AKSUM UNIVERSITY

SHIRE CAMPUS

AKSUM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF WATER TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF WATER RESOURCE
AND
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING

FINAL PROJECT REPORT ON MYDMU EVALUATION OFGROUND

WATER QUALITY FOR DRINKING PURPOSE

MAIN ADVISOR: TEKLEBRHAN

CO- ADVISOR: FKREY G
 GROUP MEMBER ID- NO

1.KINFE TESFU………………………………………………… AKU1001530

2. MEAZA………………………………………………

3. TEWELDE GRMAY…………………………………………..
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

Firstly, we would like to thanks our almighty God who allocates all things to prepare this final
Thesis project and fulfillment of our wishes.

Secondly, we would like to express our thanks to Aksum University for giving the chance to
prepare this final year project. And our thanks are also for our department water
resources and irrigation engineering for the preparation of advisors to guide ourselves.

Our deepest hearted thanks extend to our advisors to Mr. Teklebrhan

for the proper guidance, comments, allocations and suggestions how to continue our study to reach
up to the points of goal and finalize this project.

Last but not the least our heart full and grand thanks give for our families to help to prepare this
final year project both in their finically and economically and in their guidance for our life span
in our educations from the begging up to the end know and also for all group members for our
actively participation in discussion and providing computer access.
ABSTRACT
Groundwater is the most important natural resource used for drinking by many people around
the world, especially in arid and semi-arid areas. The resource cannot be optimally used and
sustained unless the quality of groundwater is assessed. groundwater aquifers’ system in shire
mydmu location which is considered a major source for drinking. The main objective of this
study is to understand the groundwater quality status of mydmu aquifer, followed by attempts
to investigate the spatial distribution of groundwater quality parameters to identify places with
the best quality for drinking consume within the study area. For this purpose, a set of original
data, as yet unpublished, is presented. This paper provides an important contribution for
understanding relationship between land use and groundwater quality, and also groundwater
depth and groundwater quality. This goal has been achieved with the combined use of the
Water Quality Index (WQI) and a geographical information system (GIS). groundwater samples
were collected and analyzed for major cations and anions. Spatial distribution maps of pH, TDS,
EC, HCO, SO4, Ca, Mg, Na and K have been created using the kriging method in a GIS
environment. From the WQI assessment, all of the water samples suitable for

drinking categories, suggesting that groundwater from the aquifer is suitable for drinking
purposes. This research and its results have shown the great combination use of GIS and WQI in
assessing groundwater quality. Having a clear view of the geographic areas of groundwater
quality, decision makers can plan better for the operation and maintenance of groundwater
resources.
CHAPTER-ONE

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1BACK GROUND
Groundwater is a vital source of drinking water for millions of people around the world. However, the
quality of groundwater can vary significantly depending on various factors such as geological formations,
land use practices, and contamination sources. Therefore, evaluating groundwater quality for drinking
purposes is essential to ensure the safety and health of communities that rely on this resource

Groundwater quality can be defined as the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water and
it is one of the major sources of drinking water all over the world. It is used to determine the suitability
for use of water for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes. It can be also used to detect the
sources and history of groundwater, based on the aspect that groundwater compositions change
through reactions with the environment and its quality analysis may lead to information about the flow
paths and its hydraulic properties.

Groundwater quality depends on a number of factors, such as geology, degree of chemical weathering
of the various rock types, quality of recharge water and water rock interaction. The knowledge of
hydrochemistry is essential to determine the origin of chemical composition of groundwater.

The type and concentration of groundwater constituents depend on the origin and composition of the
recharge water, types of soils and minerals that the water has been in contact with along its flow paths,
and the residence time and reactions that takes place within the ground. Human induced activities,
which cause pollution at the surface, have also a significant impact on groundwater quality.

Poor quality of water adversely affects the human health. Groundwater used for domestic purpose
contains a wide variety of dissolved inorganic chemical constituents in various concentrations, resulting
from chemical and biochemical interactions between water and the geological materials. Variation in
groundwater quality in an area is a function of physical and chemical parameters that are greatly
influenced by geological formations and anthropogenic activities.

To utilize and protect valuable water resources effectively and predict the change in groundwater
quality, it is necessary to understand the hydro chemical characteristics of the groundwater and its
development under natural water circulation processes.

Groundwater quality of the study area has not been assessed so far, therefore, in the present study a
detailed investigation was carried out with the objectives of evaluating the spatial distribution of the
groundwater quality and its suitability for 5drinking purpose.
1.2 Objective of the study

1.2.1 General Objective:

The general objective of this study is to evaluate the quality of groundwater for drinking purposes in a
specific region. This includes assessing the presence of contaminants, identifying potential sources of
pollution, and determining the overall suitability of the groundwater for human consumption.

1.2.2Specific Objectives:
1. to conduct a comprehensive analysis of the physicochemical parameters of groundwater, including
pH, turbidity, conductivity, and major ion concentrations.

2. to assess the presence of common contaminants in groundwater such as heavy metals, nitrates, and
pesticides.

3. to investigate the potential sources of contamination through land use practices, industrial activities,
and agricultural runoff.

4. To compare the results of groundwater quality analysis with national and international drinking water
standards to determine compliance levels.

5. To propose recommendations for improving groundwater quality and ensuring safe drinking water
supply for the community.

1.3Statement of the problem

The water quality of the mydmu needs to be studied comprehensively because of the areas importance
as a drinking water supply for shire City. Therefore, water quality should be ensured so that no
contaminants exceed levels that would affect human health. However, this study area has had limited
research conducted about its water quality, including by regulatory bodies charged with the control of
the water quality. In addition, pollution sources need to be identified and a map created to illustrate the
contaminated sites. Finally, this study will be able to be used in the Master Plan of shire.
 CHAPTER-TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Importance of groundwater (Why ground water)?

Key worth (2002) discussed the Groundwater is well suited to rural water supply in sub-Saharan Africa.
Since groundwater responds slowly to changes in rainfall, the impacts of droughts are often buffered. In
areas with a long dry season, groundwater is still available when sources such as rivers and streams have
run dry. The resource is relatively cheap to develop, since large surface reservoirs are not required and
water sources can usually be constructed close to areas of demand. These characteristics make
groundwater well suited to the more demand responsive and participatory approaches that are being
introduced into most rural water and sanitation programmers. Groundwater has excellent natural
microbiological quality and generally adequate chemical quality for most uses. Nine major chemical
constituents (Na, Ca, Mg, K, HCO3, Cl, SO4, NO3 and Si) make up 99% of the solute content of natural
groundwater. The proportion of these constituents reflects the geology and history of the groundwater.
Minor and trace constituents make up the remaining 1% of the total, and their presence (or absence)
can occasionally give rise to health problems or make them unacceptable for human or animal use.
Groundwater in the shallow weathered zone can be exploited with boreholes, dug wells and collector
wells; groundwater in the deeper fracture zones can only be exploited using boreholes. Mohammad N.
Almasri (2007) 8defined groundwater as the water that occurs in the tiny spaces (called pores or voids)
between the underground soils particles or in the cracks, much like sponge holds water the substantial
quantities of groundwater are found in aquifers. These aquifers are the source of water for wells and
springs. Groundwater is one reservoir of the hydrologic cycle and it represents about 22% of fresh
water.

2.2 Water quality

According to Bartram and Balance (1996) and DWAF (2004), “water quality” is a term used to express
the suitability of water to sustain various uses or processes. Such suitability includes the physical,
chemical and biological characteristics of the water.

The most popular definition of water quality is “it is the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics
of water (HassanT,2019). It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or
more both species and or to any human need or purpose.

Water quality is continuously under pressure as it is vital to the human body and ecosystem. The
growing human population is causing a negative impact on surface waters and watersheds worldwide.
Although the process of urbanization is a global phenomenon with far reaching impacts upon natural
ecosystems (Grimm et al., 2008). Within urban areas, freshwater ecosystems are exposed to a multitude
of risks including increased catchment impermeability (e.g. artificial surfaces) and population density,
habitat fragmentation and degradation and poor water quality.

Water quality is influenced by multiple factors including climate, precipitation, underlying geology,
ground water, surface water, anthropogenic activities, pollutants, and other natural and human
processes (Ahuja, 2013). As human populations continue to grow and land uses expand, the capacity to
negatively impact our surface waters and watersheds throughout the world through contamination and
human disturbances likewise increases. This potential for adverse effects on our world's water often
results in reduced water quality. It is for this reason that water quality monitoring has become an
important aspect of environmental science over the past several decades and is continuing to be an
issue of community concern (Ahuja, 2013). Drinking water quality is described as water that is free of
disease-causing microbes and potentially harmful chemicals (Tebbutt, 1983). According to different
studies, even well-protected sources and well-managed systems cannot guarantee that homes receive
safe water. Many countries of the globe do not have access to reliable household water, and many of
them must still transport water and store it in their houses. Even water gathered from safe sources is
likely to become faecalis polluted during transit, containerization, and storage, Water Quality Analysis
Water quality refers to the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics and conditions of water and
aquatic environments that affect water's ability to serve the uses for which it was intended.

The physical, chemical, microbiological, radiological, and biological properties of water are all
considered when determining its consistency. It is mostly affected by human actions, which can
affect/change all of these properties to the point that aquatic and terrestrial species that rely on it are
affected (Daba Desissa, 2016).

2.3Groundwater quality and Drinking water standards

(WHO 1993) discussed that, the natural quality of groundwater is largely controlled by the geology of
the aquifer and the length of time water is stored in the ground (the residence time), although it can be
affected by climate and the nature of recharge water. Groundwater contamination of rural aquifers is
most often a result of poor sanitation, where faucal matter (from humans or cattle) enters the aquifer.
This can happen around the wellhead if cattle are allowed to drink at the well (which is why it is
important that boreholes are properly sealed and that effective sanitary surrounds are completed at all
Boreholes). It can also happen when pit latrines are built in a shallow aquifer from which water is
abstracted, such as ferric rete, so that faucal waste can flow from the latrines into the aquifer. R. Rllan
Freeze & John (1979) discussed that; some of the most important drinking water standards presented in
table below shows the major constituents; as recommended by WHOM, concentration limits are listed
in the table below. Total dissolved salts (TDS), Sulphate and chloride consumption by humans of water
with concentrations somewhat above limits is generally not harmful.
The WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water describe reasonable minimum safe practice criteria to protect
consumers' health and establish numerical "guideline values" for water constituents or indicators of
water quality. WHO, on the other hand, recognizes that local or national environmental, social,
economic, and cultural situations may impose additional mandatory restrictions, resulting in national,
local, or regional norms As a result, there is a wide range of drinking water standards because there is
no universally applicable method to drinking water standards? (WHO, 2011). Unfortunately, WHO does
not support the adoption of international drinking-water quality standards because the conditions that
force the adoption of other standards may mandate even lower quality. Thus, Ethiopia has its own
standard, compulsory Ethiopian Standard (CES), which is utilized together with established worldwide
and regional standards that apply to various test and analysis specifications in the drinking water sector.

Inorganic constituent Recommended concentrate in limits

TDS `500

CL- 250

SO4 250

NO3 - 45

Fe 0.3

Mn 0.05

Cu 1.0

Zn 5.0

B 1.0

H2s 0.05

2.4 Drinking Water Quality Standards in Ethiopia

The Compulsory Ethiopian Standard for Drinking Water Specification (CES 58) provides the physical,
chemical, and bacteriological standards for water for drinking and household purposes in order to
assure access to clean drinking water. It establishes quality and safety standards that meet all toxic,
bacteriological, and organoleptic requirements.

2.5 Impacts of groundwater pollution

Dr.Armin Margane and (et.al) (2003); discussed the Common problems related to groundwater quality
in the Tigray region are described by PLOETHNER (1997) .A major quality of concern is the naturally high
salinity in the semi-arid to arid parts of the region due to the limited groundwater recharge .In addition
to such natural constraints, groundwater quality has continuously deteriorated in many areas as a result
of human activities.
Groundwater quality problems especially occur;
-In the coastal zones, where the coastal aquifers are overexploited resulting in saltwater intrusion.
-In areas where the hydraulic gradient is lowered in such a way that down or upward leakage from
other aquifers results in the transport of highly saline or brackish water in to a freshwater resource.
-In urban areas, which are not sufficiently connected to sewage collection and treatment systems or
where large quantities of wastewater are infiltrating in to groundwater due to leakage losses from the
collection system?
-In highly cultivated areas, where fertilizers and pesticides are applied in abundance.
-In industrial and commercial zones with non-existing or ineffective collection and treatment of often
hazardous sewage water.
-In the downstream area of waste disposal sites.
-In the downstream area of mines exploiting and processing mineral resources by processes possibly
hazardous to groundwater.

2.6Groundwater Drought

Henny A.J. (2005) discussed that Groundwater droughts are caused by lack of groundwater recharge
that result into low groundwater levels and groundwater discharge. Simulated or observed time series
of recharge, levels and discharge are used to identify droughts. In drought analysis studies, well-known
methods as the threshold level approach and the Sequent Peak Algorithm are applied to search for
droughts in the time series. Droughts are characterized by its severity (usually a deficit) and duration.
Often the maximum deficit and the associated duration are used for frequency analysis. Moreover the
intensity (severity divided by duration) is investigated. - Groundwater continues to serve as a reliable
source of water for a variety of purposes, including industrial and domestic uses and irrigation.

2.7. Groundwater Engineering

Wesley P. James (2002) discussed that Ground water is a major source of water supply. Especially in arid
or semi-arid areas where surface water is limited, because groundwater is filtered by flow through the
formation, it generally requires little treatment for use as a water supply. Groundwater can be
considered as subsurface storage of water with limited evaporation. However, if the water table is
within the root zone of surface vegetations, groundwater can be lost by evapotranspiration total
dissolved solids in groundwater in typically greater than that of surface water. The dissolved
constituents in groundwater partly depend on the formations through which it has passed. Water in a
confined aquifer may have traveled many kilometers through the formation and have taken hundred or
thousands of years to travel from the recharge zone .Water in unconfined aquifer is usually within a
short distance and travel time of the recharge zone, the water quality of an unconfined aquifer is
generally defendant on the quality of the recharge water is easily contaminated by man’s activities on
the ground surface.

2.8. Aquifer

Mohammad N. Almasri (2007) define that the aquifer is a geologic unit capable of storing and
transmitting water in sufficient quantities to supply wells.

2.8.1. Types of Aquifers

In general, the aquifers divided for two types such as

1. Confined Aquifer The permeable layer is overlain and underlain by a less permeable layer (aquiclude).
Aquiclude: A geologic unit that resists water flow (relative to an aquifer).
2. Unconfined Aquifer The permeable layer extends to the surface. It consists of an unsaturated zone
separated from the saturated zone by the groundwater table.

2.8.2. Water Table

Water table can be defined as; -The top of the saturated zone of groundwater or the level to which
water will rise in a hole or the level to which water will rise in an unconfined aquifer -Groundwater
moves downward due to the force of gravity -Some water in unsaturated zone is on way to saturated
zone -rest is held by surface tension.

2.8.3. Saturated Zone

All pores are filled up with water, extends from the upper surface of saturation down to underlying
impermeable rock. Generally, the water table forms the upper surface and it is the level at which water
stands in a well penetrating the aquifer.
 CHAPTER- THREE

3. STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

3.1.1 Location of the project

The MyDMU area is located in the Tigray region of northern Ethiopia, situated at an approximate
latitude of 14.1264° N and longitude of 38.7137° E. The area is characterized by a diverse range of
geographical and environmental features that influence its hydrogeology and water quality. Here are
some detailed statements about the location, climate, geomorphology, population pattern, and other
relevant aspects of the MyDMU study area:

Maidimu is the rural village of located in north western zone of Tigray national regional state. And this
project is found in tabia maidmu and tahtay koraro woreda north western Tigray. The maidmu ground
water is found about 15Km from shire at 14˚15'40" - 14˚59'00" latitude and 38˚10'35" - 13˚15'40"
longitude with an altitude of 2010 masl. It is located on the major northern high way linking Adigrat via
Adwa, Axum and Indasilase with Gondar and Bahirdar.

It is situated,

# 89km from Adwa

# 274km from Adigrat

# 296km from Mekelle

 # 291km from Gondar

3.1.2Topography

The northwestern part of Tigray, including the Tigray Shire area, is characterized by a rugged
and mountainous landscape. The region is part of the Ethiopian Highlands, which is known for
its steep slopes, deep valleys, and high plateaus. The elevation in this area can vary significantly,
with some peaks reaching over 3,000 meters (9,800 feet) above sea level.

The topography is often marked by rocky terrain, with sparse vegetation in some areas and
more lush vegetation in others, particularly in the valleys and lower elevations. The region's
topography has been shaped by geological processes, including volcanic activity and tectonic
forces, resulting in diverse landforms such as escarpments, cliffs, and deep gorges.

3.1.3 Climate
- The climate in the MyDMU area is typically characterized by two main seasons: a dry season
from October to May and a rainy season from June to September.

- Average annual rainfall in the region is relatively low, leading to challenges related to water
scarcity and drought conditions.

The climate of the Maydmu catchment is marked by a rainy season from June to September, with
monthly rainfall varying from 67 mm in October to 306 mm in July. Mean annual precipitation is
about 1,100 mm in the upper part and about 1,000 mm in the lower part. Rainfall over the
Maydmu watershed is mono-modal with nearly 79% of the annual rainfall occurring in the
period June – September. The dry season, from November to April, has a total rainfall of about
8% of the mean annual rainfall. Maximum temperatures vary from 23 ºC in July to 30 ºC in
March, whereas minimum temperatures range from 11.5 ºC in January to 15.6 ºC in April &
May. Humidity varies between 39% in March and 79% in August. Wind speed is low, thus
minimizing potential evapotranspiration values between 101 mm/month in July and 149
mm/month in March. Sunshine duration is reduced to 4.2 – 4.9 hours during July and June,
respectively.

The climatic characteristics of mai dimu

* The mean temperature of the coldest month is below 10 OC and the rain fall in the driest winter
month is less than one tenth of the wettest summer month.

* High annual rainfall in the vicinity of maidmu occurs when moist winds are forced to rise in
order to Passover mountains the rainfall pattern in the region of the town have unimodal profile
with strong peak in the summer months from July to September a strong air current moves from
the south east towards the north east. moisture from the Gulf of Guinea to the Tekeze mesereb
basins. From November to May there is no rainfall.

* maidimu rain fall is the same with the town of Indasilasie is shown by national meteorology
service agency, 1998, the average annual rainfall is located between 700mm and 800mm per year.
* Mean monthly maximum temperature is about 280c to30oc during dry season

and 23oc to 26oc in wet season.

3.1.4 Geology

The regional geology around the Maydmu site indicates that the major rocks of the region
are members of the Tarmaber Basalt series that overlay the Ashangi basalt series rocks.
The geology of the Maydmu reservoir basin is dominated by different types of basalt, a
minor tuff, a consolidated paleo soil and recent soil cover. The recent alluvial soil is
deposited along the river's flood plain. A fairly thick soil is developed over the rocks of the
reservoir basin. Hence, the reservoir might be fairly water tight. In addition to this, the
reservoir area will be water tight from the progressively deposited clay material.
The strategic sequence of the rock units of indesilasie from top bottom is as follows.
 Alluvial sediments
Ajba basalts
Tekeze sandstone
Granite

A. Alluvial sediments
The alluvial sediments include gravel, sand, silt, clay, pebbles and boulders. They are
observable at the area, in river banks and on micro flood mains. Their thickness varies from 3 up
to 15 m.

B. Ajba basalts

The Ajba basalts is the main unit gave prominent relief to the area it is highly fractured and
weathered and at places decomposed. The thickness of basalts varies from 0 on the plain to 200m
on the ridge.

C. Tekeze sandstone

This sandstone outcrops on the plain and on the southern side of the road from Indasilase to
Semema. It is highly cemented.

D.The granite
The granite occurs in the river of Mesereb north of the village of Semema and in the downstream
of Gumelo River on the southeast of the town.
3.1.5 Geomorphology:
- The geomorphology of the MyDMU area is characterized by rugged terrain, with rocky
outcrops, hills, and valleys defining the landscape.

- The presence of geological formations such as sandstone, limestone, and basalt influences
the hydrogeological characteristics of the area.

3.1.6 Population Pattern:

- The population in the MyDMU area is predominantly rural, with communities relying on
agriculture and livestock for their livelihoods.

- Population density varies across different parts of the area, with clusters of villages and
settlements located near water sources and arable land.

3. 1.7Hydrogeology:
- The hydrogeology of the MyDMU area is influenced by the presence of fractured rock
aquifers, which play a crucial role in groundwater storage and flow.

- Groundwater recharge processes are mainly driven by rainfall infiltration and runoff from
surrounding hills and catchment areas.
3.1.8 Land use land cover
The land use and land cover of the MyDMU area in northwestern Tigray Shire can vary
depending on specific locations within the region. However, the general overview of typical
land use and land cover patterns that may be found in this area are;
1. Agriculture: Agriculture is a predominant land use in Tigray Shire and surrounding areas.
Farmers in the region cultivate crops such as teff, wheat, barley, maize, and legumes. Terraced
farming is common on the steep slopes of the highlands to prevent soil erosion.

2. Grazing Land: Pastoralism is also an important land use in the region, with livestock such as
cattle, sheep, and goats being raised for meat, milk, and other products. Grazing lands can be
found in various parts of the area.

3. Forests and Woodlands: The region may have areas of natural forests and woodlands, which
provide important habitats for wildlife and serve as a source of timber, fuelwood, and other
forest products.

4. Urban Areas: Towns and villages in the MyDMU area may have urbanized or built-up areas
for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. These areas may include infrastructure
such as roads, buildings, and utilities.

5. Water Bodies: Rivers, streams, and reservoirs may be present in the area, providing water for
irrigation, drinking, and other uses. Wetlands and marshes may also be found in some
locations.

6. Barren Land: Some parts of the region may have barren or rocky terrain with limited
vegetation cover due to harsh environmental conditions or human activities.

3.1.9Aquifers
The earth layers, which allow the water to pass through them and contain quantities of water, known as
pervious layers or aquifers or water bearing strata (i.e. layers of sand, gravel etc).
 Aquifers which hold most of their water in large joints and fissures are called pervious where as
those with the water in pores are called porous.
An unconfined aquifer is open to infiltration of water directly from the ground surface.
A confined aquifer is one where the water bearing ground formation is capped by an impermeable
ground layer. The water pressure in a confined aquifer is related to the level of its recharge area.
In Indasilase the main aquifer that exists is considered as confined aquifer. From the given in formation,
the transmissivity of this aquifer is 25 m2/d. These transmissivity values is enough compared with the
anticipated demand of Indasilase town.

3.2 MATERIAL AND METHODOLOGY

3.2.1 MATERIAL
Materials used during the study are;

1. Water sampling bottles: These are used to collect water samples from various sources of
groundwater for testing and analysis.

2. pH meter: This instrument is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of the water sample,
which is an important parameter for assessing water quality.

3. Conductivity meter: This device measures the electrical conductivity of the water, which can
indicate the presence of dissolved salts and other substances.

4. Turbidity meter: This instrument measures the cloudiness or haziness of the water caused by
suspended particles, which can affect water quality and aesthetics.

5. Dissolved oxygen meter: This meter measures the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water,
which is crucial for assessing the health of aquatic ecosystems and the suitability of water for
drinking.

6. Chemical reagents for testing various parameters: These reagents are used to perform
chemical analysis for parameters such as nitrates, phosphates, heavy metals, and other
contaminants in the water sample.

7. Glassware for sample preparation and analysis: Various types of glassware are used for
preparing and analyzing water samples, such as beakers, flasks, and pipettes.

8. Spectrophotometer or other analytical instruments: These instruments are used for specific
chemical analysis, such as determining the concentration of specific compounds in the water
sample.
These materials collectively enable comprehensive testing and analysis of groundwater quality
for drinking purposes, covering physical, chemical, and biological parameters.

3.2.2METHODOLOGY

The methodology used for testing and analyzing groundwater quality in the MyDMU area
located in the Tigray region can be listed down into several key steps:

1. Site Selection and Preparation:

- Identify the specific locations within the MyDMU area where groundwater samples will be
collected. Consider factors such as proximity to potential contamination sources, land use, and
hydrogeological characteristics.
- Ensure that all necessary permissions and permits are obtained for accessing the sampling
sites.

2. Water Sample Collection:

- Use sterile water sampling bottles to collect representative groundwater samples from
multiple locations within the MyDMU area. Collect samples at different depths if applicable,
considering the vertical variability of water quality.
- Take care to prevent contamination during sample collection by following appropriate
protocols for sterilizing equipment and avoiding contact with external sources of
contamination.

3. In-situ Measurements:
- Conduct in-situ measurements using appropriate instruments such as pH meters,
conductivity meters, turbidity meters, and dissolved oxygen meters. Record these
measurements directly at the sampling locations to capture real-time water quality parameters.

4. Laboratory Analysis:
- Transport the collected water samples to a certified laboratory equipped for water quality
analysis.
- Perform a comprehensive analysis of the water samples using standard methods and
equipment. This may include testing for parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity,
turbidity, dissolved oxygen, nitrates, phosphates, heavy metals, and other contaminants of
concern in the region.
5. Data Interpretation and Reporting:
- Interpret the results of the water quality analysis in the context of local and national
standards, as well as any applicable guidelines or regulations.
- Prepare a detailed report summarizing the findings, including the comparison of measured
parameters against relevant water quality standards and guidelines.
- If necessary, provide recommendations for remediation or further monitoring based on the
results of the analysis.

6. Stakeholder Engagement:
- Share the findings and recommendations with relevant stakeholders, such as local
authorities, community members, and environmental organizations.
- Facilitate discussions on potential actions to address any identified water quality issues and
involve stakeholders in decision-making processes related to groundwater management.

By following this methodology, it is possible to systematically assess groundwater quality in the

MyDMU area of the Tigray region, providing valuable insights for protecting public health and
environmental sustainability.
CHAPTER -FOUR
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Drinking Water Quality Parameters

parameter Recorded data(mg/l) WHO MAC (mg/l)

Fluoride

Total hardness 24.45

T. Dissolved solid 64.39 500

Electrical conductivity 90.3

PH 6.5 6.5-8.5

Ammonium (NH4) 0.002 2

Sodium (Na) 2.9 358

Potassium(K) 0.13 12

Calcium (Ca) 5.18 200

Magnesium (Mg) 3 150

Total iron 0.12 1.0

Manganese (Mn) 0.00 0.5

Zinc (Zn) 0.51

Lead (Pb) 0.002

Chloride 1.14 45

Nitrate (No3) 0.33 45

Chromium 0.00 0.5

Copper 0.12

Nitrite (No2) 0.04 0.5

Alkalinity 10

Carbonate 0.001 50

Bicarbonate (Hco3) 12.19

Sulphate (So4) 18.13 400

Phosphate (Po4) 0.001 2.0

Table: laboratory measured base line data on ground water quality of mydmu area

4.1.1 Physical Drinking Water parameters

4.1.1.1 Temperature

Temperature is an important parameter in characterization of water. It affects the water chemistry such
as saturation and concentration of dissolved gases, especially oxygen. The rate of chemical reactions
generally increases as temperature increases. Temperature also affects biological activity and regulates
the kinds of organisms that can survive in the water. Temperature affects the growth and reproduction
of aquatic organisms. A sudden change in a temperature of river water can lead to a higher rate of
mortality of aquatic biota. The growth and reproduction of aquatic species are influenced by
temperature.

4.1.1.2Turbidity

Turbidity is a measurement of the visual purity of water. Turbidity in water bodies is caused by
suspended and colloidal particles such as clay, silt, organic material, algae, and other inorganic material.
The presence of turbidity in water indicates the presence of particles other than water molecules that
contaminate or pollute water bodies. It is an expression of the absorbent of optical light and causes light
to be scattered rather than transmitted with no change in direction through the sample. As the presence
of dissolved and suspended solids increases, light scattering increases and turbidity is usually measured
in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). Although the weight and particle concentration of suspended
matter are the key controlling factors for turbidity, the size, shape, and refractive index of particles can
all influence the suspension's light-scattering properties.

The permissible limit suggested by WHO for Turbidity is(5 mg/l), then there is no any given data on the
site.

4.1.1.3 Electrical Conductivity (EC)

Conductivity is the ability of a substance to conduct electricity. The conductivity of water is a more-or-
less linear function of the concentration of dissolved ions. Electrical conductivity of the water is also be
related to total concentration, concentrations of the dissolved substances, their ions in the water, their
valence charge and mobility. If the conductivity of a river or a stream suddenly increases, it indicates
there is a source of dissolved ions in the neighborhood. Therefore, conductance can be used to
distinguish pollution sources.

In general, the electrical conductivity of water is determined by the amount of dissolved solids in the
water. Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measurement of a solution's ionic phase that allows it to transmit
current.

The permissible limit suggested by WHO for electrical conductivity is(1000 mg/l), therefore, the
recorded data on mydmu area is(90.3mg/l) then it is suitable for drinking purpose .

4.1.1.4 Color

The color is caused by the presence of colorful compounds in solution, such as vegetable debris and iron
salt. It does not always have a detrimental impact on one's health. It's not a good idea to drink colored
water (Aesthetic as well as toxicity reasons). As a result, colorless drinking water is required. For the
purposes of studying public water sources, it is sufficient to merely observe the presence or absence of
visible color at the time of sample. Changes in water color and the appearance of new colors are signs
that further study is required. The color of the water is determined by contrasting it to regular color
solutions or colored glass disks. A color unit is the color formed by a platinum solution (potassium
chloroplatinate (K2PtCl6)) at a concentration of 1 mg/L.

4.1.1.5 Odor and tastes

Foreign matter, such as organic materials, inorganic compounds, or dissolved gasses, can induce a bad
taste and odor in water. These materials may come from a number of areas, including the natural
environment, domestic life, and agriculture. The numerical value of odor or taste is calculated by
measuring a volume of sample and diluting it with a volume of odor-free distilled water until the odor of
the resulting mixture is just detectable at a total mixture volume of 200 ml .

4.1.1.6 Total dissolved Solids

Total dissolved solids (TDS) differ from total suspended solids (TSS) in that TSS cannot pass through a
two-micrometer screen but remain suspended in solution indefinitely. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in
water originate from natural sources, sewage, urban runoff, and industrial wastewater. These solids
include inorganic salts, principally calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium, bicarbonate, chlorides,
sulphates, and small amounts of organic matter that are dissolved in water .discharge of wastewater
with a high TDS level would have adverse impact on aquatic life, render the receiving water unfit for
drinking and domestic purposes, reduce crop yield if used for irrigation, increase conductivity, and
exacerbate corrosion in water networks. The presence of high levels of TDS in drinking water may be
objectionable (WHO, 2004) Water can be categorized based on the amount of TDS content per liter of
water as follows on the table below:

Table: type of water based on TDS

Water type TDS(mg/l)

Fresh water <1500

Brackish water 1500-5000

Saline water >5000

The permissible limit suggested by WHO for total dissolved solid is(500mg/l), therefore, the recorded
data on mydmu area is(64.39mg/l) then it is suitable for drinking purpose.

4.1.2 Chemical drinking water parameters

4.1.2.1PH of pure water
The pH of a solution is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+), which is a measure of
acidity. PH shows the level of acidity or alkalinity in water, which influences biological and chemical
reactions held within the solution. Low pH, for example, reduces microorganism activity and
development, influencing biological reactions. The solubility and availability of chemical constituents
such as nutrients and heavy metals decide the pH of water. the level of pH is necessary and the
optimum pH required is generally within the range 6.5–8.5 (WHO, 2006).

The permissible limit suggested by WHO for PH of water for drinking purpose is6.5-8.5, therefore, the
recorded data on mydmu area is6.5 then it is suitable for drinking purpose.

4.1.2.2Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

DO refer to the amount of oxygen present in dissolved form in a water body. Organic matter from water
treatment, intense fertilizer application, and agriculture-based industries. the concentration of DO in the
aquatic system, resulting in an increase in oxygen demand.

4.1.2.3 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

the amount of oxygen consumed during the oxidation or decomposition of organic compounds in
biological-oxidation or aerobic conditions are referred to as biological oxygen demand. It's a test for
determining the amount of biologically oxidized organic matter present and the rates at which oxidation
or BOD exertion will occur. It's also a metric for comparing the relative polluting potential of various
organic substances.

oxygen demand is the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed over the course of five days by biological
oxidation for the breakdown of organic matter in the water. Allowing biochemical oxidation to continue
under standard conditions for 5 days could be used to assess biological oxygen demand .

4.1.2.4 Chemical oxygen demand

The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a metric for calculating all organics, both biodegradable and non-
biodegradable. It’s a chemical test that uses heavy oxidizing chemicals (potassium dichromate), sulfuric
acid, and heat to achieve a result in as little as 2 hours. For the same sample, COD values are often
higher than BOD values.

4.1.2.5 Total Hardness

Hard water has a high mineral concentration, which is generally not detrimental to humans. The main
sources of hardness in drinking water are calcium and magnesium carbonates and bicarbonates (which
can be eliminated by boiling), as well as calcium and magnesium sulfate and chloride (which can be
removed by chemical precipitation using lime and sodium carbonate). Since it includes primarily calcium
and carbonates, which are the most dissolved ions in hard water, it is commonly measured as calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). The calcium ion has a taste threshold of 100–300 mg/l, with a maximum allowable
concentration of 500 mg/l for total hardness as Caco3 .

The permissible limit suggested by WHO for a calcium carbonate (CaCO3 ) of water for drinking purpose
is50mg/l, therefore, the recorded data on mydmu area is0.001mg/l then it is suitable for drinking
purpose.

Table hardness category

NO Concentration (Mg/l) Hardness category

1 0-50 Soft water
2 50-150 Moderately hard
3 150-300 Hard water
4 >300 Very hard water

4.1.2.6 Calcium
Calcium is an essential nutrient accounting for about 2 percent of body weight, ranking fifth after
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen. Nearly 99 percent of the body’s calcium (1 200 g or 30 mol) is
stored in the skeleton; the remainder is in the teeth and soft tissues (each containing 7 g or 175 mol)
and the extracellular fluid (ECF) (1 g or 25 mol) .

according to WHO its acceptable range in drinking water, is up to 75 mg/l, therefore, the recorded data
on mydmu area is5.18mg/l then, it is suitable for drinking purpose.

4.1.2.7 Magnesium
Magnesium (0.3-0.5 g/day) is a common and important mineral for humans. It accounts for 15-20% of
overall hardness expressed as CaCO3 and is the second most important component of hardness. Around
25 grams of magnesium are found in the human body (60 percent in bones and 40 percent in muscles
and tissues).

The maximum level of magnesium in water, according to WHO guidelines, should be 150 mg/l,
therefore, the recorded data on mydmu area is3mg/l then, it is suitable for drinking purpose.

4.1.2.8 Fluoride
A moderate level of fluoride ions (F_) in drinking water helps to prevent tooth decay. Dental health is
critical. Tooth decay can be prevented with a concentration of 1.0 mg/L, particularly in children. Too
much fluoride causes dental fluorosis, which is characterized by discolored teeth.

The maximum level of fluoride in water according to WHO guidelines should be 1.50 mg/l, therefore,
there is no any recorded data on mydmu area .

4.1.2.9 Nitrates
Total nitrogen represents the summation of ammonia nitrogen, nitrite plus nitrate nitrogen, and organic
nitrogen. Nitrogen in the aquatic environment occurs in four forms: ammonia (NH3), nitrate (NO3-),
nitrite (NO2-) and ammonium ion (NH4+). Nitrate is a final oxidation product of the nitrogen cycle in
natural waters and is considered to be the only thermodynamically stable nitrogen compound in aerobic
waters. The nitrate limit in public sources of drinking water was set to safeguard against infant
methemoglobinemia, but additional health impacts were not taken into account. When nitrate is
consumed under conditions that promote the creation of N-nitroso compounds, the risk of certain
cancer and birth abnormalities may be raised.

The maximum level of Nitrates in water, according to WHO guidelines, should be 45mg/l, therefore, the
recorded data on mydmu area is0.33mg/l then, it is suitable for drinking purpose.

4.1.2.10 Phosphate
Phosphorus in small quantities is essential for plant growth and metabolic reactions in animals and
plants. Sources of phosphate include animal wastes, sewage, detergent, fertilizer, disturbed land, and
road salts used in the winter.
The maximum level of phosphate in water, according to WHO guidelines, should be 2mg/l, therefore,
the recorded data on mydmu area is0.001mg/l then, it is suitable for drinking purpose

4.1.3 Biological parameters

Practitioners in the field of drinking water are concerned with water supply and purification through a
treatment procedure. The fundamental concern in water treatment is, of course, creating potable water
that is safe to drink (pathogen-free) and does not have any disagreeable features, such as a foul taste or
odor. The existence or absence of living organisms may be one of the most useful measures of water
quality.

4.1.3 .1 fecal coliform bacteria

Fecal coliform bacteria are a collection of relatively harmless microorganisms that live in large number in
the intestines of the warm- and cold-blooded animals. They aid in the digestion of food. Specific
subgroups of this collection are the fecal coliform bacteria, the most common member being Escherichia
coli. These organisms may be repeated from the total coliform group by their ability to grow at elevated
temperatures and are associated only with the fecal material of warm-blooded animals.

The presence of fecal coliform bacteria in aquatic environmental indicate that the water has been
contaminated with the fecal material of man or other animals Some water-borne pathogenic diseases
include typhoid fever, viral, and bacterial gastroenteritis and hepatitis A. The presence of fecal
contamination is an indicator that a potential health risk exists for individuals exposed to this water.

4.1.3 .2 Total Coliforms

To avoid confusion with other members of the group, coliform organisms are better referred to as total
coliforms. They are not an indicator of fecal contamination or health risk, although they can provide
basic information on source water quality. Total coliforms have long been used as a microbiological
indicator of drinking water quality, owing to their ease of detection and enumeration in water.

Table: bacteriological count per 100ml

No Bacteriological count per 100ml Risk to health

1 0 None

2 1-10 Low risk

3 11-100 Intermediate risk

4 101-1000 High risk

5 >1000 Very high risk

Table: standard of drinking water quality Guide fulfillment criteria

parameter Unit Maximum Suitable or

permissible unsuitable
limit based on the
WHO
WHO Recorded
data
physical Color Un
objectionable

Test and odor Un objectional

turbidity NTU 5

Electrical conductivity µS/cm 1000 90.3 suitable

chemical temperature oC 15

TDS Mg/l 1000 64.39 suitable

PH PH 6.5-8.5 6.5 suitable

Total alkalinity(caco3) Mg/l 200 10 suitable

(mg/l)

Calcium(mg/l) Mg/l 75 5.18 suitable

Magnesium Mg/l 150 3 suitable

Fluoride Mg/l 1.5

Hardness Mg/l 300 24.45 suitable

Sodium Mg/l 150 2.9 suitable

Iron Mg/l 1.00 0.12 suitable

 Nitrate (No3) Mg/l 50 0.33 suitable

CHAPTER-FIVE

5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

The study aimed to assess the drinking water quality (by Considering physical, chemical and
bacteriological drinking water parameters) of north western Tigray, shire endaslase, Ethiopia the
drinking water quality parameters from source, main ground water and tap water of shire city water
supply were analyzed by on-site measurement and experimental analysis. The result of the finding
revealed that majority of the water quality parameters were within the permissible limit of WHO
drinking water quality standards. These are: Total dissolved solids (TDS),Electric conductivity (EC), PH,
Total Hardness(TH), Phosphate (PO4),Nitrate (No3),Sulphate (So4),Calcium (Ca) and
magnesium(Mg)).However, there are some physio-chemical parameters (Temperature, Turbidity
fluoride at one well source ) that are conformity with the standards. All the water samples from ground
source water has 15 oC

The result showed that the sample analyzed is not contaminated with both total and fecal coliform
which is also an indication the ground water quality is well protected from any contamination.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

REFERENCES

[1] Dr.Armin Margane and (et al) (September 2003) “Guide line for Sustainable Groundwater Resources
Management Arab Centre for the Study of Arid Zones and Dry Lands” (ACSAD) [2] Dupit (1863),
Dr.Gamal, M. Abdo. MSc.Hydrology Course.
Groundwater Hydrology/Hy-draulics.And (The Dupuit-Forcheimer Assumptions, the first developed by
and developed further by Forcheimer) [3] FAO February (2003) “Technical papers .Availability” [4] GEF
(2004) “Formulation of an Action Programme for the Integrated Management of the Shared Nubian
Aquifer (page3)”, in Chad, Egypt, Libya and Sudan, (http://www.groundwater in south Afriac.pdf) [5]
Groundwater Directorate (Jun 1993) “Water resources management project (WRM). Wadi Nyala water
resources” An Approach towards Augmentation, Khartoum. WRM/T/ report/93/3 [6] Henny A.J. van
Lanen (2005) “Sub department of Water Resources, Wageningen University, the Netherlands
Geophysical Research Abstracts” Vol. 7, 10867, 2005, SRef-ID: 1607-7962/gra/EGU05-A-10867 ©
European Geosciences Union 2005 [7] HWNTIN 6 (1974) “Southern Darfur use planning survey Annex-2
Water Resources & Engineering” [8] http://www.Visual MODFLOW.v.2.7.2 [9] Keyworth (2002)
“Nottingham British Geological Survey” [10] Mohammad N. Almasri (2007) – “Groundwater Hydrology
–, PhD An-Najah National University”, www. Groundwater hydrology.ppt) [11] R.Rllan Freeze & John A.
Cherry (1979) “Groundwater” Prentice-Hall, Inc.Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632 [12] Salah A. Osman
(2007) “ research in Assessment of water resources potential” South Darfur (Nyala), UNESCO Chair in
Water resources and Hydrology.
[13] Tata McGraw – Hill Companies Fifth reprint (1997) “Groundwater Assessment Development and
Gement”...RDZCRDRRRYYBD [14] The Nyala Urban Water Corporation & (DFID, USAID), (2007), “(Dar fur:
water supply in a vulnerable environment” (NyalaCity).
http://www.tearfund.org/darfurwatervulnerability. [15] UN April (2004), “Darfur Humanitarian Needs
Profile, 1, SUDAN TRANSITION & RECOVERY DATABASE” South Darfur State [16] (UNEP) United Nations
Environment Programme (2007); “(DFID) Department for International Development (of UK
Government), (OFDA) Office of U.S. Foreign Disasters Assistance”, South Darfur in Nyala City. [17] World
Health Organization (WHO 1993) “guidelines for drinking water quality: inorganic chemicals of health
significance in drinking water” [18] Wesley P. James (2002), “Water Resources Engineering H2WR, Inc”
College Station, Texas [19] WAPS-2 (1985) “Republic of Sudan, Kingdom of the Netherlands, water
resources assessment program in the Sudan, phase2” Nyala water resources study, South Darfur State.
[20] Wesley P. James (2002) “Water Resources Engineering” H2WR, Inc. College Station, Texas