energies

Article
Inrush Current Reduction Strategy for a Three-Phase Dy
Transformer Based on Pre-Magnetization of the Columns and
Controlled Switching
Marian Łukaniszyn 1 , Bernard Baron 1 , Joanna Kolańska-Płuska 1 and Łukasz Majka 2, *

1 Department of Drive Automation and Robotics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Automatic Control and
Informatics, Opole University of Technology, Prószkowska Street 76, 45-272 Opole, Poland;
m.lukaniszyn@po.edu.pl (M.Ł.)
2 Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
Silesian University of Technology, Akademicka Street 10, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland
* Correspondence: lmajka@polsl.pl

Abstract: The methodology and test results of a three-phase three-column transformer with a Dy
connection group are presented in this paper. This study covers the dynamics of events that took place
in the first period of the transient state caused by the energizing of the transformer under no-load
conditions. The origin of inrush currents was analyzed. The influence of factors accompanying the
switch-on and the impact of the model parameters on the distribution and maximum values of these
currents was studied. In particular, the computational methods of taking into account the influence
of residual magnetism in different columns of the transformer core, as well as the impact of the time
instant determined in the voltage waveform at which the indicated voltage is supplied to a given
transformer winding, were examined. The study was carried out using a nonlinear model constructed
on the basis of classical modeling, in which hysteresis is not taken into account. Such a formulated
model requires simplification, which is discussed in this paper. The model is described using a system
of stiff nonlinear ordinary differential equations. In order to solve the stiff differential state equations
Citation: Łukaniszyn, M.; Baron, B.; set for the transient states of a three-phase transformer in a no-load condition, a Runge–Kutta method,
Kolańska-Płuska, J.; Majka, Ł. Inrush namely the Radau IIA method, with ninth-order quadrature formulas was applied. All calculations
Current Reduction Strategy for a
were carried out using the authors’ own software, written in C#. A ready-made strategy for energizing
Three-Phase Dy Transformer Based
a three-column three-phase transformer with a suitable pre-magnetization of its columns is given.
on Pre-Magnetization of the Columns
and Controlled Switching. Energies
Keywords: stiff nonlinear ordinary differential equations; Runge–Kutta implicit methods; circuit
2023, 16, 5238. https://doi.org/
model of a three-phase transformer; transient state; inrush currents of the unloaded transformer; the
10.3390/en16135238
time instant specified in the waveform of the switched supply voltage; pre-magnetization
Academic Editors: Elzbieta Lesniewska,
Xose Lopez-Fernandez and Pawel
Witczak

Received: 3 June 2023 1. Introduction

Revised: 27 June 2023 In transmission and distribution systems, transformer energization is a fairly routine
Accepted: 29 June 2023 operation. However, with the increase in distributed generation sources with inherent high
Published: 7 July 2023 intermittency resulting in more switching events, the transformers in service are becoming
more and more vulnerable to electrical transients. A transient state during energizing can
cause significant inrush currents [1].
Inrush currents generate forces comparable to those of short circuits. The problem
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
is that they occur more frequently than short-circuiting and last longer. Thus, at every
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
occurrence of an inrush, there is some degradation of the conductor and its insulation.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
After many such inrushes, local hotspots may emerge in the winding. The transformer
conditions of the Creative Commons
inrush transient is not only dangerous because of its large current amplitude but also due
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// to its rapid rise rate [2,3]. When a transformer is frequently exposed to transients, it will
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ deteriorate due to severe mechanical and thermal stresses and may eventually fail [4–6].
4.0/). The high inrush current may disturb or damage the operation of adjacent equipment in

Energies 2023, 16, 5238. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16135238 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 5238 2 of 21

the circuit resulting in, e.g., the maloperations of power electronic converters [7,8] and
protection relays [9]. Apart from affecting power quality in terms of temporary under-
voltage (sagging) [10], the inrush currents contain many high frequency harmonics which
can also lead to harmonic resonant over-voltage [1].
Inrush currents during transformer energization are widely studied and extensively
described in the literature [1,7–21]. The survey of already documented research shows that
the primary objective is to mitigate the impact of the transient phenomenon during trans-
former energization. The efforts of scientists and engineers are concentrated on creating an
accurate model of the transformer to be used in the inrush transient studies [12,13,17] as
well as investigating the nature (physics) of inrush current and the factors affecting this
phenomenon [1,14,16,21].
One important issue is the correct selection of the mathematical description of the
model (i.e., the choice of differential equations that define its dynamics) and method
necessary to solve it [3,22–26]. In fact, this is a research matter, which leads to understanding
the different phenomena involved and making suitable assumptions.
The research into transformer dynamics is a part of the much broader issue—the simu-
lations of electromagnetic transients in power systems, which are essential for the adequate
design of equipment and its protection [1,2]. Power transformers play important roles
in power transmission and their performances have significant impact on power quality
and the lifetime of power system apparatuses [9,11]. The major reasons for the failure of
transformers are the thermal, electrical and mechanical stresses of transformer winding
insulation. Therefore, the reliable models and methods associated with the representation
of the transient states of transformers are required for investigation.

State of the Art

There are numerous mitigation techniques for transformer energization transients.
These include introducing a pre-insertion resistor, controlling the switching time using
the point-on-wave voltage at energization, varying the impedance of the power sup-
ply, and controlling the residual flux inside the transformer core during transformer
energization [12–21].
A survey of scholarly knowledge on the topic also provides information about a
number of controllable factors that are relevant to the theory of inrush currents.
The list of factors affecting inrush currents that are found in publications is given below:
• Starting/switching phase angle of voltage;
• Residual flux in core;
• Magnitude of voltage;
• Saturation flux;
• Core material;
• Supply/source impedance;
• Load and size of transformer.
This paper describes the simulation studies on the inrush current for the delta side
energization of the transformer. This is a new research subject and seems essential in terms
of practicality. It is also a continuation of research carried out by the authors [3,27–29].

2. Model of a Three-Phase Transformer with Connection Group Dy with a Non-Linear

Magnetization Curve in the No-Load State
2.1. Model Concept
A research task of transient analysis was formulated for an unloaded three-phase
transformer with primary side windings connected in delta. In order to carry it out,
differential equations describing the adopted mathematical model were first formulated
along with the assumptions.
The equivalent scheme of the transformer for the discussed model is shown in Figure 1,
together with physical quantities that describe the model.
 differential equations describing the adopted mathematical model were first formulated
along with the assumptions.
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 3 of 21
The equivalent scheme of the transformer for the discussed model is shown in Figure
1, together with physical quantities that describe the model.

Figure
Figure 1. 1. Equivalent
Equivalent scheme
scheme of of
thethe analyzed
analyzed three-phase
three-phase DyDy transformer
transformer inin no-load
no-load conditions.
conditions.

AA list
list ofof
allall
the the designations
designations used
used inin this
this workcan
work canbebefound
foundininNomenclature.
Nomenclature.
For the planned calculation process, it was assumed that
For the planned calculation process, it was assumed that the switching the switchingononofofthe
the
transformer at time instant
transformer at time instant t0 had t 0 had the effect of the emergence of three voltages
the effect of the emergence of three voltages with in- with
instantaneous values in the following form:
stantaneous values in the following form:
) = (Eωm12
( t +sint0()ω)(,t + t0 )),
(s)
e12(s) (t ) = eE12m12(tsin
(s)
+ t0) + 32 π ,


e23 (t) = Em23 sin ω (t 2 (1)
(s)
e23 (t ) = E(sm)23 sin  ω ( t + t0 ) + π  , 4 
e31 (t) = Em31 sin ω (t3+ t0) + 3 π . (1)
 4 
 ω ( t +itt0was
) + possible
(s)
By making the e31 (t ) = Em31t0sin
parameter variable, π  . to make the calculations depen-
dent on the time instant specified inthe waveform 3 ofthe selected phase-to-phase voltage
for the process of switching on the transformer, i.e., the start of the calculations.
By making the parameter t0 variable, it was possible to make the calculations de-
In the investigation of the transient states, an invariant reference system was assumed.
pendent on the time instant specified in the waveform of the selected phase-to-phase volt- (s)
It was assumed that the reference point was the time instant at which the voltage e12 (t)
age for the process of switching on the transformer, i.e., the start of the calculations.
passes through zero (which occurs for t = −t0 ).
In the investigation of the transient states, an invariant reference system was as-
We assume that the non-linear curve H ( B) of the core material is known in the case of
sumed. It was assumed that the reference point was the time instant at which the voltage
discussed transformer. In our experiment, this task was implemented using a polynomial
e12(described
s)
(t ) passes through zero (which occurs for t = −t0 ).
by odd powers (2). The correctness of this method was verified experimentally [3].
11
H ( B) = ∑ ak B2k−1 (2)
k =1

Restricting the model to include only the nonlinear relationship I0 − Ψ was insufficient
for model losses in the ferromagnetic material of the core. The total losses were taken into
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 4 of 21

account according to the classical concept of transformer modeling. In each column of the
three-phase transformer, an additional electromotive force was introduced in the form of a
d
flux linkage derivative dt Ψk (t) at the terminals of a coil with z g turns. The coil with zero
internal resistance was loaded with a resistance RFe,k , which modeled the total iron power
losses in the k − th column of the transformer (Figure 1).
Using the circuit description in modeling the magnetic circuit of the transformer, we
can state that:
d
Ψ (t) = RFe,k iFe,k (t) (3)
dt k
where iFe,k (t) is a current of the coil under consideration.
It was assumed that the parameters RFe,k could be determined by measuring the active
power of a transformer operating at steady state under idling conditions.
The mathematical model of the transformer formulated in this way also offers the
possibility of determining the steady state in the form of a limit cycle of the solution of the
relevant differential equations. Details on the experimentally verified methodology of this
subject may be found in [3,27].

2.2. Residual Magnetism

The formulated transformer model intentionally did not consider magnetic hysteresis.
This was not necessary, since it was not intended to track the history of core magnetization,
that is, the points at which reversals in the directions of changes in magnetic currents
and fluxes occurred. Instead, the model offered the possibility of taking into account the
magnetization of the transformer core at the particular time instant, when the transformer
was switched on. The state of magnetization was taken into account in the model in the
form of residual magnetism. If we know the amount of residual magnetism, then it is
possible to set initial conditions for the state variables Ψ2 (t0 ), Ψ3 (t0 ), which represent flux
linkages.
As indicated by numerous literature sources, e.g., [11,14], the energizing of unloaded
transformer is accompanied by the occurrence of current pulses. Their presence is limited
to the first period determined by the supply voltage. The amplitudes of these currents, as a
rule, exceed the rated values, and not infrequently reach values close to short-circuit values.
Basing on these findings, we argue that if the transient state analysis of the transformer
is limited to a single period from the energizing instant, the proposed model will make it
possible (if initial conditions are set) to investigate the impact of residual magnetism on the
magnitudes of generated current pulses.
The analysis of the physics of the formation of current pulses has already estab-
lished that they (the pulses) first appear as a result of locating the working point of the
inductor (I0 − Ψ solution) far in the saturation region of transformer’s core magnetization
curve [3,12].
Therefore, the inclusion of the core’s residual magnetism in the model must be sup-
ported by an accurate approximation of the core’s nonlinear curve in the saturation region.

2.3. Dynamic Equations of the Unloaded Transformer Dy

In the developed mathematical model of the transformer, the magnetomotive forces
(g)
(mmfs) generated by the coil currents ik (t)(k = 1, 2, 3) were supplemented by the magne-
tomotive forces generated by certain equivalent currents i RFe,k (t). These mmfs are expressed
as zg i RFe,k (t), and they corresponded to real power losses in the ferromagnetic core.
Such a concept for modeling a three-phase transformer with three columns and star-
connected primary side windings has been comprehensively analyzed before, and the
results of these studies were published in [27]. There, the flux linkages Ψ1 (t), Ψ2 (t) were
chosen as the state variables.
In the considered case, the windings of the primary side of the three-phase transformer
were delta-connected. The flux linkages Ψ2 (t), Ψ3 (t) were chosen as the state variables in
the magnetic circuit equations.
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 5 of 21

Taking into account Kirchhoff’s first and second laws for the magnetic circuit of a
three-phase transformer with three columns (Figure 1) and Equation (3) modeling the total
iron losses, the equations of state for the variables Ψ2 (t), Ψ3 (t) were formulated:
" # 
dt Ψ2 ( t )
d 
h4 (X)
G d = (4)
dt Ψ3 ( t )
h5 (X)
" #
1 1 1
RFe1 + RFe2 RFe1
where G = 1 1
RFe2 − RFe3
and
(g) (g)
zg Um,1 (− Ψ2 ( t ) − Ψ3 ( t )) − zg Um,2 Ψ2 ( t )
1 1
h4 (X) = − i1 ( t ) + i2 ( t ) +
(g) (g)
zg Um,2 Ψ2 ( t ) + zg Um,3 Ψ3 ( t )
1 1
h5 (X) = − i2 ( t ) + i3 ( t ) −

When the system of Equation (4) is solved for the derivatives, the results are:

dt Ψ2 ( t )
d  d     
dt x4 ( t ) h4 (X) f (X)
= = G−1 = 4 (5)
dt Ψ3 ( t )
d d h5 (X) f 5 (X)
dt x5 ( t )
 
−1 c1,1 c1,2
where C = G
c2,1 c2,2
1 1
c1,1 = 1 1 RFe3 c1,2 = 1 1 RFe1
RFe1 + RFe2 + RFe1 RFe2 RFe2 + RFe3 + RFe2 RFe3
and 1 1 .
c2,1 = 1 1 RFe2 c2,2 = − 1 1
RFe3 + RFe1 + RFe3 RFe1 RFe3 + RFe1 + RFe2

Equations for three independent circulations appeared as a result of applying Kirch-

hoff’s second law to the modeled equivalent circuits of the primary side of the transformer
(Figure 1):

d (s) d (s) d(s) (s) (g) (g)

− Ls dt i1 (t) − Rs i1 (t) + Ls dt i2 (t) + Rs i2 (t) + Lg dt i2 (t) + Rg i2 (t)+
(s)
d
+ dt Ψ2 (t) = e12 (t)

d (s) d (s) d(s) (s) (g) (g)

− Ls dt i2 (t) − Rs i2 (t) + Ls dt i3 (t) + Rs i3 (t) + Lg dt i3 (t) + Rg i3 (t)+
(s) (6)
d
+ dt Ψ3 (t) = e23 (t)

d (g) d (g) d (g) (g) (g) (g)

Lg dt i1 (t) − Rg i1 (t) + Lg dt i2 (t) + Rg i2 (t) + Lg dt i3 (t) + Rg i3 (t)+
(s)
d
+ dt Ψ1 ( t ) + dt Ψ2 ( t ) + dt Ψ3 ( t )
d d
= e12 (t)

where
(s) (g) (g)
i1 = i1 − i2
(s) (g) (g)
i2 = i2 − i3
(s) (g) (g)
i3 = i3 − i1
The resulting system of equations was ordered in matrix form:

d (g) (g)
      (s) 
Ψ
d
dt i1 ( t ) i1 ( t ) 2 ( t ) e (t)
 d (g)  dt  12 
L dt = Ri2(g) (t) −  dt
d
Ψ 3 ( t )  +  e (s) ( t )  (7)
 
i2 ( t )  12
d (g) (g) 0 0
dt i3 ( t ) i (t)
3

where
   
− Ls 2Ls + Lg − Ls Rs −2Rs − Rg − Rs
L =  − Ls − Ls 2Ls + Lg , R =  Rs Rs −2Rs − Rg 
Lg Lg Lg − Rg − Rg − Rg
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 6 of 21

When the system of Equation (7) is solved for the derivatives, taking into account
solution (5), the results are:

d (g)
d  
dt i1 ( t )
  
dt x1 ( t )  d (g) 
f 1 (X)
 d x2 ( t )  =  dt i2 (t) =  f 2 (X)  (8)
dt
d d (g) f 3 (X)
dt x3 ( t ) dt i3 ( t )

where   (g)  
(s)

i1 ( t )
 
f 1 (X) − f 4 (X) + e21 (t)
 f 2 (X )  = L−1   (g)  
 R  i 2 ( t )  +  − f 5 ( X ) + e (s) ( t )  

32
f 3 (X) (g)
i (t) 0
 (g)3  
(s)

i1 ( t )
 
f 1 (X) − f 4 (X) + e21 (t)
 f 2 (X )  = L−1 R 
 i 2 ( t )  + L−1  − f 5 ( X ) + e (s) ( t ) 
(g)   
32
f 3 (X) (g)
i (t) 0
3

While the inverse matrix L−1 of matrix L assumes the following analytical form:
 
−1 −1 k + 1
1
D = L−1 =  1 0 k 
(3k + 1) Lg
0 1 k

The relationships formulated as differential Equations (5) and (8) form a general
system of equations of state for an unloaded transformer.
The model formulated in this way does not take into account magnetic hysteresis.
However, its simplifications (Section 6) make it possible to use it in the analysis of the
influence of residual magnetism (and the parameter RFe,k of the model) on the maximum
values of the inrush currents of the unloaded transformer appearing during the first period
determined by the supply voltage.

3. Investigation
The transformer data adopted in the test calculations are included in Appendix A.
Powercore® H 105-30 electrical steel was used in the experiment, which is manu-
factured by the ThyssenKrupp company. Material characteristics: density 7.65 kg/dm3 ,
maximum specific loss at 1.7 T is 1.05 W/kg.

3.1. Definition of Supply Voltages Together with the Method That Takes into Account the Time
Instant Determined (Set) in the Supply Voltage Waveform
To define the symmetrical supply voltages of the discussed transformer, it was as-
sumed that they are sinusoidally alternating waveforms with pulsation ω = 2π f and
arbitrarily set rms values of phase-to-phase voltages, E12 , E23 , E31 . It was also assumed that
the initial phase angle for one (arbitrarily chosen) voltage was known. This was sufficient
because the phase angles of other voltages were defined by the geometry of the triangle
(Figure 2).
Energies
Energies 2023,
2023, 16,
16, x5238
FOR PEER REVIEW 75 of
of 21
5

Figure
Figure2.
2.Phasor
Phasordiagram
diagramof
ofsupply
supplyvoltages.
voltages.

Thecomplex
The complexrms
rmsvalue
valueof
ofthe
thereference
referencevoltage E12
voltage E 12
assumed
assumedin
inthe
theexperiment
experimentwas
was

12 ==EE
EE
12 12 12
(9)
(7)

According to
According to Figure
Figure 2,
2, itit was
was deduced
deduced that
that

EE2323==−−aa++jkjk sinϕϕ
E2323sin
phsqE
phsq

where
where

EE12212
2 + E22 + E22
+ E2323+ E3131 , ϕ = arccos aa , k −1−positive

1positive
phasephase
sequence
cosϕϕ==
aa==EE23cos , ϕ = arccos , k phsq==
sequence
(10)
(8)
23 phsq 1
2E
2 E1212 E
E23
23 1
 negative phase sequence
negative phase sequence

The introduced parameter k made it possible to take into account the effect of the
The introduced parameter kphsq phsq made itofpossible to take into account the effect of
phase sequence on the calculated waveforms transformer inrush currents.
the phase sequencerms
The defined on thecomplex calculated
valueswaveforms of transformer
of sinusoidally variable inrush currents. voltages
phase-to-phase
E12 , EThe defined rms complex values of sinusoidally variable phase-to-phase voltages
23 , E31 constituted the basis for determining their instantaneous values in the form of
E
the
12 , E , E
following
23 31 constituted
functions: the basis for determining their instantaneous values in the form
of the following functions: √
(s)
e ( t ) = 2| E12 | sin(ω (t + t0 ) + arg( E12 )),
12
(
e12(s) (et()s)=(t) =
23
2√E 12 )
2| E23 | sin((ω (t +
sin ω t + t0 ) t+)arg ( E 12 ) ,
0 + arg( E23 )), (11)
√
(s) (s)
e23 (et31 (
) =(t) = 2 E 23
2| Esin
31 | sin )
ω ((tω+(tt+
0 ) t+
0 )arg ( E(23E)31 )), .
+ arg (9)
(s)
Functions (11),e representing
31 sin (phase-to-phase
(t ) = 2 E input 31 E ) ) . at the terminals of the
ω ( t + t ) + arg (voltages
0 31
primary winding of an unloaded transformer, met the requirements of the construction of
Functions (11), representing input phase-to-phase voltages at the terminals of the pri-
Equations of states (5) and (8). The parameter t0 present in the formula made it possible to
mary winding of an unloaded transformer, met the requirements of the construction of
define the time instant specified in the voltage waveform at which the indicated voltage
Equations of states (5) and (8). The parameter t0 present in the formula made it possible
appeared at the given transformer winding.
to define thethe
Since time instant specified
argument in the voltage
of the reference voltage waveform
considered at which
in thethe indicated E
experiment voltage
12 was
appeared at the given transformer winding. (s)
assumed to be zero arg( E12 ) = 0 (Figure 2), its function e12 (t) took the form of
Since the argument of the reference voltage considered in the experiment E12 was
√ (s)
assumed to be zero arg( E 12 ) =e(0s) ((Figure 22), its| sin
| E12 (ω (t + te012))(t ) took the form of
function
12 t ) = (12)

The investigation of the transient

(s)
e12 (t ) = state
2 Eof sinunloaded
12 the ( )
ω ( t + t0 )transformer was possible(10) via
the analysis of the solutions of the systems of differential Equations (5) and (8). In these
The investigation
equations, of theof
the initial point transient statewas
integration of the unloaded
assumed transformer
to be zero (t0 =was 0). possible
This meantvia
the analysis of the solutions of the systems of differential Equations (5) and
that the starting point of the integral of the system of Equations (5) and (8) was t0 away in (8). In these
equations, the reference
time from the initial point of integration
point determinedwas assumed
by the passagetoofbethe
zero ( t0 = 0e().s)This
voltage meant that
(t) through zero
12
the 3). point of the integral of the system of Equations (5) and (8) was t0 away in
starting
(Figure
time from the reference point determined by the passage of the voltage e12( s ) (t ) through
zero (Figure 3).
 The positive phase sequence e12( s ) (t ), e23
(s) (s)
(t ), e31 (t ) shown in Figure 3 was taken into
account in further calculations as a coefficient with the value k phsq = − 1 .
The presented method made it possible to set the parameter t0 in the study of the
effect of the time instant determined (defined) in the supply voltage waveform on the
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 8 of 21
maximum values of the inrush current of the unloaded transformer in the first period
determined by the supply voltage.

e(t),
kV

t, ms
Figure
Figure 3. Visualization
3. Visualization of howofthe
howt0 the t0 parameter
parameter is tset;
is set; the t0 isshift
0 is the time the from
time shift from thepoint:
the reference reference
(s)
the time instant
point: when
the time e12 (t)when
instant e( spasses
voltage
12
)
(t ) voltage
through zero.through zero.
passes
(s) (s) (s)
The positive phase sequence e12 (t), e23 (t), e31 (t) shown in Figure 3 was taken into
3.2. Study of the Influence of Residual Magnetism on the Maximum Values of Inrush Currents of
account in further calculations as a coefficient with the value kphsq = −1.
an Unloaded Transformer
The presented method made it possible to set the parameter t0 in the study of the effect
of the timeThe studydetermined
instant of the influence of residual
(defined) magnetism
in the supply on waveform
voltage the maximum values
on the of the cur-
maximum
rent
values of pulses accompanying
the inrush current of thetheunloaded
energizing of an unloaded
transformer in thetransformer was carried by
first period determined out by
setting initial
the supply voltage. conditions in the form of state variables

x4 (0)
3.2. Study of the Influence of Residual Magnetism =ΨMaximum
on the 2 (0) Values of Inrush Currents of
an Unloaded Transformer (11)
x5 (0) =Ψ3 (0)
The study of the influence of residual magnetism on the maximum values of the
identical
current pulseswith flux linkages
accompanying the energizing of an unloaded transformer was carried out
by setting initial conditions in the form of state variables
x4 (0) =Ψ 2 (0) = B2 zg sFe
) ==Ψ (12)
xx4 (0(0)
5 Ψ23((0)
0) = B z s
3 g Fe (13)
x5 (0) = Ψ3 (0)
where B2 , B3 are the residual flux density of the transformer core columns, namely the
identical with flux linkages
center and outer columns (Figure 1).
For the purposes of thex4study,
(0) = Ψ four scenarios (variants) were also established, with
2 (0) = B2 zg sFe
(14)
non-randomly selected sets xof5 (residual
0 ) = Ψ 3 (flux
0 ) B3 zg sFevalues B1 , B2 , B3 (Table 1) in succes-
=density
sive columns of the transformer core. This procedure was carried out because of future
where B2 , B3 are the
applications, residual
including theflux density
need ofthe
to select thetransformer
transformercore
corecolumn
columns, namely
whose the will
winding
center and outer columns
be supplied in the tests.(Figure 1).
For the purposes of the study, four scenarios (variants) were also established, with
non-randomly selected sets of residual flux density values B1 , B2 , B3 (Table 1) in successive
columns of the transformer core. This procedure was carried out because of future appli-
cations, including the need to select the transformer core column whose winding will be
supplied in the tests.

Table 1. Test sets of values (variants) of pre-magnetization in each column of the transformer core.

Variant B1 ,T B2 ,T B3 ,T
1 −0.6 1.2 −0.6
2 −1.2 0.6 0.6
3 −0.6 −0.6 1.2
4 0.6 −1.2 0.6
 Variant B1 , T B2 , T B3 ,T
1 −0.6 1.2 −0.6
2 −1.2 0.6 0.6
3 −0.6 −0.6 1.2
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 9 of 21
4 0.6 −1.2 0.6

The remaining initial conditions of the system of Equations (5) and (8) were assumed
(g )
to beThe remaining
zero initial conditions
in all calculation cycles x1of = i1system
(0)the (0); x2of(0) = i2(g ) (0); (5)
Equations and
x3 (0) (g ) were assumed
= i(8)
3 (0)
.
(g) (g) (g)
to be zero in all calculation
The influence cycles
of the time x1 (0)determined
instant = i1 (0); x2in (0)the
= waveform
i2 (0); x3 (0of) = (0). voltage
thei3supply
The to
applied influence of the time
the transformer instant
was determined
investigated in the waveform
by changing the parameterof the supply voltage
t0 in functions
applied to the transformer was investigated by changing the parameter t0 in functions (11)
(11) applied then to the equations of states (5) and (8).
applied then to the equations of states (5) and (8).
3.3.Implementation
3.3. ImplementationofofCalculations—Calculation
Calculations—CalculationAlgorithm
Algorithm
Figure4 4shows
Figure showsthethe flowchart
flowchart of the
of the algorithm
algorithm applied
applied in both
in both tests.tests. The algorithm
The algorithm was
was input into the authors’ own C# software [30]. The program allows the
input into the authors’ own C# software [30]. The program allows the precise calculation precise calcu-
lation
and and visualization
visualization of the distributions
of the distributions of the maximum
of the maximum values values of the inrush
of the inrush currents
currents of an
of an unloaded transformer depending on the time instant
unloaded transformer depending on the time instant t0 characterizing t 0
characterizing the time in
the time instant in-
the waveform
stant of the switched
in the waveform supply voltage
of the switched supplyand also and
voltage the values and
also the initial
values scenarios
and of
initial sce-
the pre-magnetization
narios of transformer’s
of the pre-magnetization different columns.
of transformer’s differentTocolumns.
integrateTo
theintegrate
stiff differential
the stiff
Equations
differential(5)Equations
and (8) of(5)
theand
transformer model, the authors’
(8) of the transformer model, theown ninth-order
authors’ Radau IIA
own ninth-order
method was used [31–33].
Radau IIA method was used [31–33].

Figure 4. Structure of the computational algorithm examining the effect of the level of residual
magnetism in the core and the time instant set in the supply voltage waveform on the maximum
values of inrush currents of the unloaded transformer.

4. Simulation Results
Figure 5 shows the results of the analysis of the distribution of the maximum values of
inrush currents of the unloaded transformer for four variants of the pre-magnetization of
the core (Table 1) in a positive phase sequence system (Figure 3).
 of inrush currents of the unloaded transformer for four variants of the pre-magne
of the core (Table 1) in a positive phase sequence system (Figure 3).
The conditions of the experiment in Figure 5 were used in its repeated impl
tion, in which the phase sequence was changed to the opposite sequence. The cal
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 results obtained under the conditions of such a modified power supply are show
10 of 21
ure 6.

max|i(t)|,
kA

t0 , ms

Figure 5. Distribution
Figure 5. Distribution of the values of
of the maximum
values of the maximum
inrush currents inrush currents transformer
of the unloaded of the unloaded tra
for the fourfor
variants of pre-magnetization,
the four depending on thedepending
variants of pre-magnetization, time instanton t0 , the
characterizing t0 , character
the time
time instant
instant of energizing in the course of the supply voltage for the positive phase sequence.
time instant of energizing in the course of the supply voltage for the positive phase sequen
The conditions of the experiment in Figure 5 were used in its repeated implementation,
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of
in which the phase sequence was changed to the opposite sequence. The calculation results
obtained under the conditions of such a modified power supply are shown in Figure 6.

max|i(t)|,
kA

t0 , ms

Figure 6. Distribution
Figure 6. Distribution of the
of the values values
of the of the maximum
maximum inrush
inrush currents ofcurrents of thetransformer
the unloaded unloaded transforme
for four
for four variants of variants of pre-magnetization,
pre-magnetization, depending depending on the
on the moment t0 , moment t0 the
identifying , identifying theof
time instant time instan
energizing of
in energizing
the course of
in the supply voltage in the voltage for the negative phase sequence.
course of the supply voltage in the voltage for the negative phase sequence.

A comparison of the results

A comparison of results
of the the calculations presentedpresented
of the calculations in Figuresin5 Figures
and 6 showed
5 and 6 showe
that for the
that for the pre-magnetization scenario in the center column with atwice
pre-magnetization scenario in the center column with a value value that
twiceofthat of th
outermost columns (this refers to the absolute value), the distributions of maximum cur
rents do not depend on the phase sequence.
For pre-magnetization scenarios 1 and 4 (Table 1), the calculations of inrush current
of the unloaded transformer led to results highly consistent with each other (similar shap
and values of the obtained waveforms in Figures 5 and 6).
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 11 of 21

the outermost columns (this refers to the absolute value), the distributions of maximum
currents do not depend on the phase sequence.
For pre-magnetization scenarios 1 and 4 (Table 1), the calculations of inrush currents
of the unloaded transformer led to results highly consistent with each other (similar shape
and values of the obtained waveforms in Figures 5 and 6).
In a further stage of the study, it was assumed that the initial magnetization of the
transformer core would be carried out according to variant 1 (Table 1).
Figure 7 shows the result of the experiment of energizing the unloaded transformer for
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
the residual magnetism set in variant 1 and for the set time instant t0 = 2.77 ms specified
(s)
in the waveform of the reference supply voltage e12 (t).

e(t),
kV

i(t),
kA

t, ms
FigureFigure
7. The 7. The waveforms
waveforms of inrushofcurrents
inrush of
currents of the transformer
the unloaded unloaded transformer in theoffirst
in the first period the period
transient
transient state; energizing
state; energizing occurredoccurred withmagnetism
with residual residual magnetism present
present (variant (variant
1) and at the 1)
timeand at the
(s)
instantinstant = 2.77
t ms,
t0 = 2.77
0
defined
ms,indefined
the waveform
in the of the reference
waveform supply
of the e12 (t). voltage
voltagesupply
reference e12( s ) (t ) .
The calculated maximum instantaneous value n of the unloaded transformeroinrush current
during the The calculated maximum
was Imax instantaneous
= max i1 (t)value, i2 (of
t) ,the
i3 unloaded transformer in
(g) (g) (g)
first transient period (t) = 6 kA.
t∈[0,T]
{ (g) (g)
current during the first transient period was m ax = max i1 (t ) , i2 (t ) , i3 (t ) = 6
In the case of energizing the transformer after a Itime = ] 10 ms from the tran-
tt0∈[0,T
(g)
}
(s)
sition of voltage
In the 12 ( t )ofthrough
ecase zero,the
energizing thetransformer t0 = 10of the
maximum instantaneous
value
after a time inrushthe trans
ms from
current of thenunloaded
(s) transformer during the first transient period was reduced to only
of voltage(g)e12 (t )(gthrough
)
o
(g) zero, the maximum instantaneous value of the inrush cu
Imax = max i1 (t) , i2 (t) , i3 (t) = 2.5 A (Figure 8).
oft∈[the
0,T] unloaded transformer during the first transient period was reduced to

{ }
I max = max i1(g) (t ) , i2(g) (t ) , i3(g) (t ) = 2.5 A (Figure 8).
t∈[0,T]
 Energies
Energies 2023,
2023, 16, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
5238 12 of 21 5 of 5

e(t),
kV

i(t),
A

t, ms

FigureFigure
8. The8.waveforms
The waveforms
of theofinrush
the inrush currents
currents of theofunloaded
the unloaded transformer
transformer in theinfirst
theperiod
first period
of of
the transient
the transient state; state; energizing
energizing occurred
occurred with residual
with residual magnetism
magnetism present
present (variant
(variant 1) and1)atandtheattime
the time
instant
instant = 10defined
t0 = 10t0 ms, ms, defined
in the in the waveform
waveform of the of the reference
reference supplysupply
voltage e (t). e12 (t ) .
(s)
voltage (s)
12

5. Algorithm
5. Algorithmfor Selecting the Time
for Selecting Instant
the Time Specified
Instant in theinWaveform
Specified the Waveformof theof
Switched
the
Supply Voltage
Switched Supply Voltage
The results of the performed experiments and the diagnosed regularities of the model
The results of the performed experiments and the diagnosed regularities of the model
were used to develop an algorithm for selecting the time instant t0 calculated from the
were used to develop an algorithm(s) for selecting the time instant t0 calculated from the
reference point of the voltage e12 (t) transition through zero.
(s)
reference
With regardpoint of the
to the voltageofethe
selection 12 (tsupply
) transition through
voltage and thezero.
terminals of the primary
side of theWith
transformer
regard totothe
which this voltage
selection is to bevoltage
of the supply applied,and
it was
the determined
terminals of that the
the primary
(s)
mostside of the
optimal transformer was
configuration to which this voltage
provided is to be applied, verified
by the computationally it was determined
voltage e12 that
(t) the
(s)
most
and the optimalof
terminals configuration
the primary was provided
winding wound by on
thethe
computationally
center column verified voltage e12
of the transformer (t )
(Figure
and1),the
asterminals
seen in scenario 1.
of the primary winding wound on the center column of the transformer
(Figure 1), as seen in scenario 1.
5.1. Method of Implementation of Pre-Magnetization of the Core Columns of the Tested Transformer
Due to the difficulties
5.1. Method associated
of Implementation with measuring
of Pre-Magnetization of the residual
the Core magnetism
Columns of three-
of the Tested Trans-
phaseformer
transformers [12,18], it was decided that the pre-magnetization technique of the
core [27] instead of its measurement should be used. The schematic diagram of the solu-
Due to the difficulties associated with measuring the residual magnetism of three-
tion involving the pre-magnetization of the core of an unloaded transformer with delta-
phase transformers [12,18], it was decided that the pre-magnetization technique of the
connected primary side windings is presented in Figure 9a.
core [27] instead of its measurement should be used. The schematic diagram of the solu-
The concept of the pre-magnetization of the core of the transformer under study
tion involving the pre-magnetization of the core of an unloaded transformer with delta-
envisages the generation of a magnetization of twice the value and opposite polarity in the
connected primary side windings is presented in Figure 9a.
center column than is the case in the outermost columns (variant 1) (Figure 9b).
The concept of the pre-magnetization of the core of the transformer under study en-
As shown in the conducted numerical experiments, such as the proportion and sym-
visages the generation of a magnetization of twice the value and opposite polarity in the
metry of the initial magnetization guarantees the distribution of the maximum values of the
center
inrush column
current of thethan is the case
unloaded in the outermost
transformer columns
as a function (variant
of the 1) (Figure
switching 9b).
time calculated
(s)
with respect to the transition of the voltage e12 (t) through zero and independent of the
(s) (s) (s)
phase sequence of the supply voltages e12 (t), e23 (t), e31 (t).
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 5
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 13 of 21

(a) (b)
Figure 9.
Figure 9. Schematic
Schematic diagram
diagram of the method
of the method ofof the
the pre-magnetization
pre-magnetization of
of the
the core
core of
of an
an unloaded
unloaded
transformer with delta-connected primary side windings (a) and an equivalent diagram of the mag-
transformer with delta-connected primary side windings (a) and an equivalent diagram of the
netic circuit exhibiting forced flux distribution (b).
magnetic circuit exhibiting forced flux distribution (b).

As shown
5.2. Selection in the
of the conducted
Currents numerical
Required for Core experiments,
Pre-Magnetizationsuch as the proportion and sym-
metry of the initial magnetization guarantees the distribution
The next step was to estimate what values of current are necessary of the for
maximum values of
pre-magnetization
the inrush current of the unloaded
in the system shown in Figure 9. transformer as a function of the switching time calcu-
(s)
latedThe
with respectpoint
starting to the
in transition of the was
the calculations voltage e12 (t )ofthrough
the value zero andwinding
the transformer independent
resis-
of theRphase
tance g . Since the value
sequence of of
thethis resistance
supply e12( s ) (t ), esmall,
is relatively
voltages (s) (s)
23 (t ), e31 (t )
the condition
. for selecting the
resistance R0 in the circuit, as shown in Figure 9a, was formulated as [34]:
5.2. Selection of the Currents Required for Core Pre-Magnetization
R0 >> Rg (15)
The next step was to estimate what values of current are necessary for pre-magneti-
zation in the
It was systemtoshown
possible determinein Figure 9.currents flowing through the transformer windings
the DC
Theany
without starting point
problem viainthe
thefollowing:
calculations was the value of the transformer winding re-
sistance Rg . Since the value of this resistance is relatively small, the condition for selecting
E0 1 E0 2 E0
the resistance R0 in the circuit,
I0 = as shown
, I1 =in Figure I0 =
, 9a, was formulated as [34]: (16)
R0 3 R0 3 R0

The currents determined in this wayR0for >>the

Rgdifferent windings of the three-phase
(13)
transformer allowed the formulation of a system of nonlinear equations based on magnetic
It was possible to determine the DC currents flowing through the transformer wind-
circuit theory (Figure 9b). In the equations, magnetic voltage drops were taken into account
ings without any problem
with the omission via the term
of the dynamic following:
(i.e., the Formula [27]).
E0 1E 2 E0
I0 = , I1 = Ψk (t0) , I 0 = (14)
Um,k (ΨR
k ) = hFe,k H 3 R , k = 1,32, R
3 (17)
0 zg sFe0 0

The system
The currentsofdetermined in this way
nonlinear equations for the different
determining windings
the distribution of of thelinkages
flux three-phase
took
transformer allowed
the following form: the formulation of a system of nonlinear equations based on mag-
netic circuit theory (Figure 9b). In the equations, magnetic voltage drops were taken into
account with the omissionf 1 (Xof
) the dynamic
I0 zg − Uterm
m,1 ( x(i.e.,
1 ) − the Formula [27]).
   
Um,2 ( x2 )
 f 2 (X) =  I0 zg − Um,2 ( x2 ) − Um,3 ( x3 ) = 0 (18)
Ψ k (t )
f 3 (XU) m,k (Ψ k ) = hFe,
−kxH 1 + x 2 − x,3 k = 1, 2,3 (15)
zg sFe
T T
where X = [ x1 , x2 , x3 ] = [Ψ1 , Ψ2 , Ψ3 ] .
The system of nonlinear equations determining the distribution of flux linkages took
the following form:
 flux density:

Ψi
Bi = (17)
zg sFe
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 14 of 21
The solution of the system of Equation (18), as shown in Equation (19), for different
values of current I 0 is presented in Figure 10.
The calculated characteristic unambiguously proves that the proposed method of the
The formulated system of equations was solved for the given values of current I0 by
pre-magnetization of the transformer core results in flux density levels in the different
relating the solutions of Ψi (i = 1, 2, 3) to the corresponding average values of magnetic
columns of the core according to variant 1:
flux density:
Ψi 1 1
B2 = B0Bi, =B1zg=sFe− B0 , B3 = − B0 (19) (20)
2 2
The solution of the system of Equation (18), as shown in Equation (19), for different
where B0 depends on the magnetization current I 0 .
values of current I0 is presented in Figure 10.

B, T

I0 , A
Figure
Figure 10. Dependence
10. Dependence of magnetic
of magnetic flux density
flux density in different
in different columns
columns on magnetization
on magnetization current
current I0 . I0
.
The calculated characteristic unambiguously proves that the proposed method of the
pre-magnetization of the transformer core results in flux density levels in the different
columns of the core according to variant 1:

1 1
B2 = B0 , B1 = − B0 , B3 = − B0 (20)
2 2
where B0 depends on the magnetization current I0 .
For the calculated magnetization configuration (20), the opposite magnetization can
also be considered. To obtain this configuration, it is enough to change the direction of
current flow I0 in the circuit shown in Figure 9a.
Turning off the flow of current I0 in the pre-magnetization system will reduce the
value of flux density in the different columns of the core. For transformer sheets (soft
magnetic materials), the value of flux density B0 will correspond to the value of remanence
Br , which is significantly lower than saturation flux density (by as much as 50%).
In the test data adapted for the simulation, it was assumed that the transformer sheet
has a saturation flux density of 1.9 T. Hence, the value of the flux density B0 , representing
the initial magnetization of the core in the calculations in variant (20), will vary up to a
value of 1.2 T.
 Results of the calculations of the maximum values of inrush currents

{
I m ax (t0 ) = max i1(g) (t ) , i2(g) (t ) , i3(g) (t )
t∈[ 0,T ]
} (21)

Energies 2023, 16, 5238 of the unloaded transformer in the first period of the transient state from the 15
energization,
of 21
depending on the adopted value of B0 , are presented in Figure 11.
The calculated inrush currents are functions dependent on time t0 (the time instant
Results of the calculations of the maximum values of inrush currents (s)
of switching on) calculated with respect to the transition of voltage e12 (t ) through zero
n o
Imax (t0 ) = max i1 (td
(g) (g) (g)
i (t) , i (t)
) , (s) (21)
with positive derivative at t∈[the
0,T] point e122 (t ) > 0 3 (Figure 12).
dt
Thetransformer
of the unloaded results were
inobtained for theof
the first period initial magnetization,
the transient as seen
state from in (20), enforced ac-
the energization,
dependingcording
on thetoadopted
the scheme in of
value Figure 9 with
B0 , are a positive
presented phase11.
in Figure sequence of supply voltage.

max|i(t)|,
kA

t0 , ms

T1 = T/2, ms T = 20 ms

Distribution
Figure 11.Figure of maximum
11. Distribution inrush currents
of maximum inrush of the unloaded
currents transformer
of the unloaded for sevenfor
transformer variants
seven variants
(s)
of pre-magnetization
of pre-magnetization
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW B0 , depending
B0 , depending on the time on the time
instant instantint 0the
t0 , defined , defined
voltage in the voltage
waveform e12 (waveform
t) 5 of 5
e12( s 12),
(as in Figure )
(t ) and onFigure
(as in the pre-magnetization of the core in configuration
12), and on the pre-magnetization of the core in(20) for a positive
configuration (20)phase
for a positive
sequence of supply voltage.
phase sequence of supply voltage.

e(t),
kV

t0 , ms

t=0 T = 20 ms

Figure 12. Visualization of the time instant of voltage switching on the transformer measured relative
(s)
to the time instant
Figure when the voltage
12. Visualization e12 (instant
of the time t) passes throughswitching
of voltage zero, for aon
positive phase sequence
the transformer of rela-
measured
supply voltage. (s)
tive to the time instant when the voltage e12 (t ) passes through zero, for a positive phase sequence
of supply
The voltage.inrush currents are functions dependent on time t0 (the time instant of
calculated
(s)
switching on) calculated with respect to the transition of voltage e12 (t) through zero with
d (s)of the value of B0 on the distribution of the maximum
The analysis of the effect
positive derivative at the point dt e12 (t) > 0 (Figure 12).
values of inrush currents showed the existence of an interval of the variability of the max-
imum values of the currents, in which the maximum values of the currents decrease as
the flux density B0 increases.
1 1  B
 t=0 T = 20 ms

Figure 12. Visualization of the time instant of voltage switching on the transformer measured rela-
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 tive to the time instant when the voltage e12( s ) (t ) passes through zero, for a positive phase sequence
16 of 21
of supply voltage.

The The analysis

results were of the effect
obtained for of
thethe
initial of B0 on the as
valuemagnetization, distribution of the
seen in (20), maximum
enforced
according to the scheme in Figure 9 with a positive phase sequence of supply voltage.
values of inrush currents showed the existence of an interval of the variability of the max-
The analysis
imum valuesofofthe
theeffect of theinvalue
currents, which of B0 on
the the distribution
maximum values ofofthe
themaximum values as
currents decrease
of inrush currents showed the existence of an interval of the variability of the maximum
the flux density B0 increases.
values of the currents, in which the maximum values of the currents decrease as the flux
was found that in the interval t0 ∈ h T − 0.6 ms, T + 0.6 ms i for B0 = 1.0 T, the
density B0Itincreases. 1 1
 12 
It was found that in the interval t0 ∈ 2 T − 0.6 ms, 212 T + 0.6 ms for B0 = 1.0 T,
maximum inrush
the maximum inrush currents
currentsreached
reachedvalues
values inin thethe
order of tens
order of amperes,
of tens for B0 =
whilewhile
of amperes,
for B1.2
0 = T,
1.2the
T, values
the values decreased
decreased to atofewa few amperes
amperes (Figure
(Figure 13).13).

max|i(t)|, max|i(t)|,
A A

t0 , ms t0 , ms
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 13. Distribution
13. Distribution of the
of the maximuminrush
maximum inrushcurrents
currentsof
of the
the unloaded
unloaded transformer
transformerfor
fortwo
twovalues
of pre-magnetization B = 1.0 T (a) and B = 1.2 T (b), depending on the time
0 T (b), depending on the time instant t0 ∈ instant
values
h of pre-magnetizationi B00 = 1.0 T (a) and B0 = 1.2
1 (s)
ms, 12 T + 0.6 ms , defined in the waveform of the switched voltage e12 (t), and on the
2 T − 0.6
pre-magnetization of the core in configuration (20).

Outside the indicated time interval, the opposite phenomenon was observed: the
increase in B0 was accompanied by a sharp increase in the maximum values of inrush
currents. For t0 = 0, the currents reached the highest possible values (kiloamperes)
(Figure 11).
This means that in order to eliminate the large inrush currents accompanying the
energizing of an unloaded three-phase transformer, its switching should be performed after
a time t0 = T2 , calculated with respect to the reference point determined by the transition
(s)
of the reference voltage (here: e12 (t)) through zero with a positive derivative at the point
d (s)
dt e12 ( t ) > 0 (Figure 12).
(s)
At the energizing time instant t0 = T2 , the instantaneous voltage e12 (t) = 0, while its
d (s)
derivative is negative ( dt e12 (t) < 0) (Figure 12).
The obtained solution is general and can be applied to any transformer, where primary
winding is delta-connected and where columns are pre-magnetized according to (20) for B0
(s) (s) (s)
> 1 T. The supply voltages e12 (t), e23 (t), e31 (t) can be arranged into a positive or negative
phase sequence (without affecting the outcome).
The collected data can be used to construct a special device that will execute energizing
the transformer at specific time instants in the supply voltage waveforms (Table 2).
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 17 of 21

Table 2. Switching conditions of the unloaded transformer for which the minimum values of inrush
currents are obtained, taking into account the pre-magnetization in configuration (20).

Type kphsq (s) d (s) t0 (s) d (s)

e12 (−t0 ) dt e12 (t)|t=−t0 e12 (0) dt e12 (t)|t=0
1 −1 0 >0 1 0 <0
2T
2 1 0 >0 1 0 <0
2T

5.3. The Strategy of Energizing a Three-Phase, Three-Column Transformer Where Primary

Winding Is Delta-Connected and Where the Columns Are Pre-Magnetized According to (20) at
Energies 2023, 16, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Specific Time Instants in the Supply Voltage Waveforms 5 of 5

The developed strategy is illustrated by the flowchart in Figure 14.

Figure 14.
Figure 14. Inrush
Inrush current
current reduction
reduction strategy
strategy when
when energizing
energizing aa three-phase
three-phase transformer
transformer with
with delta-
delta-
connected primary
connected primary side
side windings
windings requiring
requiring the
the pre-magnetization
pre-magnetizationof ofthe
thecore
corecolumns.
columns.

6.
6. The Simplifications
Simplifications Implied Impliedby byUsing
UsingthetheModel
ModelFormulated
Formulatedin inthis
thisPaper
Paper
•• TheThe initial magnetization state of the transformer core
magnetization state of the transformer core can be taken into can be taken into account
account as
as residual magnetism in the form of (assignable) initial conditions
residual magnetism in the form of (assignable) initial conditions for the state varia- for the state
bles Ψ 2 (tΨ
variables 2 ( t0 ) , Ψ3,( twhich
0 ),Ψ 3 (t0 )
0 ), whichareare essentially
essentially linkagesΨ
fluxlinkages
flux Ψ2((tt0)) ==BB2zzgssFe and
2 0 2 g Fe and
Ψ3 (t0 ) = B3 zg sFe , where B2 , B3 is the residual flux density in the different columns of
Ψ 3 (transformer
the t0 ) = B3 zg sFecore., where B2 , B3 is the residual flux density in the different columns
• The
of theintegration
transformer of the equations with the initial conditions formulated in this way leads
core.
• in
Thetheintegration
first instance to aequations
of the 0 − Ψ)
solution (Iwith located
the initialdeep in the saturation
conditions formulatedregionin thisofway
the
0 −Ψ
ferromagnetic
leads in the first core curve; to
instance solution ( Iinrush
thea maximum ) currents
located of the
deep inunloaded
the transformer
saturation region
determined from thiscore
of the ferromagnetic solution
curve;are calculated
the maximum accurately.
inrush currents of the unloaded trans-
• Taking any initial conditions (e.g., zero) for the
former determined from this solution are calculated accurately.systems of Equations (5) and (8) as the
starting point leads to a steady-state solution, which is the limit cycle of the transient
• Taking any initial conditions (e.g., zero) for the systems of Equations (5) and (8) as
state solution; the trajectories of the transition to this limit cycle have no physical
the starting point leads to a steady-state solution, which is the limit cycle of the tran-
sient state solution; the trajectories of the transition to this limit cycle have no physical
interpretation in this case, since the assumed mathematical model does not take into
account magnetic hysteresis (it does not track the history of core magnetization).
• The model is suitable for the study of steady-state conditions of the transformer when
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 18 of 21

interpretation in this case, since the assumed mathematical model does not take into
account magnetic hysteresis (it does not track the history of core magnetization).
• The model is suitable for the study of steady-state conditions of the transformer when
the resistances RFe,k are determined based on the idling losses, in which eddy currents
and magnetic hysteresis are taken into account.
• The completed tests have shown that there is no significant influence* of the parameter
RFe,k of the model on the maximum values of the inrush currents of the unloaded
transformer in the first period of the transient state caused by energizing the trans-
former (*—lossiness values provided by the manufacturer of the transformer plates
vary within wide limits).
Therefore, the developed model can be successfully used to study both the steady-
state operation of a three-phase transformer (Dy) and to calculate the inrush currents that
characterize it when it is energized under unloaded conditions.

7. Conclusions
The research task of modeling the dynamics of an unloaded three-phase transformer
with a Dy connection group during the first transient period has been achieved.
The methodology and simulation results given in the article provide practical tools for
studying the inrush currents of these devices.
What is particularly interesting, the developed model makes it possible to take into
account the influence of residual magnetism in the different columns of the core and the
time instant determined in the voltage waveform where the indicated voltage is supplied
to the given winding of the transformer.
The completed calculations proved that for each scenario of core pre-magnetization
of the modeled device, there is a time interval in which the energizing of an unloaded
transformer is not accompanied by the occurrence of inrush current surges.
The tests showed that the width of such a time interval is more than 1 ms, and the
currents occurring are several times higher than transformer’s steady-state idle current.
The remaining time intervals of the first period of the transient state caused by ener-
gizing an unloaded transformer should be associated with the occurrence of large current
pulses.
For a three-phase transformer with connection group Dy, the initial magnetization of
the core in the form of the variant specified in (20) is the easiest to implement in the circuit
shown in Figure 9.
Such an arrangement allows the symmetric and proportional magnetization of the
core of a three-column transformer. One of these columns, e.g., the center one, is twice as
highly magnetized as the remaining columns; moreover, the magnetization is of opposite
polarity.
The symmetry and adequate distribution of core magnetization, which are demon-
strated in this paper, result in the fact that the positioning of the time interval (measured
(s)
relative to a reference point determined by the transition of voltage e12 (t) through zero),
during which the energizing of transformer is accompanied by a strong limitation of cur-
rent pulses, does not depend on the phase sequence of phase-to-phase (line) voltages
(s) (s) (s)
e12 (t), e23 (t), e31 (t).
If the guidelines set out in this paper for a three-phase, three-column transformer are
met, i.e., its core is pre-magnetized in a variant of (20) and it is switched on after time
(s)
t0 = T2 is calculated from the instant when voltage e12 (t) passes through zero, the values
of inrush currents in the first transient period will be minimal.
The next stage of the authors’ work will cover the experimental verification of the
developed mathematical model, as well as the construction and testing of a device for
the controlled switching of the supply voltage with the pre-magnetization of the trans-
former’s core.
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 19 of 21

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.Ł., B.B. and Ł.M.; Methodology, B.B. and Ł.M.; Soft-
ware, B.B. and J.K.-P.; Validation, J.K.-P.; Formal analysis, M.Ł., J.K.-P. and Ł.M.; Investigation, B.B.,
J.K.-P. and Ł.M.; Data curation, J.K.-P.; Writing—original draft, B.B.; Writing—review & editing,
M.Ł. and Ł.M.; Visualization, B.B. and Ł.M.; Supervision, M.Ł. and Ł.M.; Project administration,
M.Ł.; Funding acquisition, M.Ł. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data available on request from the authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
The list of symbols and notations used in this paper:
e sinusoidal supply voltage
Ψk flux linkage associated with the transformer’s primary coil, computed as Ψk (t) = zg Φk (t),
in the k − th column of the transformer
ik (g) transformer primary current
RFe,k equivalent resistance representing the iron core losses
iFe,k active component of the transformer’s idle current
Rs equivalent resistance of the power grid (power source)
Ls equivalent inductance (reactance) of the power grid (power source)
Rg primary winding resistance
Lg leakage inductance of the primary winding
H magnetic field strength
Φ main flux leakage (effective value of the flux)
Bk flux density
sFe cross-sectional area of the core of the transformer
zg number of turns in the primary windings
ϕ0 phase of the initial supplied voltage
ω pulse

Appendix A
Table A1. Assumed data of the modeled transformer.

Quantity, Unit Value

Primary voltage PRI/phase to phase, V 6000
Secondary voltage SEC/phase to phase, V 230
Frequency 50
Rated primary current, A 800
Number of primary winding turns, N 160
Iron power loss (for 1.7 T), W/kg 1.05
Copper power loss, kW 50
Short-circuit voltage, % 5
Core cross-sections, m2 0.110565
Column length, m 2
Length of the yoke, m 0.76
Equivalent resistance of the network, Ω 0.1
Equivalent reactance of the network, Ω 0.2
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 20 of 21

Table A2. Function H(B) coefficients obtained from solving the estimation problem based on the
manufacturer’s data.

k ak
1 29.9624271037522
2 −76.4912078883278
3 420.867774746849
4 −1274.37623231261
5 2196.27285444425
6 −2301.93260519503
7 1516.77585894405
8 −630.577358829122
9 160.397849549712
10 −22.7840824031901
11 1.38472183966324

References
1. CIGRÉ Working Group. C4.307. Transformer Energization in Power Systems: A Study Guide, 568th ed.; CIGRÉ Publication: Paris,
France, 2014; pp. 8–73.
2. Kulkarn, S.V.; Khaparde, S.A. Transformer Engineering: Design, Technology, and Diagnostics, 2nd ed.; Taylor & Francis Inc.: Boca
Raton, FL, USA, 2012; pp. 1–750.
3. Majka, Ł.; Baron, B.; Zydroń, P. Measurement-based stiff equation methodology for single phase transformer inrush current
computations. Energies 2022, 15, 7651. [CrossRef]
4. Barros, R.M.R.; da Costa, E.G.; Araujo, J.F.; de Andrade, F.L.M.; Ferreira, T.V. Contribution of inrush current to mechanical failure
of power transformers windings. High Volt. 2019, 4, 300–307. [CrossRef]
5. Steurer, M.; Frohlich, K. The impact of inrush currents on the mechanical stress of high voltage power transformer coils. IEEE
Trans. Power Deliv. 2002, 17, 155–160. [CrossRef]
6. Pandey, S.B.; Lin, C. Estimation for a life model of transformer insulation under combined electrical and thermal stress. IEEE
Trans. Reliab. 1992, 41, 466–468. [CrossRef]
7. Alassi, A.; Ahmed, K.H.; Egea-Alvarez, A.; Foote, C. Transformer Inrush Current Mitigation Techniques for Grid-Forming
Inverters Dominated Grids. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2023, 38, 1610–1620. [CrossRef]
8. Hamilton, R. Analysis of transformer inrush current and comparison of harmonic restraint methods in transformer protection.
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2013, 49, 1890–1899. [CrossRef]
9. Ni, R.; Wang, P.; Moxley, R.; Flemming, S.; Schneider, S. False Trips on Transformer Inrush-Avoiding the Unavoidable. In
Proceedings of the 68th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, College Station, TX, USA, 30 March–2 April 2015.
10. Nagpal, M.; Martinich, T.G.; Moshref, A.; Morison, K.; Kundur, P.P. Assessing and limiting impact of transformer inrush current
on power quality. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2006, 21, 890–896. [CrossRef]
11. Blume, L.F.; Camilli, G.; Farnham, S.B.; Peterson, H.A. Transformer magnetizing inrush currents and influence on system
operation. Trans. Am. Inst. Electr. Eng. 1944, 63, 366–375. [CrossRef]
12. Horiszny, J. Analysis and Reduction of Transformer Inrush Current; Gdansk University of Technology: Gdańsk, Poland, 2016; p.
monograph 159. (In Polish)
13. Chiesa, N.; Mork, B.A.; Høidalen, H.K. Transformer model for inrush current calculations: Simulations, measurements and
sensitivity analysis. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2010, 25, 2599–2608. [CrossRef]
14. Brunke, J.H.; Frohlich, K.J. Elimination of transformer inrush currents by controlled switching. Part I. Theoretical considerations.
IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2001, 16, 276–280. [CrossRef]
15. Leite, J.V.; Benabou, A.; Sadowski, N. Transformer Inrush Currents Taking into Account Vector Hysteresis. IEEE Trans. Magn.
2010, 46, 3237–3240. [CrossRef]
16. Cui, Y.; Abdulsalam, S.G.; Chen, S.; Xu, W. A sequential phase energization technique for transformer inrush current reduction.
Part I: Simulation and experimental results. IEEE Trans. Power Del. 2005, 20, 943–949. [CrossRef]
17. Chraygane, M.; El Ghazal, N.; Fadel, M.; Bahani, B.; Belhaiba, A.; Ferfra, M.; Bassoui, M. Improved modeling of new three-phase
high voltage transformer with magnetic shunts. Arch. Electr. Eng. 2015, 64, 157–172. [CrossRef]
18. Horiszny, J. Research of leakage magnetic field in deenergized transformer. Compel-Int. J. Comput. Math. Electr. Electron. Eng.
2018, 37, 1657–1667. [CrossRef]
19. Mitra, J.; Xu, X.; Benidris, M. Reduction of three-phase transformer inrush currents using controlled switching. IEEE Trans. Ind.
Appl. 2020, 56, 890–897. [CrossRef]
20. Ni, H.; Fang, S.; Lin, H. A simplified phase-controlled switching strategy for inrush current reduction. IEEE Trans. Power Del.
2021, 36, 215–222. [CrossRef]
21. Cano-González, R.; Bachiller-Soler, A.; Rosendo-Macías, J.A.; Álvarez-Cordero, G. Inrush current mitigation in three-phase
transformers with isolated neutral. Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2015, 121, 14–19. [CrossRef]
Energies 2023, 16, 5238 21 of 21

22. Nicolet, A.; Delince, F. Implicit Runge–Kutta methods for transient magnetic field computation. IEEE Trans. Magn. 1996, 32,
1405–1408. [CrossRef]
23. Noda, T.; Takenaka, K.; Inoue, T. Numerical integration by the 2-stage diagonally implicit Runge–Kutta method for electromagnetic
transient simulations. IEEE Trans. Power Del. 2009, 24, 390–399. [CrossRef]
24. Pries, J.; Hoffmann, H. State Algorithms for Nonlinear Time-Periodic Magnetic Diffusion Problems Using Diagonally Implicit
Runge–Kutta Methods. Magn. IEEE Trans. 2015, 51, 7208612. [CrossRef]
25. Sowa, M. Ferromagnetic coil frequency response and dynamics modeling with fractional elements. Electr. Eng. 2021, 103,
1737–1752. [CrossRef]
26. Sowa, M.; Majka, Ł.; Wajda, K. Excitation system voltage regulator modeling with the use of fractional calculus. AEU-Int. J.
Electron. Commun. 2023, 159, 154471. [CrossRef]
27. Baron, B.; Kolańska-Płuska, J.; Lukaniszyn, M.; Spałek, D.; Kraszewski, T. Solution of nonlinear stiff differential equations for a
three-phase no-load transformer using a Runge-Kutta implicit method. Arch. Electr. Eng. 2022, 71, 1081–1106.
28. Baron, B.; Kolańska-Płuska, J.; Waindok, A.; Kraszewski, T.; Kawala-Sterniuk, A. Application of Runge–Kutta implicit methods for
solving stiff non-linear differential equations of a single-phase transformer model in the no-load state. Innovation Management
and information Technology impact on Global Economy in the Era of Pandemic. In Proceedings of the 37th International Business
Information Management Association Conference (IBIMA), Cordoba, Spain, 1–2 April 2021; pp. 8071–8087.
29. Baron, B.; Kolańska-Płuska, J.; Kraszewski, T. Application of Runge–Kutta implicit methods to solve the rigid differential
equations of a single-phase idle transformer model. Pozn. Univ. Technol. Acad. J. Electr. Eng. 2019, 100, 75–86. (In Polish)
30. Baron, B.; Kolańska-Płuska, J. Numerical Methods of Solving Ordinary Differential Equations in C#; Politechnika Opolska Publisher:
Opole, Poland, 2015. (In Polish)
31. Hairer, E.; Wanner, G. Solving Ordinary Differential Equations II: Stiff and Differential-Algebraic Problems, 2nd ed.; Springer:
Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2010.
32. Dekker, K.; Verwer, J.G. Stability of Runge–Kutta Methods for Stiff Nonlinear Differential Equations; North-Holland: Amsterdam, The
Netherlands; New York, NY, USA; Oxford, UK, 1984.
33. Dos Passos, W. Numerical Methods Algorithms and Tools in C#; CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group LLC: Boca Raton, FL, USA;
London, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2010; ebook-PDF. Available online: https://vdocuments.mx/numerical-methods-algorithms-
and-tools-in-c-586e04e116cbc.html?page=1 (accessed on 11 April 2023).
34. Majka, Ł.; Szuster, D. Application of the stationary DC decay test to industrial turbogenerator model parameter estimation.
Przeglad
˛ Elektrotechniczny 2014, 90, 242–245.

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual
author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to
people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.