings.

2. Use of modern technology: This involves leveraging technological advancements to

enhance citizen participation in the democratic process. For example, online platforms
or mobile apps can be developed to facilitate voting, public opinion surveys, or town
hall meetings. Technology can also improve transparency and accountability in
government operations.

3. Public education: This suggests educating the public about their rights, responsibilities,
and the importance of active participation in democracy. It may involve civic education
programs in schools, community workshops, or informational campaigns to raise
awareness about democratic processes and institutions.

4. Making people sensitive about the environment: This refers to raising awareness about
environmental issues and promoting environmentally sustainable practices among
citizens. By incorporating environmental education and advocacy into democratic
participation efforts, communities can address environmental challenges through
collective action and policy advocacy.
5. Decentralization of power: This entails redistributing decision-making authority from
central government bodies to lower levels of governance, such as local councils or
regional authorities. Decentralization can promote inclusivity, responsiveness, and
accountability in governance by ensuring that decisions are made closer to the people
they affect.

These suggestions collectively aim to make democracy more participatory by empowering

citizens to engage actively in decision-making processes, fostering transparency and
accountability, and addressing societal issues such as environmental sustainability. By
implementing these measures, democratic systems can become more inclusive, responsive,
and effective in representing the interests of the people.
 5

Deliberative democracy:
❖ Inclusivity: Deliberative democracy is described as being more inclusive compared to
representative and participatory democracy. This means that it allows for broader
participation from diverse segments of society in the decision-making process.

❖ Quality of Decision Making: The passage suggests that deliberative democracy is

qualitatively better than representative and participatory democracy. This implies that

decisions made through deliberation are considered to be of higher quality, possibly

because they involve active dialogue and consideration of multiple perspectives.

❖ Active Participation: Deliberative democracy encourages more active participation of

people in the decision-making process. This means that citizens are actively engaged in

discussions and debates about issues that affect them and their communities.

❖ Active Dialogue: Deliberative democracy facilitates active dialogue among people. This
suggests that it promotes open and constructive communication, allowing individuals

to express their opinions and engage in meaningful discussions with others.

Several key features of deliberative democracy, as discussed by Josha Cohen:

❖ Citizens believe that active deliberation is a deciding factor in making laws.

❖ There is a commitment to respect the pluralism of values, acknowledging and

considering diverse perspectives and opinions.

❖ Participants believe that democratic procedures are a source of legitimacy, implying

that they trust in the fairness and effectiveness of the decision-making process.

❖ Each member respects the capacity of others in terms of their contributions to

deliberations.

Two Aspects of Participation: Deliberative democracy ensures participation in two ways:

❖ People are governed by laws made by themselves, implying a sense of ownership and

responsibility in the legislative process.

❖ Participants believe that liberty lies in obeying laws because laws are made by the

people themselves, emphasizing the importance of collective decision-making and

adherence to the rule of law.
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The Power
Introduction to the Concept of Power:

❖ Power is the central theme of political science. According to Russell, power in political
science holds the same fundamental as energy in physics.

❖ Morgenthau also says that politics is nothing but a continuous struggle for power. The
meaning of politics has now changed from one of being a study of state and government
to that of being a study of power. Curtis acclaims that “politics is an organized dispute
about power and its use.”

Meaning of Power

While a great communist leader like Mao says that power flows from the barrel of a gun;
on the contrary, an apostle of peace, truth, and non-violence Mahatma Gandhi substitutes
the force of gun and bomb with the power of love and truth.

Cline defined power as the ability, whether personal or social, to get things done either to
enforce one’s own will or to enforce the collective will of some group over others.

Steven Lukes has categorized the different approaches to power into three types:-

1. Power as decision-making:- Power is defined in terms of the capacity to take and

implement decisions. According to Hobbes power lies with the sovereign/state

2. Power as agenda setting:- Real power is located in the people who control the agenda
of decision. Power may be exercised by the state but agenda is determined by the
propertied class.
3. Power as thought control process:- Lukes argues that we must focus on how the
perception and interests of the people are shaped.
Herbert and Edward Shills defined power as the ability to influence the behavior of others
under one’s ends.
Marxist and Feminist scholars consider power not as a property of the individual but as a
social structure.
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Power and Hegemony

Elitist Theory of Power

 Exponents – Pareto, Mosca, Robert Mitchels, C. Wright Mills.
 Elitist scholars, primarily Western scholars using an empirical approach have concluded
that power never lies with people. Power always lies with the elite.
 The nature of money and power is the same, it always gets concentrated, and there is
no trickle-down effect.
 Power with the masses is a myth. Power with masses is neither possible nor desirable.
Hence democracies are oligarchies.
 Robert Mitchels in his book POLITICAL PARTIES gave ‘the iron law of oligarchy - The
only law that is considered as ‘law’ in political science.
 Pareto has given the theory of the ‘Circulation of Elites’. According to him, there are
two types of elites: lions and foxes and power keeps on circulating between lions and
foxes. Foxes cannot rule alone, foxes need lions,
and lions in turn need the guile and cleverness of
foxes to remain in power.
 If we apply Pareto’s theory in an Indian context
then we can infer that the British transferred
authority to the leaders of the Congress party,
which maintained its dominance until the fourth
general election.
 However, in the 1960s, the Congress party began to fragment, giving rise to regional
political entities. From the 1960s to the 1980s, the Other Backward Classes (OBCs)
emerged as a prominent social group, with leaders from these parties becoming the
new ruling elite. This shift has been interpreted by Yogendra Yadav as a “democratic
upsurge.” In the 1990s, the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) assumed power in India’s
largest state, marking a transition of power to a new elite represented by Mayavati.
This transition does not necessarily signify a redistribution of power at the grassroots
level, as the dominance of OBC or Dalit leaders does not ensure empowerment at the
local level.
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 C. Wright Mills has propounded the concept of power elite. He studied US politics and
came to the conclusion that power is not distributed equally rather it is concentrated
in the hands of power elites. These power elites are those who control the key
organisations in the society as in case of USA there are 3 key organisations which
represents three elite section of US federation, i.e.,

1. Federal government which represents political elites.

2. Big business houses which represent business elites.

3. Military which represents military elites.

Pluralist Theory of Power

 Robert Dahl introduced the pluralist theory to scrutinize C. Wright Mills’ assertion
regarding democracy in the United States. According to Mills, the USA functions as an
oligarchy where decision-making power is concentrated among the power elites.

 Dahl claims it is erroneous to assume that all power in the USA is monopolized by the
power elites. Instead, powerful interest groups and associations exist, through which
individuals collectively wield significant influence. While individuals may not exert
power independently, their membership in these groups empowers them collectively.
These interest groups effectively advocate for the interests of their constituents, thereby
wielding considerable influence in the United States.

 Robert Dahl gave the concept of Deformed Polyarchy along with Charles Lindblom. The
deformed polyarchy can be described as ‘the best practicable form of democracy’. It is
an approximate democracy because ideal democracy never exists in practice. (Thus
from Dahl’s point of view, it is wrong to call USA democracy or oligarchy.) It is more
correct to use the term ‘polyarchy’.
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Power, Hegemony and Legitimacy

Post-modernist Approach to Power

Hannah Arendt:-

❖ There is a difference between power and force. Nature has force e.g. wind, water etc.

whereas power is a characteristic of society.

❖ Power is not a means of domination but rather a means of freedom.

❖ Strength pertains to the qualities of an individual, who may exhibit either strength or

weakness, whereas power is inherent in collective action. It is a trait of groups or

communities acting in collectivity.

 3

Michael Foucault:-

❖ Traditional theories assert that power is centralized within the state or monarchy,

with the King holding a monopoly over it. However, Foucault challenges this notion,

viewing the idea of the King’s monopoly as a constructed discourse.

❖ He argues that power is complex and multidimensional, extending beyond hierarchical

structures.

❖ In Foucault’s perspective, even the King is subject to societal power dynamics, which

manifest through discourses permeating every aspect of society.

❖ Power, according to Foucault, is omnipresent and fluid, originating from various

sources and manifesting in diverse forms. Individuals not only wield power but also

embody it, shaped by the discourses surrounding them.

❖ Foucault views power as a technique or strategy rather than a static entity,

emphasizing its productive nature in shaping identities.

❖ He introduces a micro-theory of power, focusing on how power operates at the

individual level rather than solely within institutional frameworks. This approach

highlights the intricate power dynamics present in everyday interactions and

relationships, where individuals exert power over one another.

❖ Additionally, Foucault emphasizes that power is not inherently coercive and

acknowledges the potential for resistance within power structures.

HEGEMONY

The theory of hegemony emerged in response to the liberal theory of state. According to

liberal scholars, state represents the willing consent of the governed.

T.H. Green claims that ‘will’, not force, is the basis of state. It means that states are

continuing because people are willing to obey the state. And this willingness of the

governed provides legitimacy to the state.

Dimensions of Hegemony
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The concept of hegemony encompasses five fundamental dimensions, ranging from overt

to subtle manifestations:

1. Military: The hegemonic power possesses the most formidable military force globally,

surpassing any potential rivals. Its military alliances are notably stronger than

competing blocs.

2. Economic: The hegemon boasts the largest and most advanced economy worldwide,

serving as a primary trading partner for numerous nations, including major global

powers.

3. Political: The hegemon maintains a network of political allies and fosters amicable

relations with a majority of nations and key players on the international stage.

4. Institutional: Collaborating with its allies, the hegemon plays a pivotal role in shaping

the regulations governing global political and economic interactions. It often exerts

significant influence over international institutions, thereby shaping policies favoring

itself and its partners.

5. Ideological: The hegemon predominantly influences the discourse surrounding

international relations, shaping prevailing notions such as those concerning

globalization. As Marx asserted, the prevailing ideologies often reflect the perspectives

of the ruling class, highlighting the hegemon’s influence over global ideological

currents.

Gramscian Views on Hegemony

❖ Gramsci was a neo-Marxist who analyzed the causes of the failure of Marxian theory

and came to the conclusion that liberal societies are not based on the real consent of

the governed but on manufactured consent.

❖ Gramsci used the term hegemony to show the ideological domination of the

bourgeoisie class and the way they manipulate consent.

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❖ Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony revolves around the idea of cultural and

ideological domination by ruling elites. Unlike traditional Marxist notions of power

solely based on economic control, Gramsci expanded the understanding of power to

include cultural and ideological dimensions.

❖ According to Gramsci, hegemony refers to the ability of the ruling class to maintain

its dominance by shaping and controlling the cultural and ideological norms of society.

This control is achieved through the dissemination of beliefs, values, and norms that

serve the interests of the ruling class, thereby gaining the consent of the subordinate

classes

Gramsci emphasized the role of civil society institutions, such as the media, education

system, and religious institutions, in perpetuating hegemony by disseminating the

dominant ideology and suppressing alternative viewpoints. He also highlighted the

importance of intellectuals in shaping and reinforcing hegemonic ideology.


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Ideology and Legitimacy

IDEOLOGY
Ideology is a comprehensive set of beliefs, values, and ideas that form the basis of political
theory and action. It provides a framework for understanding the world, guiding political
behavior, and justifying societal arrangements.

Ideologies encompass core principles, goals, strategies, and an intellectual basis.

Types of Ideologies

1. Liberalism:-

 Core principles– Individual rights, freedom, equality, democracy, and limited

government intervention.

 Intellectual Basis: Rooted in Enlightenment philosophy, with thinkers like John

Locke, Adam Smith, and John Stuart Mill.

 Variants: Classical liberalism emphasizes free markets, while social liberalism

advocates for government intervention to promote social welfare.

2. Conservatism:-

 Core Principles: Tradition, order, stability, hierarchy, and skepticism towards rapid
change.

 Intellectual Basis: Draws from Edmund Burke’s emphasis on gradual reform and
preservation of existing social structures.

 Variants: Traditional conservatism values cultural and religious traditions, while

neo-conservatism prioritizes military strength and intervention.

3. Socialism:-

 Core Principles: Social equality, collective ownership of resources, redistribution of

wealth, and worker empowerment.

 Intellectual Basis: Emerged as a response to industrial capitalism, with thinkers like

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels laying the groundwork.

 Variants: Democratic socialism advocates for a mixed economy with democratic

institutions, while Marxism emphasizes the revolutionary overthrow of capitalism.
 3

Functions of Ideology

 Legitimization: Provides a moral and intellectual framework for legitimizing political

power and social order.

 Mobilization: Galvanizes support, mobilizes activists, and fosters solidarity among

adherents.

 Guidance: Offers a blueprint for policy-making, governance, and societal

transformation.

 Identity Formation: Shapes individual and collective identities, fostering a sense of

belonging and purpose.

Critiques of Ideology

 Rigidity: Ideologies can be dogmatic and resistant to change, hindering adaptation to

new circumstances.

 Oversimplification: They may oversimplify complex social realities, leading to distorted

analysis and policy prescriptions.

 Conflict: Different ideologies often clash, leading to polarization, division, and even
violence.

 Manipulation: Ideologies can be manipulated by political elites to serve their own

interests, obscuring underlying power dynamics.

Thus from the above discussion, we can conclude that the understanding of ideologies is
crucial for analysing political phenomena, predicting political behaviour, and formulating
effective policies in diverse socio-political contexts.

LEGITIMACY

 When raw and naked rules have authority the acceptance of people is known as
legitimacy. It reflects the consent of the governed.

 Legitimate power is synonymous with authority.

 Legitimacy generates support for the political system.

 The concept of legitimacy is linked to the stability of the state.

 Legitimacy is a tool by which power can be accumulated for a long time and liberals
prefer democracy, and constitutionalism in order to get legitimacy
 4

Definitions of Legitimacy

 Lipset:- Lipset defined legitimacy as the capacity to produce and maintain the belief
that existing institutions are most appropriate for society.

 Robert Dahl:- Dahl argues that legitimacy means the belief that the leaders are making
decisions in the interest of the people.
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Legitimacy and Liberalism

Methods adopted by the State to establish Legitimacy

Here are various approaches utilized by governments to establish legitimacy:

a. Upholding rights frameworks.

b. Ensuring press freedom.
c. Maintaining judicial autonomy.
d. Conducting transparent elections.
e. Implementing social welfare programs.
f. Utilizing propaganda tactics.

Signs of legitimacy include adherence to law and order, tax compliance, participation in

national events, respect for national symbols, and engagement in electoral processes.

Contribution of Max Weber to the Theory of Legitimacy

Max Weber made the difference between power and authority. Legitimate power is called

authority. The state represents authority. Max Weber has given the three ideal types of

authority: Charismatic, Traditional and Legal-rational.

1. Charismatic Authority:- This type of authority focuses on the personality factor. It

shows how the personality of a leader can ensure observance towards law. This form

of authority rests on the exemplary character of heroism of an individual. Charisma is

the most short basis of authority. It cannot continue for long. For example, the charisma

of Pandit Nehru provided legitimacy to many of his actions in the eyes of the people.

2. Traditional Authority:- It is characterized by the legitimacy of power being derived

from long-standing customs, traditions, and inherited positions within society. For

example, the authority of the king in Britain.

3. Legal-rational Authority:- It is a characteristic of contemporary societies where

authority is grounded in laws formulated through rational deliberation. In modern

societies, bureaucratic authority derives its legitimacy from adherence to these

established rules.
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Legitimation Crisis
Habermas

❖ Habermas is neo-Marxist associated with the Frankfurt School.

❖ He conducted an analysis of the welfare state, questioning whether it truly resolves the
inherent conflicts between labour and capital as proposed by capitalist and liberal
scholars.

❖ He posited that the welfare state, while initially seen as a remedy, is merely a
temporary fix. According to Habermass, this temporary solution is prone to
encountering a legitimation crisis, a concept describing the loss of legitimacy and trust
in established social and political institutions. This crisis manifests through various forms
such as social movements and civil society protests observed in Western nations.
❖ Essentially, Habermass argues that the welfare state’s efficacy in reconciling the
tensions between labour and capital is limited, and it is susceptible to broader societal
challenges over time.

Anthony King
❖ He has suggested the concept of government overload. It is the situation of rising
expectations and inability of the government to fulfill these expectations.

❖ Political masters always promise to deliver better welfare facilities in order to win
elections. It creates an overload on the entire economic system.

❖ The welfare state in the West in 2 nd half of the 1970s reflected government overload.
Therefore, there was a revival of the concept of night watchman state.

❖ No state is completely immune from the legitimation crisis. Legitimation crisis is more
common in 3rd world countries than in the states of western world.

Concluding Remarks
❖ The concepts of power, hegemony, ideology, and legitimacy are fundamental to the
study of Political Science and International Relations.

❖ Power, as the ability to influence others and achieve desired outcomes, can be exercised
through various means, including coercion, persuasion, and authority.

❖ Hegemony, a form of dominance achieved through consent and cooperation rather

than force, plays a crucial role in shaping international relations and global governance.
 4

Ideology serves as a set of beliefs and values that justify and legitimize existing power
structures, influencing state policies and societal norms.

❖ Legitimacy, on the other hand, refers to the perceived validity and moral authority of
political institutions and processes, essential for maintaining social order and stability.
Understanding the interplay between these concepts is vital for analysing sta te
behaviour, international cooperation, and the dynamics of power relations on both
domestic and global scales.

❖ Moreover, recognizing the complexities and nuances inherent in each concept is crucial
for policymakers, scholars, and citizens in navigating the complexities of contemporary
politics and fostering inclusive and just societies.

By critically examining power dynamics, interrogating dominant ideologies, and

scrutinizing claims to legitimacy, we can strive towards a more equitable and democratic
world order that respects the rights and aspirations of all individuals and nations.

Q: Tools of legitimation of the state. (2021)

Answer:

Introduction:

According to Samuel Lipset, legitimacy is the state's ability to convince people that its
institutions operate in their best interests. It differs from mere power as it relies on
the willing consent of the governed. In essence, legitimacy is the perception that the
government's authority is rightful and just, rather than merely coercive.
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Body:
Various tools utilized by the state to legitimize its authority:

a. Independent Judiciary:

➢ Protector of Individual Rights: The judiciary ensures the protection of

individuals' rights, ensuring that the state operates within the confines of the
law and respects individual freedoms.
➢ Custodian of Constitution: By upholding the constitution, the judiciary serves
as a safeguard against any unconstitutional actions by the state, thereby
reinforcing the legitimacy of the government.

➢ Resolution of Conflict: The judiciary plays a crucial role in resolving conflicts

within society, promoting stability and trust in the government's ability to
maintain order and justice.

➢ For Making Democracy Robust: An independent judiciary is essential for the

functioning of democracy, as it ensures checks and balances, preventing the
abuse of power and promoting democratic values.

b. Freedom of Press and Free and Fair Elections:

➢ A free press provides transparency and accountability, allowing citizens to

access information and hold the government accountable.

➢ Free and fair elections are fundamental to democracy, as they allow for the
peaceful transfer of power and reflect the will of the people.

Conclusion:

Thus, it underscores the significance of legitimacy in governance, highlighting its

importance in ensuring the willingness of the people to be governed. Without
legitimacy, the authority of the state may be challenged, potentially resulting in
instability and resistance from the populace.

Questions asked

1. Foucault’s concept of power. (2023)

2. “Political ideology is primarily concerned with the allocation and utilisation of power.”
Comment. (2021)
3. Tools of legitimation of the state. (2021)
 6

4. Examine the nature and meaning of Power. (2020)

5. According to Gramsci, hegemony is primarily based on the organisation of consent.

(2019)

6. Explain the relationship between power, authority and legitimacy. (2018)

7. Discuss Hannah Arendt’s analysis of the role of ideology in modern totalitarian

regimes. (2016)

8. Comment: Gramscian Concept of Hegemony. (2016)

9. Distinguish between power and authority. (2015)

10. Discuss the crisis of legitimacy. (2015)

11. Comment: “Power is never the property of an individual; it belongs to a group and
remains in existence only so long as the group keeps together.” Hannah Arendt.

(2014)
12. Examine the conditions that are required for the maintenance of legitimacy in modern
societies. (2014)
13. Illustrate from contemporary Indian experience the theory of circulation of elites.

(1995)

14. Comment: Theory of Circulation of Elites. (1992)

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Liberalism and Socialism

What is Liberalism?

 It represents a system of ideas that aim at a realization of a pluralist society favouring

diversity of politics, economics, religion and other cultural life. It seeks to advance the

freedom of man. It also seeks to increase the individuality of man by increasing his

areas of choice and decision.

 Liberalism is the embodiment of the demand for freedom in every sphere of

lifeintellectual, social, religious, political and economic.

 Liberalism begins and ends with the ideal of individual freedom, individual human

rights and individual human happiness. Liberty is the most important aspect of

liberalism.

 For liberals, it is the individual who counts and not society. For liberals, only by placing

priority on the rights of the individual can freedom be ensured.

 Ingredients of Liberalism are the following-

 Men are free, rational, self-improving and autonomous.

 Government is based on consent and contract.

 Constitutionalism and the Rule of Law

 Equality of opportunity.

 Social justice needs merit.

Characteristic of Liberalism

 It can be understood through certain characteristics which evolve during its long

history-

 A belief in the autonomy of individuals.

 A belief in the essential rationality and goodness of men.

 A belief in certain inalienable rights particularly the right to life, property and liberty.

 A state comes into existence by mutual consent for the protection of rights.
 3

 The relationship between the state and the individual is a contractual one.

 Social control can be secured by law rather than by command.

 The government that governs the least is the best.

 Individual freedom in all spheres of life- political, economic, intellectual, social and
religious.

Rise of Liberalism

It can be divided into two periods

1. Classical or Negative Liberalism

2. Welfare and Positive Liberalism

 In its initial phase, liberalism presented itself as the philosophy of the middle class
but in later stages, it developed into a philosophy of the national community to
protect and concern the interest of all classes.

 Classical or negative Liberalism was highly individualistic. Individual and social

interests were seen as contradicting; on the other hand, welfare liberalism was a
recognition of the reality and the value of social and community interests along
with individual interests.

 Welfare liberalism not only emphasized on political and civil liberties of earlier eras
but also included progressive changes brought about by industrialization and
nationalism.

The ideology of classical liberalism and its views about men, society, economy, and state.

The ideology of classical liberalism

 Classical liberalism has been called negative liberalism, laissez-faire liberalism, original
liberalism, individualistic liberalism, etc.

 Prominent scholars and prominent thinkers associated with classical liberalism are
Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Adam Smith, J.S.mill, etc.

 Classical liberalism emerged as a protest against privileged absolute authority which

was prevalent in all spheres of life. It emphasized the autonomy of individual liberty,
rationality, etc. It also emphasized free market capitalism in the field of economics and
government based upon consent in the field of politics.
 4

 It also favoured an open meritocratic society with an emphasis on autonomous

individuals.

 It considered men as selfish, egoistic, alienated but at the same time rational. It is
believed that external restraints on man should be minimal.

 According to liberalism, men are endowed with certain inalienable rights which are
based upon the law of nature-Right to life, liberty and property.

 These rights are not based upon the mercy of the state and society but these rights are
inherent in the personality of an individual.

 At the core of classical liberalism, liberty for individuals is liberty from every form of
authority which acts arbitrarily and liberty in all spheres of human life.

 Since individuals are taken as a unit and the single human being as a natural unit. So
classical liberalism viewed society not as natural but as an artificial institution. It was
seen as being composed of atoms like autonomous individuals and society is meant to
serve certain interests of individuals.

 The function of government is simply to secure an individual's natural rights to liberty

and property. The government should refrain from any interference with the economy.

 There is no conflict between individual self-interest and social welfare. There should be
no interference in men's lives unless men violate the law of justice.

 The individual right to private property was the basis of the economic theory of classical
liberalism.

 At the political level, liberalism created a theory of the state which was based on
subjective claims rather than objective reality.

 Classical liberalism shows the state purely in negative terms. It was termed as a
necessary evil.

 It was necessary because only the state could provide natural law, order, and security
of life and property. But it was also evil. It was an enemy of human liberty; any increase
in the function of the state was seen as a decrease in the liberty of individuals. Hence,
the state was seen as having a negative function. That is only to provide security of life
and property and leave the individual free to pursue good in his way.
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Note- Please, refer to the works of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and J.S. Mill also.
Critical Evaluation
 According to Michael Oakeshott, it is a philosophy of crude and uncritical individualism
which is inconsistent with democracy.
Points of Criticism
 It is an amorphous ideology- It is used by everyone. Liberalism is without a coherent
policy and its goals are formal and abstract to provide no clear moral standards. it is
used by all and it lacks political, moral and intellectual clarity.
 The wrong view of men and society-Liberalism considered men as egoistic, lonely,
separate from society, possessive and concerned with the fulfilment of their interests.
 Liberalism also looks at the state as an artificial institution created by men. This view
of liberalism has been criticized by Marxists who say that men are dependent on others
not only for their material needs but it is also dependent on society for its cultural and
spiritual needs. Marxist view society as a social and cooperative being.
 It is the philosophy of capitalist class- It has been the economic philosophy of capitalism
and its basic purpose has been the maintenance of arrangements necessary for
capitalist economic relations. According to critics, welfare majors adopted by liberalism
have been driven by the fundamental purpose of protecting and promoting the
interests of the capitalist class.
The negative concept of state
 According to liberalism, the state should not interfere in men’s lives. The purpose was
to promote capitalism which has been criticized by Karl Marx.
Welfare state and positive liberalism
 The term welfare describes collectively the range of social policies that aim to provide
basic services such as health and education etc according to the need, normally free of
cost through state funding.
 The theory of the Welfare state is the basis of positive liberalism under which extensive
social services are provided to all citizens, protecting the weaker section, and providing
extensive social services to all citizens along with social security.
 The welfare state model also tries to reduce the gap between the rich and the poor.
 Redistribution from rich to poor to ensure greater social equality is an important aspect
of the welfare state.
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Democratic Welfare state

 Positive liberalism in the 20th century came to be identified with the democratic
welfare state. The welfare state model involves the radical transformation of the 19th-
century and early 20th-century laissez-faire states.

 The basic assumption of the democratic welfare state was ensuring social good and it
also tried to reconcile the interest of individuals with that of society so that the
capitalist system can be preserved and at the same time, its ill effects can be reduced.

Principles of Welfare State

 Every member of the community is entitled to a minimum standard of living.

 The welfare state is committed to ensuring economic stability and progress.

 The welfare state is committed to employment for people.

 Redistribution of wealth is another important aspect of the welfare state to reduce

inequality.
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Liberalism and Socialism (Part - 2)

The welfare state believes in a mixed economy-

 A welfare state operates within the framework of a market economy. However, unlike
the laissez-faire capitalist economy, the welfare state also removes the ill effects of
capitalism. The welfare state is inherently more dynamic than both laissez-capitalist
states and socialist ones.

Note-

 The welfare state is different from the laissez-faire capitalist state because the laissez-
faire state creates several social, economic, and political contradictions in society. It
creates many ill effects which are the following-

 Monopoly capitalism

 Denying redistribution of wealth

 It fosters inequality and injustice

 These ill effects are being removed through the welfare state. The welfare state creates
conditions for ensuring social and economic security.

Can a welfare state be justified on individualist grounds?

 On sophisticated moral justification, the welfare state can be justified on individualist

grounds. According to the theorists of the welfare state, market forces cause distress
and undermine the notion of individual autonomy. This is again a liberal belief in the
equal autonomy of each individual. Hence, to ensure the autonomy of each individual
and to protect individual rights, a welfare state is needed.

 Welfare is not an act of morality but also a compelling duty. The welfare state also
ensures equality, rights etc. The welfare state is a compromise between classical
liberalism and contemporary libertarianism. It combines the freedom of the capitalist
state with socialist equality.

 It is intense to achieve liberty, equality and justice for people. It retains the essential
aspect of the capitalist system and at same time it also tries to remove the ill effect of
capitalism.
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Contemporary debate with respect to the welfare state causes many questions which are
the following-
 The contemporary debate related to the welfare state emerged because of the crisis
witnessed by the welfare state of the 1970s. And scholars like Milton Friedman, Von
Hayek and Robert Nozick questioned the welfare state model. Libertarian scholars like
Robert Nozick do not approve of the idea of a welfare state. They defend the market
economy and hold the view that distributive policies of the state in the name of welfare
violate people’s rights. According to them, the state should act like a night watchman
state or a police state. Scholars like Milton Friedman and Robert Nozick believe that
the welfare state model is very expensive and it will eventually bring a crisis.
 According to Milton Friedman and Robert Nozick, welfare state models are very
expensive. As the average age of the population increases so the total cost of welfare
services also increases leading to increasing unemployment and economic crisis.
 During covid 19 induced global lockdown once again welfare provisions were adopted
across the world. For example, Excess liquidity injected into the system by the US
Federal government leads to economic shock witnessed by countries across the world.
It can be said that even the welfare model requires extensive reforms because
unemployment and high inflation remain the permanent problems of the welfare state.

Socialism
Introduction
Socialism is a set of doctrines or a cluster of ideas and a political programme that emerged
at the beginning of the 19th century. It arose out of a revolt against bourgeois property.
The underlying idea of socialism is the abolition of capitalism through constructing a society
which is based on the ideals of equality, justice, cooperation and so on. Socialism prioritizes
the welfare of the community over individual profit and often seeks to address issues such
as poverty, inequality, and exploitation through policies like progressive taxation, social
welfare programs, and public ownership of key industries.
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Socialism and Fascism

Meaning of Socialism
❖ “Socialism is like a hat that has lost its shape because everyone wears it.” – CEM Joad.

❖ Joad’s analogy of socialism is like a hat that has lost shape because everyone wears it
encapsulating the diverse interpretations and implementations of socialism over time.
Just as a hat loses its original form when worn by different individuals, socialism has
been adapted and reshaped by various societies, thinkers, and political movements,
leading to a multitude of ideological variants and practical applications. Each wearer
of the “socialist hat” brings their own interpretation and priorities, leading to a
proliferation of ideologies that may bear the socialist label but vary significantly in their
principles, policies, and outcomes.

❖ Socialism is not against property per se. For example, owning a flat or a refrigerator
or driving in one’s own car does not militate against the spirit of socialism. All these
are consumable items.

❖ When socialism talks against the private ownership of property, it means such property
which is productive and yields profit, or rental income; that is, the private ownership
of means of production.

❖ Early socialists thought that property is theft. This comes to mean that the owners of
means of production cheat the workers – the direct producers – of whatever.
Production which takes place over and above the wages paid to them. This denial of
what they produce is theft.

❖ The accumulation of this theft is property in the form we see it in our societies. Being
a theft it is morally unacceptable. So it must be abolished and as a form, private
ownership must be converted into one or another form of common ownership.

❖ Narayan defined socialism as the ‘system of social reconstruction’. For him, socialism
means reorganizing economic and social life through the process of socialization.

❖ This involves reorganization of the means of production and promoting collective means
of ownership thus abolishing private ownership.
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❖ Russell defined socialism as ‘the advocacy of communal ownership of land and capital’.
By communal ownership is meant the democratic mode of ownership by the state
which is for the common interest of all.

❖ M.K. Gandhi defined socialism as a society in which ‘members of society are equal none
low, non high’.

Varieties of Socialism
State Socialism:

❖ It means involvement of the state in abolishing the discriminatory practices that existed
in capitalism such as low wages and inequalities.

❖ State socialism promotes the idea of a welfare state. It denotes a specific model of
economic and political organization in a society and is based on the idea of collectivism.

❖ State socialism is not just an economic doctrine but some scholars argue that it is more
of a moral and welfarist movement which is based on the ideas of justice and equality.

❖ State socialists argue that in order to abolish the exploitation from the production
system and endorse social welfare, the state needs to interfere in the production state
of affairs through legislative means which will serve the interests of the downtrodden.
This demands the nationalization of the means of production in order to have an equal
distribution of production among the workers.
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❖ The state acts as an organ for the promotion of equality and equal distribution of

resources and towards moral responsibilities. The state functions towards the

upliftment of weaker sections in a society.

Planned Socialism:

❖ In planned socialism, there is a collective or what is also called as mixed ownership of

the means of production by the public.

❖ Planning in socialism denotes planning to produce.

❖ In planned socialist economy, the coordination and distribution of production is carried

out by the state through proper planning.

❖ Production in the socialist system is done to satisfy the needs and demands of people.

Democratic Socialism:

❖ It combines socialist principles with democratic governance, advocating for social

ownership of key industries alongside democratic institutions and civil liberties.

Fabianism:

❖ Fabianism is a different strain of socialism originating in Britain, characterized by its

peaceful and constitutional approach to social transformation.

❖ Unlike other forms of socialism, which may be championed by the working or poor

classes, Fabianism appeals primarily to the middle classes.

❖ The term “Fabianism” derives from the strategy of Roman general Fabius, advocating

for socialism to be implemented gradually, seizing opportune moments when societal

conditions are favourable.

❖ Fabianism contends that socialism must become widely accepted as common sense

before it can be effectively realized, necessitating a sustained effort to cultivate

consensus and awareness among the populace.

❖ Middle-class intellectuals are seen as key agents in this endeavour, encouraged to

establish Fabian societies dedicated to promoting socialist ideas and values.

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Key Principles Socialism

❖ Collective Ownership: Socialism advocates for the collective ownership and control of
the means of production, distribution, and exchange. This can take various forms,
including state ownership, worker cooperatives, or communal ownership.

❖ Social Justice: Central to socialism is the pursuit of social justice and equality. It seeks
to address class disparities, poverty, and exploitation by redistributing wealth and
resources more equitably.

❖ Workers’ Rights: Socialism prioritizes the rights and welfare of workers, aiming to
empower them and provide for their basic needs, including fair wages, safe working
conditions, and job security.

❖ Democratic Participation: While some forms of socialism advocate for centralized

planning and control by the state, others emphasize democratic decision-making processes
at both
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Fascism and Neo-Marxism

Contemporary Relevance of Socialism

 The relevance of socialism came into question following the collapse of communism in
Eastern Europe and the widespread adoption of neoliberal economic policies globally,
including in countries like communist China and non-aligned India.
 Scholars such as Francis Fukuyama characterized this moment as “the end of history,”
suggesting a universal acceptance of liberalism as the dominant ideology.
 Fukuyama argued that the conclusion of the Cold War marked not only the end of a
geopolitical conflict but also the culmination of humanity’s ideological evolution.
 It’s worth noting that before the Cold War, socialism enjoyed greater popularity and
influence than capitalism, particularly in many third-world countries grappling with
mass poverty and a history of imperialism and colonialism.
 Socialism remains a significant force in contemporary politics, particularly in response
to growing income inequality, environmental degradation, and the perceived failures
of capitalism. Movements advocating for socialist policies, such as universal healthcare,
free education, and wealth redistribution, influence political discourse worldwide.
Concluding Remarks
 With the establishment of the WTO, neoliberalism emerged as the dominant ideology,
leading some to declare liberalism as the “end of history” and consign socialism to the
“dustbin of history.” However, the detrimental effects of the neoliberal economic model
have become increasingly apparent. Thomas Piketty, often likened to a modern-day
Marx, has highlighted the significant inequalities stemming from this model in his book
“Capital in the Twenty-First Century”. He further argued that socialism in the 21st
century can be viewed as anti-capitalism.
 In response, there has been a surge in civil society movements opposing neoliberal
economic policies. While socialism may not be embraced by countries in their official
economic strategies, it is gaining traction as part of an “anti-capitalist movement.”
Numerous protest movements influenced by leftist ideology are currently challenging
neoliberalism.
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 Although socialism has often been viewed as utopian, its relevance lies in its role in
humanizing capitalism. By advocating for social welfare and mitigating the excesses of
capitalism, socialism remains pertinent. For example, Marx’s legacy includes the
establishment of the welfare state, which represents one of socialism’s greatest
achievements.

Questions asked

1. Define Socialism. Discuss the salient features of Fabian Socialism. (2017)

2. Discuss the key features of pre-Marxist socialist theory. (2015)

3. Comment on the view that socialism in the 21st century may be reborn as anti-
capitalism. (2014)

4. Comment: “Socialism is a much-used hat, whose original shape no one can define.”
(2009)

Fascism

 This is a philosophy that gives importance to the State.

Meaning of Fascism:

Fascism refers to the socioeconomic and political system which was established in Italy in
1922. The prototype of fascism was established in Germany under Witter in 1933. The
other variants of fascism are: -

 Salazarism of Portugal

 Gaullism in France

 Peronism in Argentina

Nature of fascism:

 This ideology gives the topmost importance to the nation-state. According to it,
nothing is outside the state, nothing is beyond the state and nothing is against the
state. Fascism represents an extreme type of collectivism.

 Fascism replaces liberty, equality and fraternity with order, authority and justice. In
fascism, there is no place for opposition.

 Democracy is seen as a luxury of rich nations.

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 It is based on cultural nationalism and expansionist nationalism. Fascists were

anticommunists.
 A fascist state is a corporate state where the state is itself capitalist.
 It was a reactionary ideology. It gives traditional roles to women. According to Mussolini
“War is to men what maternity is to women”.
 Fascism believes in Elitism.
Intellectual Roots of Fascism:
 Plato: Karl Popper calls Plato the first fascist thinker. Plato completely subordinates
individuals for the sake of the state.
 Hegel: He has established that “the state is to march of God on earth".
 Machiavelli: Separation of ethics from politics.
 Soren: Justification of violence and the theory of myths.
 Nietzsche: According to Nietzsche, God is dead and we need supermen.
 Schopenhauer: He justifies "Anti-intellectualism."
 Darwin: The process of "natural selection".
 Herbert Spencer: "Survival of the fittest"
The above scholars were the source of impetus for the official philosophers of fascism and
Nazism." As such "the philosophy of fascism is written by Mussolini himself. Rocco was
another person who gave the political doctrine of fascism.
Difference between Fascism and Nazism
 In Nazism, Race is ultimate whereas in fascism, State is ultimate.
Criticism of fascism
 It was criticized by both Liberals as well as Marxists. Liberals linked fascism with
communism and both were put under a single category. From the Liberal angle, both
of their systems are based on the exploitation of individuals. They do not give
importance to liberty, both of them are Sustained by violence and ideology.
 Communist scholars equate fascism with capitalism. They believed that it served the
interests of capitalists. For Communists, fascism is the worst manifestation of
capitalism. Fascism is the last attempt made by Capitalists to save capitalism.

 Fascism was treated as anti-internationalism, anti-humanity etc.

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Neo- Marxism

1. Critical school:

 They were critical of the orthodox Marxists. They were also dissatisfied with Marxist

tradition with respect to the collapse of capitalism. They had to search for the

causes of the failure of the Marxist tradition.

 They were influenced by Gramsci.

 Gramsci talked about the importance of superstructure and the role of ideological

factors in the continuation of capitalism.

 They were also influenced by Hegel. Their work is primarily based on young Marx

i.e. "Economic and Philosophical Manuscript" where Marx dealt with the problems

of alienation.

 Herbert Marcuse talked about media and information technology in the substance

of capitalism.

 Critical school is not a unified body of work. Scholars have written on different

themes. However, they all share the common concern that capitalist society is

having on the personality of man.

 Herbert Marcuse (Book - one-dimensional men):

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 In his book, he has analyzed the impact of post-capitalist societies on man.

According to him, a genuine proletariat class does not exist today. The working
class has started identifying with the material position. The thoughts as well
as the personality of the people are distorted, they have become sheep-like
creatures without a mind of their own from a multidimensional personality.
Man has become one-dimensional. Men have only one dimension in their
personality, and that is the dimension of the consumer. He has criticized science
for distorting the personality of man. Science recognizes only the observable
and verifiable. Science does not entertain the questions of values. Hence, values
have been neglected in society and this kills the critical ability of man.

 Herbert Marcuse's Marxism is Marxism without the proletariats. He is not

optimistic about the proletariats. According to him, today capitalism has
resolved its major contradiction. Today the proletariat class possesses material
wealth. Their heart and soul lies in these positions.

 Hence, he believes that any change is possible only through the subaltern class.
He puts his hopes on the marginalized section of society.

 Views of Theodor Adorno:

 He has analyzed the personality of Hitler. His prominent work is in the field of
Musicology. He talks about consumerism in music. The essence of music has
gone. Today, music is nothing more than sound. Only that type of music is
popular and survives which fulfils the objectives of capitalists. Capitalism wants
to end the critical ability of the mind.

 Capitalism impacts our subconscious mind. Culture and communication are

important means of reinforcing capitalism. He Calls culture and
communication instrumentalist Reason i.e. Instruments in the hands of
capitalists.

 Views of Horkheimer (Book" "Eclipse of Reason"):

 He was the director of the Frankfurt school. His Contribution is in the field of
methodology. He advocated the adoption of an interdisciplinary approach. He
also believed that the Culture Industry has crushed individual freedom.
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 Evaluation of Critical school

 This was not a systematic school of thought. They do not provide any specific
program of action. At best, critical school highlights the limitations of orthodox
Marxism.

2. Structural School

 Althusser is a prominent scholar of this school. He does not believe that the thoughts
of Young Marx are the essence of Marxism.

 He believes that the issues of consciousness, freedom, and alienation are the essence
of Hegel and not of Marx. According to him, there is a definite break in the thoughts
of young Marx and mature Marx. The thoughts of mature Marx are real Marxism.
Mature Marx is a Structuralist. Althusser was influenced by Gramsci. He gives the
concept of over-determination. It means in Marxism Economic factors are over-
determined. Economic Structure is the most important structure but there are
other structures also. Thus, he gives the concept of "multiple structures".

 Althusser has analyzed the Russian Revolution which started from a political
structure rather than an Economic structure.

 Althusser differs from Gramsci in one way that is, Althusser does not believe in the
autonomy of man i.e. Man cannot make history, history is a process. Human
behavior is completely controlled by the Structures. Like Gramsci, he also talks
about the Ideological apparatus of the state. His thoughts have influenced another
structural Marxist Poulantzas.

Views of Poulantzas

The state is not simply the reflection of the base. At times state is autonomous or
relatively autonomous. "Relative Autonomy" of the state is maintained to show that the
state is neutral and it also provides legitimacy to the state.
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